Part IV BJT

4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of two p-regions separated by an n-region as shown
in Fig. 4.1 (a) or two n-regions separated by a p-region. The former is called p-n-p transistor and
the latter n-p-n transistor. The middle region is designated as the base of the transistor and the
regions at the ends as emitter and collector. A BJT consists of two p-n junctions (emitter-base
junction and collector-base junction) and three terminals (emitter, base and collector).
A two diode equivalent of p-n-p transistor is shown in Fig. 4.1(b). Diode D1 is forward-
biased and D2 is reverse-biased. Large current flows through D1 and the current through D2 is
very small (reverse saturation current). Therefore, this structure does not function as a transistor.
The same situation arises if the width of the middle region (base) is large. But if the width of the
middle region is very small, most of the charge carriers reach the collector-base junction
without recombination. (The current through a reverse-biased p-n junction can be increased by
increasing the minority carrier concentration within the depletion layer or within a diffusion
length from the edges of the depletion layer). These charge carriers increase the current through
the reverse-biased collector-base junction and the collector current is nearly equal to the emitter
current. Here, the emitter acts as the injector or emitter of minority carriers and collector
collects the minority carriers emitted from the emitter to base.
The current is transferred from a low resistance region (forward-biased emitter-base
junction) to a high resistance region (reverse-biased collector-base junction). The name
transistor is derived from the terms transfer of resistor. A change in current at the emitter
causes almost same change in current at the collector. The same current is transferred from low
resistance region to high resistance region.
We assume the structure in Fig. 4.1 (a) only for the simplicity of analysis. The other
simplifying assumptions are:
(1) The cross-sectional area of emitter, base and collector regions are equal,
(2) All the regions are uniformly doped and
(3) Junctions are abrupt.
Bipolar Junction Transistors 261
E p n p C
I F1 I 02
B (b) Representation of p-n-p

(a) A Simplified schematic of transistor by two p-n junctions
a p-n-p transistor
p n p
p(x)
VEB VCB
(c) A long base transistor
Fig. 4.1
4.1 FABRICATION OF MONOLITHIC BJT
The actual structure of the transistor is entirely different from that shown in Fig. 4.1(a). The
structure and fabrication procedure of a discrete transistor is given in section 2.3.2. The cross-
sectional view and fabrication process of a monolithic transistor is shown in Fig. 4.2.
The starting material for an n-p-n transistor is a p-substrate which acts as a mechanical support
to the device. Substrate has a resistivity 3-10  cm and thickness 250-400 μm. The important
steps involved are:
Step 1: Buried layer - Grow thermal oxide and etch window using mask 1 for n+ buried layer.
Diffuse donor impurity through the window.
Step 2: Epitaxial layer - Strip off the oxide after step 1. Deposit n-epitaxial layer over the enitre
surface of the wafer. Thickness of epi-layer vary from 1 to 20 m.
Step 3: Isolation - The collector regions of adjacent transistors on the wafer are isolated by
forming a p-region extending from the surface to the substrate through the epi-layer using mask
2. This forms islands or tubs of n-layers surrounded by p-region. Highest negative potential is
applied to the substrate. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are formed between substrate and
collector regions which isolate the collector regions of adjacent transistors.
Step 4: Base diffusion - Using mask 3 windows are cut for the base region and boron is diffused
through it.
Step 5: Emitter and collector contact diffusion - Using mask 4 emitter and collector contact
regions are defined and n+ regions are diffused, n+ diffusion is done in the collector region to
form ohmic contact.
Fig. 4.2 Fabrication sequence of monolithic BJT
Step 6: Contact metallisation - Using mask 5 windows are opened for metallic contacts of the
transistor terminals. Aluminium is deposited on the entire surface.
Step 7: Pattern defenition - Using mask 6 which defines the interconnection pattern, the metal
formed by step 5 is etched away to form interconnecting metallisation.
Step 8: Bonding pads and packaging - Contact to the IC are formed on metallic pads located at
the periphery of the chip. IC chip is bonded to package leads through bonding pads. Mask 7 is
used to define bonding holes on the aluminium pads. Gold wire of diameter 25 m is used to
connect package leads to bonding pads.
4.2 MODES OF OPERATION
Depending on the bias conditions of the emitter-base junction and collector-base junction, there
are different modes of operations for a transistor as listed in Table 4.1. In most of the
applications transistors are operated in the forward active mode. This mode of operation is also
referred to as normal mode or normal active mode of operation.
Table 4.1
Bias condition
Mode of operation Emitter-base junction Collector-base junction
Forward active Forward-bias (FB) Reverse-bias (RB)
Inverse active RB FB
Forward saturation FB FB; |VEB|>|VCB|
Inverse saturation FB FB; |VEB|<|VCB|
Cutoff RB RB
4.3 CURRENT COMPONENTS
Fig. 4.3 shows the different current components in a p-n-p BJT under forward (normal) active
mode of operation. In normal active mode of operation, emitter-base junction is .forward-biased,
and collector-base junction is reverse-biased. Holes are injected from emitter to base and
electrons from base to emitter. A portion of holes injected into the base recombine with
electrons in the base region and the remaining portion reaches the collector. Minority carrier
current ICBO flows across the base collector junction.
Hole current
Electron current
Fig. 4.3 Current components in a p-n-p BJT in forward active mode of operation
The following are the major components of current:

IpE - Emitter current due to holes injected from emitter to base.
InE - Emitter current due to electrons injected form base to emitter.
IrB - Base current due to recombination in the base region.
IpC - Collector current due to holes reaching the collector which are injected from the emitter.
ICBO - Reverse saturation current of collector-base junction with emitter open. This current is
constituted by the minority carriers crossing the junction. It is also known as leakage current of
collector-base junction.
4.4 TERMINAL CURRENTS
Emitter current (IE), collector current (IC) and base current (Is) are the terminal currents of a
BJT. The terminal currents of a p-n-p transistor can be expressed in terms of the current
components as
IE = IpE + InE .
IC = - (IpC - ICBO)
IB = -(IrB + InE + ICBO)
Emitter current (IE) is constituted by the holes injected from emitter to base and electrons
injected from base to emitter.
Collector current (IC) is the negative of difference between (IpC) and (ICBO). Base current (IB)
consists of three components - current due to carriers injected from base to emitter (InE), current
due to electrons supplied for recombination in the base (IrB) and the reverse saturation current of
base collector junction (ICBO). The major component of base current is IrB.
For a transistor, the currents flowing into the device is taken as positive. Therefore for a p-n-
p transistor, emitter current is positive, collector and base currents are negative. For a n-p-n
transistor, emitter current is negative and collector and base currents are positive,
Fig. 4.4 Circuit symbol of BJT
The circuit symbol for transistors are shown in Fig. 4.4(a) and (b). The arrow on emitter
terminal represents the actual direction of emitter current. The designation of different currents
and voltages in a BJT are shown in Fig. 4.4(c).
4.5 BASIC PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
The most important parameters of a transistor are its emitter injection efficiency (injection
efficiency) and base transport factor (transport factor). As far as a circuit designer is concerned,
short-circuit common-base current gain () and common-emitter current gain () are the basic
parameters of a transistor. But these parameters are decided by the injection efficiency and
transport factor.
Injection Efficiency
Emitter injection efficiency () is the effectiveness in injecting charge carriers from emitter to
base rather than that from base to emitter. It is the ratio of emitter current due to holes injected
from emitter to base to the total emitter current, for a p-n-p transistor. Emitter injection
efficiency () for a p-n-p transistor may be expressed as
I pE I pE
 = =
IE I pE + InE
1
= (4.1)
1 + I nEpE
I
Equation (4.1) shows that injection efficiency can be maximized by minimizing InE / IpE. To
achieve this, ratio of emitter doping to base doping must be maximum. (See also the expression
derived for injection efficiency of a p-n junction in Problem 3.10). Thus, injection efficiency of
a. transistor is decided by the ratio of emitter doping to base doping.
Base Transport Factor
The base transport factor (T) of a BJT is the effectiveness of the base in transporting charge
carriers injected from the emitter to the collector through the base. During the transit through the
base some of the charge carriers are lost due to recombination. A better transport factor means
less loss of charge carriers in the base due to recombination.
I pC
Base transport factor T =
I pE
I pC
=
I pC + I r B
1
= (4.2)
1 + II rpEC
Equation (4.2) shows that transport factor can be maximised by minimising IrB . IrB can be
minimised by reducing doping in the base region and by reducing the width of the base. If the
width of the base is comparable to the minority carrier diffusion length (LB), most of the charge
carriers that are injected from emitter to base recombines in the base region and those reaching
the collector will be very small. Therefore, the width of the base must be much less than the
minority carrier diffusion length (WB << LB).
Short-circuit common-base current gain () of the transistor is defined as
I pC −( I C − I CBO ) I C
dc = =  (4.3)
IE IE IE
 I
ac = [−( I C − I CBO )] = − C (Q ICBO is independent of IE) (4.4)
I E I E
For a good transistor (dc) and ( (ac) must be close to unity.

In the reverse-biased collector-base junction, carrier multiplication occurs with increase in
VCB and multiplication factor (M) increases with increase in VCB. The avalanche multiplication
in the collector region is given by
Current leaving collector region

M =
Currententering collector region
( I C − I CBO )
= (4.5)
I pC
The common base current gain () is related to injection efficiency () and transport factor (T) as
 = T M (4.6)
I pE I pC −( I C − I CBO )
=
I E I pE I pC
−( I C − I CBO )
= (4.7)
IE
Common-emitter current gain () is given by
IC
 = (4.8)
IB VCEcons tan t
It is related to  as

 = (4.9)
1−
 is maximum when  is maximum (close to unity),  and  of a BJT can be maximised by

maximising injection efficiency and transport factor. For that emitter doping must be maximum,
base doping must be minimum and base width must be minimum.
Collector Region
Our discussion so far shows that the performance of a transistor are decided by parameters in
the base and emitter regions. To improve switching speed and to reduce parasitic capacitance,
the collector resistance must be as low as possible. For this collector doping must be as high as
possible. But this poses a serious problem known as punch through.
The base region is very narrow, its width cannot be increased at any cost. As the reverse bias
at the collector-base junction increases, the depletion layer extends more and more into the base
region. If the base doping is less compared to collector doping, depletion layer penetrates more
into the base reducing the effective base width. The base gets completely depleted at a low
reverse voltage itself. The complete penetration of depletion layer into the base region is called
punch through, which is a form of breakdown. The collector-base voltage loses control over
collector current. To avoid premature punch-through (punch through at low VCB) the collector
doping must be less than the base doping so that depletion layer penetrates more into collector
region. The low collector doping increases the collector resistance, reduces switching speed and
increases power dissipation.
|NA-ND| in cm-3
1020
1018
1014 x
-2 0 WB 2 4
(a) Net doping in different regions
p+ N p- p+
(b) Physical position of emitter base and collector
Fig. 4.5 Practical doping profile of BJT
This poses two conflicting requirements for collector doping. To overcome this to some
extent, the collector doping near the base is kept lower than tlie base doping and collector
doping away from the base is kept higher than the base doping. A practical doping profile is
shown in Fig. 4.5.
The doping in the collector near the base is much less than that in the base which avoid
premature breakdown by punch through. At the same time, collector doping is high away from
the base collector junction which helps to reduce the effective resistance of the collector to some
extent.
Example 4.1 The following parameters are given for a p-n-p transistor. IpE = 10 mA, InE = 0.02
mA, IpC = 9.99 mA, InC = 0.002 mA. Determine , T, , , IB, IC, IE and ICBO (Neglect avalanche
multiplication in collector-base junction).
Solution
I pC 9.99
T = = = 0.999
IE 10
I pE I pE 10
 = = = = 0.998
IE I pE + InE 10 + 0.02
 = T.  = 0.999 × 0.998 = 0.997
 0.997
 = = =332
1 −  1 − 0.997
IC= − (IpC - InC)
= (9.99 + 0.002)
= - 9.992 mA
IE = (IpE + InE) = 10 + 0.02
= 10.02 mA
IB = -(IC + IE)
= -(-9.992 + 10.02)
= -0.028 mA
I −  IB
 ICBO = C
1+ 
−9.992 + 332  0.028
= = 2 A
1 + 332
4.6 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM
The energy band diagrams of p-n-p transistor under thermal equilibrium, forward active region
and saturation region are shown in Fig. 4.6(a) to (c). Some tips to draw energy band diagram of
BJT are given below.
(1) To draw the energy band diagram in any mode of operation, start with equilibrium
 dE 
energy band diagram.  F = 0  .
 dx 
(2) Draw the Fermi level and leave space for depletion regions of emitter-base and
collector-base junctions.
(3) Complete energy band diagram in the neutral regions, knowing the dopings.
(4) Connect EC and EV in different regions continuously.
Biased Transistor
(1) For a biased transistor take energy band diagram in the base as reference. Draw the
energy band diagram in the base region exactly same as that in equilibrium condition.
(2) Leave space for depletion layers. Also notice the change in depletion layer width with
bias.
(3) The Fermi level position in the collector and emitter regions shift up or down with
respect to that in base by qVa. The Fermi levels move up in these regions if the
potential is negative with respect to that in base and shift down if the potential is
positive with respect to potential at base.
(4) Knowing Fermi level position draw the other energy levels, whose relative positions
with respect to EF is same as that in the equilibrium energy band diagram.
(5) Complete the diagram by connecting EC and EV in different regions by smooth
continuous lines.
Fig. 4.6 Energy band diagrams of p-n-p BJT
4.7 MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION
The terminal currents in a transistor are evaluated from the slope of the minority carrier
distribution as in the case of a p-n junction, Fig. 4.7 shows the minority carrier distribution in a
p-n-p transistor in saturation mode of operation.
Fig. 4.7 Minority carrier distribution in a p-n-p transistor in saturation mode of operation
The meanings of different symbols used are as follows:
ni2
nEo − , equilibrium electron concentration in emitter.
N AE
ni2
pBo − , equilibrium hole concentration in base region.
ND
ni2
nCo − , equilibrium electron concentration in collector region.
N AC
pE - concentration of holes injected from emitter to base at emitter end of base (x = 0).
nE - concentration of electrons injected from base to emitter at the edge of depletion
layer (xE =0).
pC - concentration of hole injected from collector to base at the collector end of the
base (x = WB).
nC - concentration of electrons injected from base to collector at the edge of depletion
layer (xC = 0).
Similar to equations (3.26) and (3.27),

ni2 VEB /VT
pE = pBo ( eV EB /VT
− 1) = ( e − 1) (4.10a)
ND
ni2 VCB /VT
pE = pBo ( eV
CB /VT
)
−1 = (e )
−1 (4.10b)
ND
ni2 VEB /VT
nE = nEo ( eV
EB /VT
− 1) = ( e − 1) (4.10c)
N AE
ni2 VCB /VT
nC = nCo ( eV
CB /VT
)
−1 = e ( −1 ) (4.10d)
N AC
The minority carrier distribution in the base region is almost linear. This is because the
current flow through the base is by diffusion only and recombination in the base is negligible.
Since, recombination is negligible, by continuity equation the current inflow and outflow must
be same throughout the base region, i.e. the diffusion current remains constant throughout the
base region. Thus the slope is constant and distribution of minority carrier is linear.
4.8 DERIVATION OF TERMINAL CURRENTS
In this section, we derive expressions for terminal currents of a p-n-p transistor. These
expressions are applicable to n-p-n transistors also, with suitable modifications. Terminal
currents of a transistor are derived with the following approximations.
(1) The area of cross-section is same for emitter, base and collector regions.
(2) The junctions are abrupt.
(3) Doping is uniform in all regions.
(4) The minority carrier currents in the neutral regions are by diffusion only (By depletion
approximation). This type of transistor is called diffusion transistor.
(5) Low-level injection condition exists in all regions.
(6) The transistor is in steady-state condition.
(7) Current flow is one dimensional.
(8) No generation or recombination in depletion regions.
The major components of current in a BJT are obtained from the slope of minority carrier
distribution in the base region. Under steady-state condition, with current by diffusion only the
continuity equation for holes in the base region reduces to
d 2 p ( x )  p ( x )
= (4.11)
dx 2 L2p
Solution to this equation is of the form
p(x) = C1e-x/Lp + C2 ex/Lp (4.12)
Referring to Fig. 4.7, the boundary conditions are
at x = 0; p(x) = pE
x = WB; p(x) = pC
Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.12)
pE = C1 + C2 (4.13)
pC (
= C1 e −W / L + C2 eW B p
) ( B / Lp
) (4.14)
[Equation (4.13) × e−W B / Lp

] - [equation (4.14)] gives
pE e−W B / Lp
- pC = C2 e −W ( B / Lp
−e
WB / L p
)
 C2 =
 pE e ( −WB / L p
)− pC
(4.15)
− e ( WB / L p
−e
−WB / Lp
)
=
 pC −  pE e ( −WB / L p
)
−WB / L p
−e
WB / L p
e
C1 = pE - C2
  pC −  pE e
−WB / L p

= pE -  = 
 e
WB / L p
−e
−WB / L p

 
−WB / L p
 pE e −  pC
= −WB / L p
(4.16)
−e
WB / L p
e
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation (4.12)

−WB / L p −WB / L p
 pE e −  pC − x / Lp  pC −  pE e − x / Lp
p(x) = −WB / L p
e + −WB / L p
e
−e −e
WB / L p WB / L p
e e
=
( pE e
−WB / L p
−  pC e) − x / Lp
(
+  pC −  pE e
−WB / L p
)e − x / Lp
−WB / L p
−e
WB / L p
e
 ( WLB − x ) −( WLB − x ) 
 pE e p − e p  +  pC e p − e p
 
x/L −x/L
( )
= −W / L
−e B p
WB / L p
e
=
 pE sinh ( ) +  sinh ( )
WB − x
Lp pC
x
Lp
(4.17)
sinh ( ) sinh ( )
WB
Lp
WB
Lp
The hole diffusion current in the base

d
Ip(x) = -qADp . p(x)
dx
(C e )
Dp − x / Lp
− C2 e
x / Lp
= qA 1 (4.18)
Lp
IpE = Ip(x) at x=0
Dp
 IpE = qA ( C1 − C2 )
Lp
D p   pE e B p −  pC −  pC +  pE e B p 
W /L −W / L
= qA  −W / L

e B p −e B p
W /L
L p  
= qA
 
D p  2 pE cosh Lp − 2 pC 
WB
( )
Lp 

2sinh WLpB 
 ( )
( )− ( )
Dp
= qA   coth WB
cos ech
WB
(4.19)
Lp  pE Lp pC Lp
IpC = Ip(x) at x = WB
(C e )
Dp − x / Lp
− C2 e
x / Lp
= qA 1
Lp
D p   pE −  pC e B p −  pC e B p 
−W / L W /L
= qA  −W / L

e B p −e B p
W /L
L p  
= qA

D p   pE −  pC cosh ( ) 
WB
Lp
Lp 

sinh WLpB ( ) 

( )− ( )
Dp 
 pE cos ech
WB WB
= qA coth (4.20)
L p  Lp pC Lp
Similarly by solving continuity equation in the emitter region for minority carrier distribution,
the current due to electrons injected from base to emitter may be evaluated as
DnE W 
InE = qA  nE coth  E  (4.21)
LnE  LnE 
The current due to electron injected from base to collector is given by
DnC W 
InC = -qA . nC coth  C  (4.22)
LnC  LnC 
IE = IpE + InE
( )− ( )
Dp
= qA   coth WB
cos ech
WB
L p 
pE Lp pC Lp
DnE W 
+ qA  nE coth  E  (4.23)
LnE  LnE 
Substituting for pE, pC and nE from equation (4.10)
 Dp 1  W 
IE = qAni2 
 Lp N D
coth ( ) + DL
WB
Lp
nE
nE
1
N AE  LnE  
(
coth  E   eVEB /VT − 1 )
+ qA
ni2 Dp
N D Lp
cos ech ( ) (e
WB
Lp
VCB /VT
−1) (4.24)
IC = (IpC + InC)
( )− ( )
Dp 
 pE cos ech
WB WB
= qA coth
L p  Lp pC Lp
DnC W 
+ qA  nC coth  C  (4.25)
LnC  LnC 
 DnC  W  Dp 1 
= qAni2 
 LnC

1
N AC
coth  C  + 
 LnC  Lp N D
coth ( ) ( e
WB
Lp
VCB /VT
)
−1
( ) (e
Dp ni2
−qA
Lp N D
cos ech
WB
Lp
VEB /VT
−1) (4.26)
IB = -(IC + IE) (4.27)
4.8.1 DC Parameters
From equations (4.19) and (4.21), for a pnp BJT in the active region, neglecting pC
I nE qA LnE . nE .coth
=
DnE
( )
WE
LnE
I pE qA Lpp . pE .coth
D
( ) WE
Lp
coth ( ) 
L
if x  1 coth x =
WB p 1
if WB << Lp Lp x
W B
and WE << LE coth ( ) WE

LnE
L
 nE
WE
I nE
DnE
 nE LnB DnE
 nE WB
 = =
LnB WE LnB
(4.28)
I pE Dp
Lp  pE
Lp
WE
Dp
Lp
 pE WE
Substituting for nE and pE from equation (4.10)
I nE D N W
= nE  D  E (4.29)
I pE Dp N AE WE
1
Injection efficiency  =
I
1 + nE
I pE
1
= (4.30)
DnE N D WB
1+  
Dp N AE WE
d p ( x )
I pC dx x =WB
Transport factor T = = d p ( x )
I pE dx x =0
In the active region of operation pC  0

 From equation (4.17)
p(x) =
( )
 pE sinh WB − x
Lp
sinh ( ) WB
Lp
cosh ( ) WB − x
Lp
x =WB
T =
cosh ( ) WB − x
Lp
x =0
1
= (4.31)
cosh ( )WB
Lp
For WB << Lp, equation (4.31) becomes

cosh x = 1 + x2
2
1
T =  (4.32)
( )  for x  1
2
1 + 12 WB
Lp
The multiplication factor M is given by

1
M = (4.33)
( )
n
1− VCB
VBr
where n varies between 2 and 7.

The common-base current gain ()  T  (neglecting avalanche multiplication in collector-base
junction).
1 1
 = 
 W 
2
  DnE N D WB 
1 + 12  B   1 +   
 L   D p N AE WE 
  p  
1
 2
(4.34)
D N W W 
1 + nE  D  B + 12  B 
D p N AE WE L 
 p 
The common-emitter current gain  can be expressed as
 1
= =
1−  −1
1
Substituting for  we get

1 2 L2p
= 2
 (4.35)
DnE N D WB 1  WB  WB2
. . +  
D p N AE WE 2  Lp 
(Q WB << WE and ND << NAE)
Example 4.2 The following parameters are given for an n-p-n transistor at 300 K.
Emitter Base Collector

doping 1019 cm-3 1016 cm-3 1015 cm-3
width 2m 1m 5m
minority carrier life 0.01s 0.06s 1s
time
mobility p= 350 cm2/Vs n = 1250 cm2/Vs p= 450

cm2/ Vs
Assume uniform area of cross-section 5 × 10-4 cm2. If VBE = 0.6 V and |VCB| > VBE,
determine the following parameters at 300 K: InE, IpE, IpC, InC and IB. Take ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3.
Solution

NDE = 1019 cm-3 NA = 1016 cm-3 NDC = 1015 cm-3
ni2 ni2 ni2
pEo = N DE
=22.5cm-3 nBo= NA
=22.5 pCo= N DC
× 104cm-3 = 22.5 × 105cm-3

kT
DpE=µpE × q Dn=µn × kTq DpC=µpC × kTq
=9.1cm2/s =32.5cm2/s =11.7cm2/s
LpE = DpE pE Ln = Dn n LpC = DpC pC
= 3.02 × 10-4 cm = 1.4 × 10-3 cm = 3.42 × 10-3 cm
nE = nBo ( eV BE /VT

− 1) = 2.25 × l04 (e0.6/0.026 - l)
= 2.368 × 1014 cm-3
nC = nBo ( e VCB /VT
− 1) = -nBo = -2.25 × 104 cm-3
pE = pEo ( eV BE /VT
− 1) = 22.5 (e0.6/0.026 - l)
= 2.368 × 1011 cm-3
pC = pCo ( eV CB /VT
− 1) = -pCo = -2.25 × 105 cm-3
 1 10−4 
coth ( ) = coth
WB
 −3 
=14.02
 1.4  10 
Ln
 1 10−4 
cosech ( ) = cosech
WB
 −3 
= 13.988
 1.4  10 
Ln
coth ( )
WE
L pE
= coth
 2  10−4 
 −3 
 3.02  10 
=1.725
coth ( ) = coth
WC
L pC
 5  10−4 
 −3 
 3.42  10 
=6.888
For an n-p-n transistor equation (4.15) modifies to

InE =− qA
Dn 
Ln 
 nE coth ( )−
WB
Ln nC cos ech ( )
WB
Ln
32.5
= -1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 ×
1.4 10−3
[2.368 × 1014 × 14.02 + 2.25 × 104 × 13.988]
= -6165.595 µA
DpE W 
IpE = −qA . pE coth  E
L 
LpE  pE 
9.1
= -1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 × × 2.368 × 1011 × 1.725
3.02 10−4
= -0.9846 µA
InC = -qA
Dn 
Ln 
 nE cos ech ( )−
WB
Ln nC coth ( )
WB
Ln
32.5
= -1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 ×
1.4 10−3
[2.368 × 1014 × 13.988 + 2.25 × 104 × 14.02]
= -6151.52 µA
D pC W 
IpC = qA . pC coth  C 
LpC L
 pC 
11.7
= 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 × × −2.25 × 105 6.888
3.42 10−3
= -4.24 × 10-13 A
IE = InE + IpE = -6165.595 - 0.9846 = -6166.5796 µA
IC = -(InC + IpC)
= -(-6.1515 × 10-3 − 4.24 × 10-13) = 6.1515 × l0-3A
IB = -(IE + IC)
= -(-6.1665 × 10-3 + 6.1515 × 10-3) = 15µA.
Example 4.3 For the transistor specified in Example 4.2 determine injection efficiency,
transport factor,  and .
Solution
1
D pEN W
1+  A  B
Dn N DE WE
1
=
9.1 1016 110−4
1+  
32.5 1019 2 10−4
= 0.99986
1
Transport factor T =
cosh ( ) WB
Ln
1
= = 0.99745
cosh ( 110−4
1.410−3 )
Common-base current gain  = T × 
= 0.99745 × 0.99986 = 0.99731
 0.99731
Common-emitter current gain  = = = 370.
1 −  1 − 0.99731
4.9 CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OF TRANSISTOR
In transistor circuit arrangements one of the terminals acts as common terminal to input and
output. Based on this, there are three different transistor arrangements or configurations namely
common emitter, common base and common collector configurations. The symbolic
representation of these configurations are shown in Fig. 4.8.
(a) Common emitter configuration b) Common collector configuration (c) Common base configuration
Fig. 4.8 Symbolic representation of transistor configurations
The input and output parameters of transistors in different configurations are listed Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 The input and output parameters of transistors
Configuration
Parameters Common-emitter Common-base Common-collector
Input voltage VBE VEB VBC
Input current IB IE IB
Output voltage VCE VCB VEC
Output current IC IC IE
4.10 THE EBERS MOLL MODEL
Fig. 4.9 shows the Ebers Moll model of a p-n-p BJT. This is a large signal model representing
BJT in any mode of operation. The dc terminal currents in any mode of operation can be
evaluated using this model. The different symbols used are:
IES - Reverse saturation current of emitter-base diode with collector shorted to base.
ICS - Reverse saturation current of collector-base diode with emitter shorted to base.
F - Forward alpha is  of the transistor when emitter-base junction is forward-biased and
collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
I - Inverse alpha is  of the transistor when collector-base junction is forward-biased and
emitter-base junction is reverse-biased. In this case collector acts as the emitter and emitter as
the collector.
Fig. 4.9 Ebers Moll Model of a p-n-p BJT

IES and ICS are negative for p-n-p transistor and positive for n-p-n transistor. In terms of these
parameters the terminal currents are given by
IE =  I ES ( eV / V − 1) −  I I CS ( eV / V − 1) 
EB T CB T
(4.36)
IC =  I CS ( eV
CB /VT
) ( )
− 1 −  F I ES eVEB /VT − 1  (4.37)
Equations (4.36) and (4.37) are known as Ebers Moll equations.
By comparing equations (4.36) and (4.37) with equations (4.24) and (4.26) and equating
coefficients of ( eV /V − 1) and ( eV /V − 1) respectively we get,
CB T EB T
 F I ES =  I I CS =qA
ni2 Dp
.
N D Lp
cos ech ( )WB
Lp
(4.38)
A setup to measure IES and  is shown in Fig. 4.10. Short-circuit the collector and base
terminals of the transistor. Plot the forward characteristics of emitter-base junction (VEB vs. IE).
The reverse saturation current of emitter-base junction under this condition represents IES The
procedure to determine reverse saturation current is explained in Section 3.5.3.
Fig. 4.10 Set-up to measure IES and F

Since, the collector and base are short-circuited, the ratio of IC and IE directly gives F.
IC
F =
IE VCB = 0
ICS and  can be obtained from the set-up shown in Fig. 4.11.
Fig. 4.11 Set-up to measure ICS and I
ICS is the reverse saturation current of collector-base junction.

IE
I =
IC VEB = 0
The currents IES and ICS may be expressed in terms of IEBO and ICBO.
where, IEBO - reverse saturation current of emitter-base junction with collector-base
junction open (IC = 0).
ICBO - reverse saturation current of collector-base junction with emitter-base
junction open (IE =0).
Multiplying equation (4.36) by F
F. IE = -FIES ( eV /V − 1) + FI ICS ( eV /V − 1)
EB T CB T
(4.39)
Adding equations (4.37) and (4.39), we get
IC + F . IE = -ICS (l - F I) ( eV CB /VT
−1 ) (4.40)
With emitter open, IE = 0 and IC is given by
IC = -ICS (l - F I) ( eV CB /VT
−1 )
= -ICBO ( eVCB /VT
−1 )
where ICBO = ICS(l - F I)
I CBO
or ICS = (4.41)
1 −  F I
I EBO
Similarly, IES = (4.42)
1 −  F I
IEBO may be measured experimentally using the set-up shown in Fig. 4.12.
Fig. 4.12 Set-up to measure IEBO
Plot the forward characteristics of emitter-base junction with collector open. Determine the
reverse saturation current which represents IEBO. ICBO can be measured using a similar setup.
Example 4.4 The following parameters are given for an n-p-n transistor at 300 K.

doping 1019 cm-3 1016 cm-3 1015 cm-3
width 2m 1m 5m
minority carrier
0.01s 0.06s 1s
lifetime
mobility p= 350 cm2/Vs n = 1250 cm2/Vs p= 450 cm2/ Vs
Assume uniform area of cross-section of 5 × 10-4 cm2 and ni = = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3. Determine
IES, ICS, F and I.
Solution
NDE = 1019 cm-3 NA = 10 cm-3
16
NDC = 1015 cm-3
DpE=9.1cm2/s Dn=32.5cm2/s DpC=11.7cm2/s
LpE = 3.02 × 10-4 cm Ln = 1.4 × 10-3 cm LpC = 3.42 × 10-3 cm
coth ( ) = 14.02
WB
Ln
coth ( ) = 1.725
WE
L pE
coth ( ) = 6.888
WC
L pC
Using equations (4.25) and (4.26)

 Dn  W  DpE 
IES = qAni2 
 Ln

1
NA
coth  B  + 
1
 Ln  LpE N DE
coth ( )
WE
L pE
= 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 × 2.25 × 1020

 32.5 1 9.1 1 
=  −3
 16  14.02 +   1.725
1.4 10 10 3.02 10−4 1019 
= 5.859 × 10-13 A
 D pC W  Dn 1 
ICS = qAni2 
 L pC

1
N DC
coth  C
L  +  coth ( )
WB
Ln
 pC  Ln N A 
= 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 × 2.25 × 1020
 11.7 1 32.5 1 
=  −3
 15  6.888 +  14.02 
 3.42 10 10 1.4 10−3 1016 
= 1.009 × 1012 A
1
F = 2
(by equation 4.34)
N D pE
W 1 W 
1+  A  B+  B
Dn N DE WE 2  Ln 
1
= 2
= 0.9973
9.1 10 110−4 1  110−4 
16
1+  19  +  
32.5 10 2 10−4 2  1.4 10−3 
1
I = 2
(by equation 4.34)
N D pC
W 1 W 
1+  A  B+  B
Dn N DC WC 2  Ln 
1
= 2
= 0.5805.
11.7 10 110−4 1  110−4 
16
1+  15  +  
32.5 10 5 10−4 2  1.4 10−3 
4.11 REGIONS OF OPERATION AND MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION
The minority carrier distribution in the base region represents the major portion of currents
through a transistor. The minority carrier distribution in a p-n-p transistor in different regions
(modes) of operation are shown in Fig. 4.13.
Forward active mode: In this mode of operation emitter-base junction is forward-biased (VEB
positive) and collector-base junction is reverse-biased (VCB negative). Therefore, pC = -pBo, nC
= -nCo. The common-base current gain in this mode is represented as F and its value is close to
unity.
Inverse active mode: In this case collector-base junction is forward-biased and emitterbase
junction is reverse-biased. Therefore pE = -pBo, and nE = -nEo. Collector acts as the emitter and
the emitter as collector. Because of low doping in collector region, the injection efficiency is
poor in this mode. Due to smaller emitter area, all the charge carriers that are emitted from the
collector do not reach the emitter. They recombine in the remote region of base (See the actual
structure of BJT in Fig. 4.2). As a result the transport factor is also poor. Thus  of the transistor
is low in this mode.
Saturation mode: In this case both junctions are forward-biased and holes are injected from
emitter and collector into the base region. This increases the recombination rate in the base,
increasing IrB. Therefore, the base current is large ( I B  I ) . The resistance of the transistor is
C
very low in this mode, as two forward-biased junctions are connected in series opposition. The
transistor acts as a closed switch and it is said to be in the ON condition. The voltage drop
across the transistor is very low under this condition. (VCE = VBE + VCB) (for p-n-p transistor in
saturation region VBE is negative and VCB is positive).
Fig. 4.13 Minority carrier distribution of a p-n-p transistor

Cutoff mode: In cutoff mode both junctions are reverse-biased. nE = -nEo, pE = pC = -pBo and
nC = -nCo. The base region does not consist charge carriers and the resistance of the device is
very high. It acts as an open switch and the transistor is said to be in the OFF condition.
4.12 REAL TRANSISTOR
In the discussion so far, we have assumed an ideal transistor with abrupt junctions, equal
junction areas, uniform doping etc. In a real transistor, we have to account for the following
non-idealities.
(1) Carrier recombination in emitter-base depletion layer.
(2) Drift in the base region (non-uniform doping).
(3) Effects of variation of VCB on transistor currents (early effect).
(4) Avalanche multiplication in collector-base junction.
(5) Resistance of the base region.
(6) Non-ideal structure.
(7) Kirk effect.
4.12.1 Carrier Recombination in the Emitter-Base Depletion Layer
The emitter current consists of the recombination current in emitter-base depletion region given
by
IR = I R ( eV
o
EB / 2VT
)
−1 (4.43)
qAni X EB
I Ro = (4.44)
2 o
where, XEB - depletion layer width of emitter-base junction.

o - carrier lifetime in the emitter-base depletion layer.
A - area of emitter-base junction.
 The expression for injection efficiency becomes
I Ep
=
I Ep + I En + I R
IR term reduces the injection efficiency, especially in silicon and gallium arsenide transistors
at or below room temperature as IR term is much larger than the other terms. The injection
efficiency is small for small forward-bias on base emitter junction.
As VEB and IC increases, I R term becomes negligible compared to other terms and injection
o
efficiency increases with increase in IC. Therefore  and  increases with increase in IC. But at
very high value of IC where the injected hole concentration in the base become comparable to
base doping,  starts to decrease with increase in IC due to high injection effects. Variation of IB
and IC with VEB at VCB = 0 is shown in Fig. 4.14(a). This plot is known as Gummel plot. An
approximate plot of  as a function of IC for a constant VCE is shown in Fig. 4.14(b).
Fig. 4.14 Gummel plot
4.12.2 Drift in the Base Region
For implanted junction transistors the assumption of uniform doping in the base does not hold
good as there is appreciable amount of impurity grading. ND(x) varies exponentially within the
base region. In graded base region, a built-in electric field exists from emitter to collector (for p-
n-p transistor). This adds a drift component to the transport of holes across the base. The drift
and diffusion currents in the base must balance at equilibrium. If the net donor doping of the
base is large enough that n(x)  ND(x), for the balance of electron drift and diffusion currents at
equilibrium
In(x) = 0
dN D ( x)
i.e, qAµn ND(x)(x) + qADn =0 (4.45)
dx
 Built-in electric field

Dn 1 dN ( x) −kT 1 dN D ( x)
(x) = - . . = (4.46)
n N D ( x) dx q N D ( x ) dx
For a donor doping profile that decreases in the positive x direction, the built-in electric field
is positive directed from emitter to collector.
This electric field aids the transport of holes across the base region from emitter to collector.
Therefore the transit time T( is reduced below that of a uniformly doped base transistor.
Similarly electron transport in an n-p-n transistor is aided by the built-in field in the base. This
reduction in transit time finds its application in high frequency devices.
4.12.3 Effect of Bias to Collector-Base Junction (Early Effect)
The effective width (WB) of the base region is the difference between the total (metallurgical)
base width (WBo)and the depletion layer width of the collector-base junction into the base region
(neglecting the depletion layer on the emitter base junction).
N AC
i.e, WB = WBo - XBC.
N D + N AC
2 N AC
= WBo - (Vo − VBC  (4.47)
q N D ( N AC + N D )
where XBC - depletion width of collector base junction with bias.
Fig. 4.15 Early effect
Equation (4.47) shows that the effective width of the base region decreases with increase in
reverse-bias on the collector-base junction. This is called base width modulation or Early effect.
Due to base width modulation, as reverse-bias on the collector base junction increases IC and
IE increases. Due to increase in VCB, WB decreases which increases the slope of minority carrier
distribution as shown in Fig. 4.15. As the slope increases, IEp and ICp increases.
As the width of the base is reduced, the transport factor increases or the recombination in the
base region reduces, reducing IB and increasing  of the transistor. As  increases,  also
increases. In short, due to base width modulation, an increase of reverse-bias across collector-
base junction:
(1) increases IC and IE

(2) decreases IB
(3) increases transport factor
(4) increases  and 
Punch Through
As VCB increases further, the depletion layer penetrates more and more into the base and the
effective width of base decreases and become zero at a collector-base reverse voltage called
punch through voltage (VPT) (if avalanche breakdown do not occur below this voltage). At
punch through voltage width of base is zero.
 From equation (4.47)
qN D ( N AC + N DB )WBo2
VPT = (4.48)
2òN AC
Example 4.5 A p-n-p silicon BJT has ND = 8 × 1015 cm-3 on the base and the collector is
heavily doped. Given that WBo = 2 µm. Determine the breakdown voltage in the common-base
mode if the critical field in silicon is 3 × 105 V/cm. Also calcualte the punch through voltage.
Solution
ò 2
VBrCBO = Ecrit (by equation (3.89))
2qN D
8.854  10−14  11.8  ( 3  105 )

2
=
2  1.6  10−19  8  1015
= 36.73 V
qN D 2
VPT = WBo (by equation (4.48) for NAC >> ND)
2ò
1.6  10−19  8  1015  ( 2  10−4 )
2
=
2  8.854  10−14  11.8
= 24.50 V.
4.12.4 Avalanche Multiplication in the Collector-Base Depletion Region
Avalanche multiplication takes place within the depletion layer of collector-base junction. At
low VCB multiplication will be negligible. But with increase in reverse-bias multiplication in the
collector-base depletion layer increases. Due to this  of the transistor increases and the
collector current also increases for a given IE.
The current entering depletion layer of collector-base junction = IpC

Current reaching the collector = IC
= - (IpC - ICBO)
−( I pC − I CBO )
Multiplication factor M = (4.49)
I pC
Avalanche multiplication factor is also given by
1
M= n
V 
1 −  CB 
 VBr 
where n lies between 2 and 7.
 = MT
M is unity for low VCB. When VCB becomes closer to avalanche breakdown voltage, M increases
and IC increases sharply causing avalanche breakdown.
4.12.5 Resistance of the Base Region and Emitter Crowding
In the actual structure, base region has a large area compared to emitter and the resistance of the
base is distributed over this region. The effective resistance of the base may be calculated from
the doping of base region and its geometry. This resistance is called base spreading resistance
rB. Because of rB the entire applied voltage will not drop across the junction. In the Ebers Moll
model VEB and VCB must be replaced by VEB - IBrB and VCB - IBrB respectively. The base current
is a lateral current flowing from the active base region to the base contact.
The base resistance increases with reverse-bias on collector-base junction due to increase in
depletion layer width and reduced base width. The emitter-base forward bias is minimum at the
centre of the emitter and increase towards the periphery due to reduced IBrB drop. Therefore
emitter injection is more near the periphery of the emitter than that at the centre. This is called
emitter crowding and is shown in Fig. 4.16. Inter digitated emitter structure as shown in Fig.
4.17 reduces the problem of emitter crowding which may cause premature breakdown.
4.12.6 Non-Ideality of Structure
For the purpose of analysis we have assumed equal area for emitter and collector junctions
which is actually not true. The area of emitter-base junction is less than that of collector base
junction. Similarly, the doping of emitter is higher than that of collector. ICS is higher than IES
and F is higher than I.
Figure 4.17 Interdigitated emitter structure

4.12.7 Kirk Effect
The current gain of BJT at higher current, drops due to a mechanism known as Kirk effect.
Consider a p-n-p BJT. As the emitter-base forward bias increases, more charge carriers (holes)
are injected into the base region and collected by collector region. Under this condition,
depletion approximation is invalid in the collector-base junction. The positive charge on the
base side of the depletion layer increases and negative charge on the collector side of the
depletion layer decreases due to presence of holes as shown in Fig. 4.18.
Thus, for a given VCB, fewer donors are required on the n-side to maintain the voltage
across the junction. Therefore, the depletion layer on the base side shrinks and base width
increases, reducing transport factor and current gain. The shrinking of depletion layer on the
base side of collector-base junction due to the presence of mobile charge carriers is called Kirk
effect.
Fig. 4.18 Kirk effect
The electric field in the depletion layer may be expressed by Poisson equation as
dE q  + I 
= ( N D − N A− ) + C  on the base side (4.50)
dx ò  qAvd 
where IC - collector current
A - area of cross-section of collector-base junction
vd - drift velocity of holes.
The last term represent mobile charge carrier density
IC
= pqvd
A
I
p= C (4.51)
qAvd
Increase in IC has the same effect as increasing doping level on the n-side (base) and (reducing
doping level on the p-side. Kirk effect is observed in n-p-n transistors also.
4.13 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

4.13.1 Common-base configuration
a. Input characteristics
The input characteristics of a p-n-p bipolar junction transistor in common-base configuration is
shown in Fig. 4.19(b). It is a plot of IE as a function of VEB with VCB held constant. By Ebers
Moll equation, with reverse-bias on collector-base junction,
IE = -IES ( eV /V − 1) - I ICS
CB T
IES and ICS are negative for p-n-p transistor and IE is positive.
Fig. 4.19 Input characteristics of a p-n-p transistor in common base configuration
Even though the shape of this characteristics is similar to that of p-n junction, a change in VCB
shifts the characteristics. With increase in VCB, the reverse-bias on collector-base junction
increases, increasing depletion layer width and reducing base width. Reduced base width causes
an increase in the slope of minority carrier distribution in the base region increasing I C and IE.
Therefore, with increase in VCB for a given VEB, the emitter current increases. Thus the curve
shifts towards the left with increase in VCB. This is a consequence of early effect.
b. Output characteristics
The output characteristics of a p-n-p bipolar junction transistor is shown in Fig. 4.20. The output
characteristics is a plot of IC as a function of VCB with IE kept constant. From Ebers Moll model,
by equation (4.40),
IC = -FIE - ICBO ( eV CB /VT

)
−1
When IE = 0, IC = ICBO for sufficiently large collector-base reverse-bias VCB.

With reverse-bias on collector-base junction,
IC = -FIE - ICBO
For a given IE, IC remains almost constant.

With forward bias on collector-base junction (VCB positive) IC decreases due to injection of
holes from collector to base (slope of minority carrier distribution decreases). IC becomes zero
for a finite forward bias on collector base junction (VCB) and is given by
  I 
VCB |IC=0 = VT ln 1 − F E  (4.52)
 I CBO 
Fig. 4.20 Output characteristics of p-n-p transistor in common base configuration
The output characteristics for a single IE and the minority carrier distribution in the base region
for different points in the characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.21.
Fig. 4.21 (a) Output characteristics for a single IE and (b) the minority carrier distribution
in the base region for different points in the characteristics, neglecting change in base
width
A - Inverse saturation
B - IC = 0
C - Forward saturation, deep saturation
D - Forward saturation, weak saturation
E - Forward active
At point A, the forward bias on the collector-base junction is high compared to that on the
emitter-base junction and it corresponds to inverse saturation. At point B, the injection from
collector to base and emitter to base are equal and IC = 0. Points C and D corresponds to forward
saturation. C represents deep saturation and D weak saturation. Point E corresponds to active
region of operation.
In the active region, collector current remains almost constant and the effect of base width
modulation is negligible. In common-base configuration IC and IE increases with increase in
VCB. The increase in IC is more compared to increase in IE (IE = IC - IB). But on keeping IE
constant, the change in IC almost nullifies. Therefore, IC increases only slightly with increase in
VCB in the output characteristics.
4.13.2 Common-Emitter Configuration

a. Input characteristics
Input characteristics in common-emitter configuration is the plot of IB as a function of VBE,

keeping VCE constant. From Ebers moll equations, by assuming large reverse-bias on collector-
base junction
IB = IES(1 - F) ( eV /V − 1) - ICS (1- I)
EB T
(4.53)
IES and ICS are negative for p-n-p transistor and IB is therefore negative.
Even though IB appears to be independent of VCB in equation 4.53, it decreases with increase
in VCB due to base width modulation. (With increase in VCE (VCE = VBE + VCB) base width
reduces, transport factor increases and base current decreases for a given VBE or IE). Therefore,
the input characteristics shift towards right with increase in VCE as shown in Fig. 4.22b.
Fig. 4.22 Input characteristics of an p-n-p transistor in common emitter configuration
b. Output characteristics
The output characteristics in common-emitter configuration is a plot of IC as a function of VCE
keeping IE constant. The output characteristics, the minority carrier distribution in the base
region for different points (marked in the characteristics) and expanded view of characteristics
in saturation region are shown in Fig. 4.23.
VCE = VCB + VBE

VBE = VCE - VCB
When VCE = 0; VCB = VBE, the collector-base junction and emitter-base junction are equally
forward-biased. Under this condition injection from collector to base and emitter to base are
equal and the collector current is zero.
With increase in VCE, IC increases due to reduced forward bias on collector-base junction
upto point C. On further increasing VCE, the collector-base junction become reverse-biased and
the transistor enters the active region of operation. In this region, collector current increase
slowly with increase in VCB due to base width modulation.
When IB is increased, the resistance between collector and emitter decrease with more
injection of charge carriers into the base and slope of the characteristics in the active region
increases.
When IB =0; IC = ICEO = (1 + ) ICBO (See Problem 4.1)
Fig. 4.23
ICEO is the current between collector and emitter with base terminal open. This current is
much higher than the reverse saturation current of collector-base junction with emitter open
(ICBO). It can be explained as follows.
With reverse-bias on collector-base junction, electrons drift from collector to base region.
These electrons cannot move into the base terminal as it is open. Electrons accumulate in the
base region and this produces a small forward bias on the emitter-base junction. Holes are
injected from emitter to base and are collected by the collector terminal causing an increased
current between collector and emitter.
Effect of Base Width Modulation
With increase in VCB, IC increases due to increased slope of minority carrier distribution in the
base region.
In real transistors the increase of IC in the active region is due to early effect. (At higher values
of VCE. the slope increases due to avalanche multiplication in the collector-base junction.)
dp
I C = −qADp 
dx
pE
= qADp 
WB
Fig. 4.24 The effect of base width modulation on output characteristics; IC increases due to
reduction in base width as VCB increases.
 V 
I C ; I S ( eVEB / VT − 1) 1 + CE 
 VA 
where VA is called the eariy voltage. If the common-emitter characteristics is extrapolated to
meet voltage axis, all the curves meet at the same voltage called early voltage as shown in Fig.
4.24.
In a well designed transistor punch through is avoided. The maximum value of VCB is
decided by avalanche breakdown. The avalanche breakdown voltage in common-base
configuration (VBrCBO) and common-emitter configuration (VBrCEO) are related as
 
VBrCEO =  BrCBO 1 
V
 
(4.54)
 (1 +  ) n 
 
n varies from 2 to 7.
VBrCEO - Breakdown voltage in common-emitter configuration with base open

VBrCBO - Breakdown voltage in common-base configuration with emitter open
Equation (4.54) shows that the breakdown voltage in common-base configuration is much
higher than that in common-emitter configuration.
The effect of avalanche break down in the output characteristics of p-n-p transistor in
common emitter configuration is shown in Fig. 4.25.
Fig. 4.25 Common emitter output characteristics showing the effect of avalanche
multiplication in collector-base junction
Transistor as a Linear Current Amplifier
The current gain of a transistor in common-emitter configuration in forward active mode is

IC
given by  = which is independent of the bias voltage VEB or VCB .i.e., IC = IB. The collector
IB
current varies linearly with base current IB. Therefore, transistor in common emitter
configuration acts as a linear current amplifier when it is operated in active mode or active
region where the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and collector base junction is reverse-
biased.
Saturation Region
Consider the common-emitter configuration of transistor and its output characteristics as shown
in Fig. 4.26. The load line is fixed by VCC and RC. The operating point is fixed by RB or IB. The
operating point is the intersection of load line and the output characteristics for given IB. The
maximum value of collector current is IC (sat) which cannot be increased by increasing IB. But
in active region IC can be increased by increasing IB for a given load line. Once the transistor is
in saturation region, IC is saturated to its maximum value irrespective of the base current.
Therefore "saturation" implies the saturation of collector current for a given circuit arrangement
or load line. This current is fixed by external resistance (RC) and voltage applied (VCC).
Therefore in saturation region IC ≤ IB.
4.14 SWITCHING
An ideal switch has zero resistance (short-circuit) in ON condition and infinite resistance (open-
circuit) in OFF condition. A BJT in common emitter configuration acts as a switch when it is
operated in saturation and cutoff regions. In saturation region it acts as closed switch (low-
resistance) and in cutoff region as an open switch (high-resistance).
Fig. 4.27 shows the circuit arrangement of BJT as a switch and its characteristics. When IB =
0, the BJT is in cutoff as shown by point A in the figure. The voltage drop VCE is very large
under this condition.
(a) Circuit arrangement (b) Output characteristics along with load line
A - onset of saturation
B, C - deep saturation
(c) Minority carrier distribution in the base region

Fig. 4.26 Operation of a p-n-p BJT in saturation region. As IB is increased from 20 µA to
40 µA. the operating point is moved from A to C. The change in collector current is
negligible
Fig. 4.27 Circuit arrangement and characteristics of BJT as a switch

 IC(sat ) 
If IB is made large  IB   the collector current reaches a maximum value for the
  
given load line. At the onset of saturation (point B in the figure)
IC(sat )
IB =

If IB is increased further, the collector current remains constant (saturates). There is no
further shift in operating point. Under this condition VCE is very small and both junctions are
forward-biased. This is the ON condition of the transistor.
A sudden change of IB from zero to a high value will not switch the transistor from OFF state
to ON state instantaneously. This requires the charging of storage (diffusion) capacitance which
introduces a time delay in switching. The storage capacitance is due to the storage of minority
carriers, mainly in the base region. The distribution of minority carriers in the base region under
cut-off, saturation and active modes of operation are shown in Fig. 4.28.
Fig. 4.28 Distribution of minority carriers in the base region of p-n-p transistor (A) cutoff
(B) saturation and (C) active modes of operation
The time delay may also be represented in terms of the time of transit of the charge carriers
(tB) across the base. The collector current is related to the excess hole density by
d
IC = −qADp  p(x)
dx
 pE
= qADp  (4.55)
WB
The total excess holes stored in the base is
1
Q B = −qA   pE  WB
2
qA pE WB
= (4.56)
2
The collector current is equal to the rate of transfer of charge from base to collector and is
given by
QB
IC = (4.57)
 tB
where tB is the time of transit of charge carriers (holes) through the base.
qA pE WB
QB 2
 tB = = (from equations (5.55) and (4.56)
IC qA  D p   pE
WB
WB2
= (4.58)
2Dp
Base current due to recombination in the base is given by
QB
I r =
p
where p is the minority carrier lifetime in the base region.
4.14.1 Charge Control Equations
The base current in the forward mode of operation ( IFB ) is given by

−IFB = IrB + InE + ICBO
= IrB + InE (neglecting ICBO)
Q FB  I nE 
= Q FB + I nE = 1 + 
p  I rB 
Q FE
 (4.59)
B(eff )
p
where B(eff) = , effective lifetime in the base. (4.60)
I
1 + nE
I rB
ICF FB(eff )
=  F
= (by equations (4.57) and (4.59)
I FB FtB
p
; (if InE is neglected)
 tB
If a time varying voltage EB is applied between base and emitter, the base current and stored
charge will also vary with time. Therefore, i FB will consist of a term due to the time variation of
stored charge.
Q FB dQ BF
−i FB = + (4.61)
 F
B(eff ) dt
The collector current in the forward mode is given by
QFB
−iCF = (4.62)
Ft
and emitter current is given by
i FB = − ( iCF + i FB )
QFB QF dQFB
= + F B + (4.63)
t
F
B(eff ) dt
Similarly the currents in inverse mode may be expressed in terms of charge stored in the base
under inverse mode.
qAWB   pC
Charge stored QIB = (4.64)
2
Q IB dQ BI
−i IB = + (4.65)
 I
B(eff ) dt
QIB
−i IE = (4.66)
It
i IB = ( i IB + i IE )
Q IB dQ IB Q IB
= + + I (4.67)
IB(eff ) dt t
i B = i BF + i BI (4.68a)
iC = i + i
F
C
I
C (4.68b)
iE = i + i
F
E
I
E (4.68c)
4.14.2 Tum-ON-Time
Let a p-n-p bipolar junction transistor be switched from cut-off (IB =0) to saturation (IB = IB1) at
t = 0.
In equation (4.61), replacing FB(eff ) by p it may be written as
dQB QB
−i B = + (4.69)
dt p
Solution of this equation by applying boundary condition QB = 0 at t = 0 is
− t / p
Q B (t) = I B1p (I − e ) (4.69a)
The collector current is given by
Q B (t)
i C (t) =
 tB
− t / p
I B1p (1 − e )
= for QB ≤ QB(sat) (4.70)
tB
QB(sat) is the stored charge when iC = IC(sat).
The charge QB continues to build-up with increase in base current but the collector current
remain almost unchanged at IC(sat). Therefore equation (4.70) is valid only for QB ≤ QB(sat). The
variation of stored charge with time, the output characteristics along with load line and the
variation of IC with time are shown in Fig. 4.29.
Fig. 4.29 Variation of stored charge and IC with time.
The stored charge in the base region at point A on the load line is represented by Q (sat).
Equation (4.70) can be written in steady-state (t 4- ) as
IB1p
iC = = IB1 F (4.71)
tB
But on further increasing IB the transistor is driven into deep saturation. The corresponding
increase in IC is negligible. Therefore in saturation region IC ≤ FIB.
In saturation region, collector current is limited to
VCC − VCE(sat ) VCC

IC(sat ) = ; (4.72)
RC RC
(VCE(sat) for silicon transistor is around 0.2 V. It is the difference in forward-bias between the
emitter-base and collector-base junctions.)
In saturation region, the charge stored in the base region QB increases with increase in base
current even though IC remains constant. A transistor is assumed to be turned ON as IC reaches
IC(sat). Therefore equation (4.70) becomes (substituting for QB(sat) from equation 4.69(a) by
making t = tON)
QB(sat ) IB1 − t ON / p
IC(sat ) = = p (1 − e )
tB tB
 
 
 1 
 t ON = p 1n   (4.73)
 I
1 −  C(sat )   tB  
  I    
  B1   p  
Equation (4.73) shows that to minimise turn ON time, p must be minimum, IB must be
maximum and IC must be minimum, and transit time (tB) must be minimum.
4.14.3 Turn-OFF Time
To turn OFF a transistor, the excess stored charge in the base has to be removed and collector
current has to be reduced to zero. This is done by setting IB = 0 or negative. When the base
current is removed, the stored charge decay due to recombination and diffusion as there is no
source to replenish it.
When IB = 0, equation (4.69) becomes
dQB −QB
= (4.74)
dt p
i.e., QB decreases with time. Transistor remains in ON condition until QB goes below QB(sat). The
turn-off transients are shown in Fig. 4.30. As QB reaches QB(sat), IC decays exponentially to zero.
The turn-off time is the time required to reduce the collector current to zero, from the instant
the base current is removed. It is constituted by two components:
(i) time taken to reduce the stored charge to QB(sat) known as storage delay (ts) and
(ii) the time taken to reduce the stored charge from Q(sat) to 0.1 Q(sat), known as fall time (tf).
Let the base current be made zero at t = 0. Therefore, the solution of equation (4.74) is
− t s / p
Q B (t) = Q B (0)e (4.75)
where QB(0) is the stored charge in the base just before removal of base current pulse.
The storage delay time tg is obtained from equation (4.75) as
− t / p
QB (t s ) = QB(sat) = QB (0)e
 Q (0) 
t s = p 1n  B  (4.76)
Q 
 B(sat ) 
Fig. 4.30 Turn off transient
For t > ts transistor is in active region.

− t / p
Q B (t) Q B(sat ) e
 i C (t) = = Where t' = (t - ts)
tB tB
= IC(sat) e− t '/  p
(4.77)
From equation (4.77) the time tf for iC(t) to fall from IC(sat) to 0.1 IC(sat) is 2.3 p
 When t = t s + t f , t  = t f and i C (t) = 0.1IC(sat ) 

 − t '/ p 
 0.1IC(sat ) = IC(sat ) e  t f = −p ln(0.1) = 2.3p 
Smaller lifetime (p) and smaller IB in ON condition reduces the turn OFF time. p can be
reduced in switching transistor by adding gold which increases the recombination rate.
Example 4.6 A base current pulse of 100 µA and width 300 ns is applied to the base of a
switching transistor shown in Fig. Ex.4.6(a).
Given PB = 0.25 µs, WB = 2.5 µm and Dp = 6 cm2/s. Sketch the waveforms of the collector
current and the charge QB.
Solution
IB1 = 100 µA
VCC −10
IC(sat)  = = -1mA
RL 10  10 −3
From equation (4.58)
WB2 (2.5  10−4 ) 2

tB = = = 5.2 × 10-9s
2Dp 26
QB(sat) = IC(sat) tB
= 1 × 10-3 × 5.2 × 10-9 = 5.2 × 10-12 C
Turn ON time is the time at which QB = QB(sat). By equation (4.73),
 
= p ln  
1
tON
1 −
 ( )( )
VCC
I B1 RL
t
p


 1 
= 0.25 × 10-6 In  −9 
1 − 10010−6 10103  0.2510−6 
10 5.210
= 5.83 × 10-8 s
After t = tON, IC remains constant at 1 mA and QB continues to increase until the base current is
removed as shown in Fig. Ex.4.6.
By equation (4.69(a)),
− t /
QB(t) = I B  p 1 − e 
1
p
QB(t = 300 ns) = 100 × 10-6 × 0.25 × 10-6 l − e−30010 

−9
/0.2510−6

= 1.75 × 10-11 C
The storage delay time by equation (4.75) is
 QB (0) 
ts = p ln  
 QB ( sat ) 
where QB(0) = QB(t = 300 ns)

1.75  10−11 
ts = 0.25 × 10-6 ln  −12 
= 0.303 µs
 5.2  10 
tf = 2.3 p = 575 ns.
Fig. Ex.4.6(b)
4.15 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The low-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of a BJT is shown in Fig. 4.31. In this
equivalent circuit r represents the resistance offered by the base emitter junction to base current
and is called small signal base resistance. gmVBE represents the change in collector current as a
result of change in base emitter voltage.
Fig. 4.31 Low-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of BJT
dI C I
Transconductance gm = = C
dVBE VT
1 I I 
r = = C . BE =
 dI C  I B I C g m
 
 BE 
dV
High-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of BJT is shown in Fig. 4.32.
Fig. 4.32 High-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of BJT
The different elements of the equivalent circuit are as follows.

dI C I
Transconductance gm = = C
dVBE VT
1 
r = =
 dI  gm
 
 dVBE 
C = CB + CjE
CB = gmtB is the base charging capacitance which is the capacitance due to change in stored
charge in the base with change in VBE.
CjE is the capacitance of the emitter-base junction depletion layer.
−dQB I V
Cµ = =  tB . C = T CB
dVCE VT VA
Cµ represents the capacitance due to change in stored charge in the base with change in VCB.
rµ accounts for the change in base current due to VCB.
1 VA
ro = =
 dI C  IC
 
 dVCE 
ro is the common-emitter output resistance and VA. is the early voltage.
gmV v
T CB
V
0 A
is the change in base recombination current resulting from a change in VCB.
gmvBE is the change in collector current caused by a change in VBE.
rb - Ohmic (bulk) resistance of the base region.
It is also known as base spreading resistance.
re - Ohmic resistance of emitter region
rc - Ohmic resistance of collector region
4.16 FIGURE OF MERIT
Figure of merit (fT) is a measure of the high-frequency performance of a transistor an is given

by
fT = f = f
where  - common-base current gain

f - cut-off frequency in common-base configuration (-cutoff frequency)
 - common-emitter current gain
f - cut-off frequency in common-emitter configuration (-cutoff frequency)
f - is also equal to the unity gain frequency i.e., fT = f if |()| = 1.
The equivalent circuit of a high-frequency transistor may be modified as that in Fig. 4.33 by
neglecting r, rc, re, and rb.
Fig. 4.33 Circuit arrangement to evaluate figure of merit of a BJT
The short-circuit current gain () is determined as

Io
Ii
by placing a short-circuit at the
output.
Io = gmvbe
Vbe vbe [1 + j r (C + C )
Ii = =
  r
1 1 
 r 
+ jw ( C + C )
Io g m r
 = () =
Ii |1 + jwr (C + C ) |
At high-frequency the magnitude of the imaginary part is large
g m r
|()| =
 r (C + C )
gm
= (4.78)
[C + C ]
when f = fT |()| = 1;  = 2fT
gm
i.e., =1
2 fT (C + C )
gm
 fT = (4.79)
2 [C + C ]
Example 4.7 Consider a silicon p-n-p transistor operating at T = 300 K with IC = 1 mA, VEB =
0.7 V, VBC = 5 V. The device has  = 200, NDB = 1017 cm-3, NAC = 1016 cm-3, WB = 0.8 m, VA =
100 V, DPB = 10 cm2, NAE = 1018 cm-3, A = 10-5 cm2.
Determine gm, r, ro, CjE, CB, C, C and fT.
Solution
IC
gm =
VT
110−3
= = 38.46 10−3
0.026

r =
gm
200
= = 5.2 × 103 
38.46 10−3
V
ro = A
IC
100
= =105 
1 10−3
kT  N AE N D 
VEBo = ln  
q  ni2 
 1018  1017 
= 0.026ln  10 2 
= 0.877V
 (1.5 10 ) 
2  (VEBo − VEB )  1 1 
WEB =  + 
q  N AE N D 
2  8.854 10−14 11.8(0.877-0.7)  1 1 
= −19  18 + 17 
1.6 10  10 10 
= 5.04 × 10-6 cm
11.8  8.854  10−14  10−5

CjE =
5.04 10−6
= 20.72 × 10-13 F
WB2
tB =
2 Dp
(0.8  10−14 ) 2
= = 3.2  10-10 s
2  10
CB = gmtB
= 38.46  10-3  3.2  10-10
= 1.23  10-11 F
IC
C =tB.
VA
1 10−3
=3.2  10-10 
100
=3.2  10-15F
C = CB + CjE
=1.23  10-11 + 20.72  10-13
=1.437  l6-11 F
gm
fT =
2 [C + C ]
38.46  10−3
=
2 1.437  10 −11 + 3.2  10 −15 
= 4.258  108 Hz.
Equations Modified for npn BJT
InE
Emitter injection efficiency  =
InE + I pE
I pC
Base transport factor T =
I p C + I rB
Dn   WB   WB 
InE = qA   nE coth   −  pC cos ech  
Ln   Ln   Ln  
D pE  W 
IpE = qA   pE coth  E  
L pE  L
 pE  
Dn   WB   WB 
InC = qA   nE cos ech   −  pC coth  
Ln   Ln   Ln  
D pC  W 
IpC = - qA   pC coth  C  
L pC  L
 pC  
nE = nB0 ( eV EB /VT
− 1)
pE = pE0 ( eV EB /VT

− 1)
pC = pC0 ( eV CB /VT
−1 )
nC = pC0 ( eV CB /VT
− 1)
1
 =
N
1+  A  WWEB
D pE
Dn
N DC
1 1
T = = , if WB << Ln
cosh ( )WB
Ln 1+
1
( ) WB
Ln
2
2
1
 =
N A WB 1
( )
2
1+  
D pE WB
Dn
N D e WE 2 Ln
1
 =
N A WB 1
( )
2
1+  
D pE WB
Dn
N D e WE 2 Ln
2 L2n
=
WB2
qN A ( N DC + N A )WB2o
VPT =
2òN DC
2
W
tB = B
2 Dn
QB
IrB =
n
WB
QB = qAnE
2
 QB (0) 
ts = n ln  
 QB ( sat ) 
tf = 2.3 n
Solved Problems
Problem 4.1
Prove the following relations
 
a.  = , b. ,
1− 1+ 
c. IC = -IE + ICBO, d. IC = IB + (1+) ICBO,
e. IC = IB + ICEO
Solution
a. Alpha () of a transistor is defined as the forward short-circuit current gain in common-base
configuration.
− IC
= , VCB = 0
IE
( is positive for n-p-n and p-n-p transistors as IC and IE have opposite signs)
Beta () of a transistor is defined as the base to collector current amplification factor or the
common-emitter current gain.
IC
 =
IB
IE + IC + IB =0
or IB = −(IE + IC)
IC
 =
− I E − IC
Dividing numerator and denominator by -IE
IC
− IE
 =
1 + IICE

=
1−

b.  =
1−
 (1-) = 
 -  = 
 =  (1+)

or  =
1+ 
c. IC = - (IpC - ICBO)
when VCB = 0, ICBO = 0, IC = - IpC
− IC I pC
 = =
IE VCB = 0
IE
−( I C − I CBO )
=
IE
IE = - IC + ICBO
or IC = -IE + ICBO
d. IE = (IB + IC)
IC = -IE + ICBO
IC = (IB + IC) + ICBO
IC(1- ) = IB + ICBO
 1
 IC = IB + ICBO
1− 1−
 
= IB + (1+ )ICBO  1 = 1  = 1 +  
1 −  1 − 1+  
e. But (1 + ) ICBO = ICEO which is the reverse saturation current or leakage current between
collector and emitter with base terminal open.
 IC = IB + ICEO
Problem 4.2
The current components in a transistor are InE = 2.712 × 10-6 A, IpE = 0.678 mA, InC = 9.4 × l0-15
A and IpC = 0.6779 mA. Determine a. , b. T, c.  and d. ICBO.
Solution
I pE
InE + I pE
0.678 10−3
=
2.712  10−6 +0.678 10−3
= 0.996
I pC
T =
I pE
0.6779
= = 0.9998
0.678
 = T . 
= 0.9998 × 0.996
= 0.9958
 0.9958
 = = = 237
1− 1 − 0.9958
IC = -[IpC + InC]
ICBO = IC + IpC
= -[IpC + InC] + IpC
= -InC
= -9.4 × 10-15 A.
Problem 4.3
A symmetrical Si p+np+ Si BJT has the following parameters.
Emitter Base
-4 2
A = 10 cm NA = 1017 cm-3 ND = 1015 cm-3
WB = 1  m n = 0.1  s p = 10  s
p = 200 cm2 /Vs n = 1300 cm2 /Vs
n = 700 cm2 /Vs p = 450 cm2 /Vs
a. Calculate IES, ICS

b. Calculate IB when VEB = 0.4 V and VCB = -25 V.
Assume perfect injection efficiency.
Solution
ni2
pno =
ND
(1.5  1010 )
= =2.25 × 105 cm-3
1015
kT
DPB = . pB
q
= 0.026 × 450 = 11.7 cm2/s
Lp = Dp p
= 11.7 10 10−6
= 0.0108 cm
= 1.08  10-2 cm
( )
DpB WB
IES = ICS = qA pno coth L pB
LpB
11.7  10−4 
= 1.6  10-19  10-4  −2
 2.25  10 5
coth  −2 
1.08 10  1.08 10 
= 4.21  10-13 A
pE = pno ( eV /V − 1) ; pC  0
EB T
= 2.25  105 ( e0.4/0.026 − 1)

= 1.08  1012
Stored charge qAWB  p E
IB = =
Lifetime 2 p
1.6 10−19 10−4  1 10−4  1.08  1012
=
2 10 10−6
= 8.64  10-11 A.
Problem 4.4
A silicon n-p-n bipolar junction transistor has NDC = 1018 cm-3, NAB = 1015 cm-3 and WB = 1m.
Determine the following at 300 K.
a. The punch through voltage.
b. The average value of electric field at punch through.
c. How can punch through voltage be increased?
Solution
kT  N AB N DC 
a. VCBo = ln  
q  ni2 
 1015  1018 
= 0.026 ln  10 2 
= 0.757 V
 (1.5  10 ) 
At punch through, width of depletion layer at collector-base junction equals WB.
2ò(VCBo + VPT )  1 1 
WB =  + 
q  N AB N DC 
WB2  q
VCBo + VPT =
2ò ( 1
N AB + N1DC )
(110−4 )2 1.6 10−19
= = 6.884 V
2  8.854 10−14 11.8 ( 1
1015
+ 10118 )
VPT = 6.884 - 0.757
= 6.127V
VPT + VCBo
b. av =
WB
6.127 + 0.757
= = 6.884 × 104 V/cm
110−4
c. The punch through voltage can be increased by (1) increasing base doping, (2) increasing
base width, (3) reducing collector doping.
But increase in base doping will reduce injection efficiency and transport factor.
Increase in base width will reduce transport factor. Punch through voltage can also be increased
by reducing collector doping. This increases collector resistance.
Problem 4.5
A p-n-p transistor shown in Fig. Sp.4.5 has uniform doping in the emitter, base and collector
regions and are l019, l017 and l015/cm3 respectively. The minority carrier diffusion lengths are
LE = 5 m, Lp = 100 m. Assuming low-level injection conditions and using the law of
junctions, calculate the collector current density and base current density due to base
recombination (suitable approximations may be made). In all regions Dp = 8 cm2/s, Dn = 16
cm2/s, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3, kT/q = 26 mV, q = 1.6 ×10-19 C.
Solution
ni2
pBo =
ND
(1.5  1010 )
= =2.25 × 103
1017
pE = pBo ( eV EB /VT
− 1)
= 2.25 × 103 ( e0.78/0.026 − 1)
= 2.4 × 1016 cm-3
Fig. Sp.4.5
Collector current density,
dp  pE
JC = -qDp . = q.Dp .
dx WB
2.4  1016
= 1.6 10−19  8  = 61.44 A/cm2
5  10−4
Base current density due to recombination,
stored charge in the base

JB =
minority carrierlifetime in the base
Area of shaded triangle  q
=
p
p =
L2p
=
(100 10 ) −4 2
= 1.25 × 10 s
Dp 8
1
 pE .WB  q
 JB = 2
p
1
2  2.4 1016  5  10−4  1.6 10−19
=
1.25 10−5
= 76.8 mA/cm2
Problem 4.6
For a typical n-p-n transistor as shown in Fig. Sp.4.6, we have the following data available at
300 K.
a. WC = 20 m, collector doping = 5 × 1018 cm-3
b. WE = 1m, emitter doping = 1019 cm-3
c. base doping = 5 × 1015 cm-3
d. minority carrier lifetime in the base region nB = 0.5 s.
Fig. Sp.4.6
Under punch through condition, VBC = 10 V + Vo where V0 is the built-in potenital of the base
collector junction. Emitter junction efficiency can be assumed as 1 for this transistor. Evaluate
base width and current gain .
Solution
Given q = 1.6 × 10-19 C, DnB = 30 cm2 /s
ro = 10-12 F/cm, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3
kT  N A N D 
Vo = ln  
q  ni2 
 
5  1015  5  1018 
= 0.026 × ln  = 0.8408 V
 (1.5 10 ) 
210
 
LnB = DnB nB
= 30  0.5 10−6
= 30  0.5 10−6 = 3.872  10-3 cm
= 38.72 µm
Punch through occurs when depletion layer width equals base width.
2ò(Vo + VBr ( PT ) )
WB =
qN A
2 10−12 (0.8408 + 10)

= = 1.646  l0-4cm
1.6 10−19  5 1015
 LnB   3.872  10−3 
 = 2  = 2 −4 
=1106
 WB   1.646  10 

 =
1− 
1106
= = 0.99909
1106 + 1
Problem 4.7
The reverse saturation current of the collector-base junction (ICBO) of a BJT is found to be 10 nA
at low collector voltages. The low voltage current amplification factor () is 0.98. Find out the
change in collector current with its base open (ICEO) when the collector voltage is increased such
that  increases by 1%.
Solution
(ICBO) = 10n A ,  = 0.98
 0.98
 = = = 49
1 −  1 − 0.98
ICEO = (1+ ) ICBO = (1+49)10 = 500 nA
Let  be the change in .
 
100 = 1%  = 0.01
 
or  = 0.001 = 0.0098
' =  +  = 0.98 + 0.0098 = 0.9898
' 0.9898
' = = = 97
1 −  ' 1 − 0.9898
ICEO = (1+') ICBO = 98  10 = 980 nA
I CEO
% change in ICEO =  100
I CEO
980 − 500
= 100 = 96%
500
Problem 4.8
The emitter current of a p-n-p transistor with F = I is 1 mA, when the emitter-base junction is
forward-biased and collector is left-open. When the collector is shorted to the base, the current
rises to 100 mA. Calculate  and base width of the transistor assuming a minority carrier
diffusion length of 25 m in the base and the emitter injection efficiency to be unity.
Solution
Substituting IC = 0 (collector open) in Ebers Moll equation (equation (4.37)),
ICS e ( VCB /VT

) (
− 1 =  F I ES e
VEB /VT
)
−1
Substituting this in equation (4.36)

IE = -IES(1 - F1) e
V
(
− 1 = l mA EB /VT
) (4.88)
When collector is shorted to base, VCB = 0. Therefore from equation (4.36)
IE = -IES e(
V EB /VT
)
− 1 = 100 mA (4.89)
Equation (4.88)  by (4.89) gives
1
1 - F1 =
10
F = 1 Let F = 1 = 
1
 1-  =
100
 = 0.995
 0.995
= = = 199
1 −  1 − 0.995
2
 LN 
 = 2 
 WB 
2 L2 B
 WB =

2  (25 10−4 )2
= = 2.50 m
199
Problem 4.9
Explain a method to measure IES and ICBO of sa n-p-n transistor.
Solution
a. Measurement of IES
Plot the characteristics of the emitter-base junction using the setup shown in Fig.
(
Sp.4.9(a). In this configuration the current I = IES e
V EB /VT
)
− 1 . Determine the reverse saturation
current as explained in Section 3.5.3, which gives IES.
Fig. Sp. 4.9(a)
b. Measurement of ICBO
In the configuration shown in Fig.Sp.4.9(b) I - ICBO = e
V
( CB /VT
)
− 1 . Plot the forward characteristics
and determine the reverse saturation current.
Fig. Sp.4.9(b)
Problem 4.10
Show that the transport factor of a BJT is given approximately by
1
T =
 tB
1+
p
Solution
For a p-n-p transistor if InC is neglected; InC ~IC
Excess stored charge
IC =
transit time
qA pEWB
=
2 tB
stored charge
IrB =
life time
qA pE WB
=
2 tB
I pC I pC IC
T = = =
I pE I pC + I rB IC + I rB
1
=
I
1 + rB
IC
1
=
 tB
1+
p
Problem 4.11
A base current pulse of 250 A with a duration of 500 ns is used to turn ON a silicon p-n-p BJT
in the circuit in Fig. 4.26(a). Given VCC = -5.2 V, RC = 1 k, pB = 1 s, WB = 5 m, DpB = 10
cm2/s. Determine the following at 300 K. a. turn ON time b. storage time.
I B1 = −250 A
WB2
 tB =
2 D pB
By equation (4.73),
 
 
 1 
tON =  pB In  
1 −  VCC    tB
 

 I R  
  B1 C    pB 
 
 
= 10−6 In  
1
  5.2   1.25  10
−8

1 −  −6 3  −6 
  250  10  10   1 10  
= - 0.30 s
QB(sat) = IC(sat) tB
V −5.2
IC(sat) ; CC = 3 = −5.2mA
RC 10
QB(sat) = 5.2 × 10-3 × 1.25 × 10-8
= 6.5 × 10-11 C
From equation (4.69(a)),

QB(t= 500ns) = I B 1 pB (1 − e−t / PB )
−9
/10−6
= 250 × 10-6 × 10-6 (l - e −50010 )
= 9.84 × 10-11 C
Q (0) 
ts = pBIn  B
; where QB(0) = QB (t = 500 ns)
 QB ( sat ) 
 9.84  10−11 
= 10−6 ln  −11 
 6.5  10 
= 0.41 S.
Problem 4.12
Plot the energy band diagram and potential distribution of n-p-n transistor in active region.
Solution
Energy band diagram and potential distribution of n-p-n transistor in active region is as shown
in Fig. p.4.12 Note that the potential decreases as energy increases.
E
V=
( −q )
Fig. Sp.4.12 (a) Energy band diagram and (b) Potential distribution in n-p-n BJT in
forward active mode of operation
Problem 4.13
Plot the minority carrier distribution in the base region of p-n-p transistor with a forward bias
applied to the emitter-base junction under the following conditions:
a. Collector shorted to the base.
b. Collector shorted to the emitter.
c. Collector terminal is kept open.
All these configurations act as diodes. Which of these configurations as a diode gives best
performance?
Solution
Since, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased, holes are injected from emitter into the base
region.
a. When collector is shorted to the base, VBE = 0 and pC = 0. The concentration plot is
shown in Fig. Sp.4.13(a).
b. When the collector is shorted to the emitter, both the junctions are forward-biased by same
voltage. Therefore equal amount of excess holes are injected from both collector and emitter to
the base region (pE = pC). The holes recombine in the base resulting in a dip in the
concentration at the centre of the base as shown in Fig. Sp.4.13(b).
c. When collector terminal is kept open, Ic = 0. Therefore from Ebers Moll equation, it can
be shown that VCB becomes positive. So the collector-base junction gets a forward-bias, but VCB
is lower than VEB. The collector-base junction does not collect or inject holes so that the slope of
hole profile is zero at the junction. The hole distribution is shown in Fig. Sp.4.13(c).
Configuration (a) gives the best diode as the stored charge is minimum.
Fig. Sp. 4.13 Minority carrier distribution in the base of p-n-p transistor
Problem 4.14
V
Prove that VBrCEO = BrCBO
F
Solution
Ic = -FIE + ICBO
If carrier multiplication in the collector region is taken into account
IC = M(-FIE +ICBO) (4.90)
where avalanche multiplication factor M is given by
1
M= n
 V 
1−  
 VBr 
Breakdown voltage in common-base configuration is VBrCBO
1
M = n
(4.91)
 V 
1−  
 VBrCBO 
VBrCBO is the breakdown voltage of collector-base junction with emitter open (IE = 0).
 IC = MICBO by equation (4.90)
For common emitter configuration breakdown voltage is VBrCEO

Replacing IE with -(IC + IB) m equation (4.90)
IC = M [F (IC + IB) + ICBO]
M ( F I B + I CBO )
IC = (4.92)
1 − MF
since VBrCEO is breakdown voltage with base open (IB = 0) equation (4.92) becomes
MI CBO
IC =
1 − MF
Breakdown takes place when M  F = 1
1
or M=
F
Substituting this in equation (4.90) and assuming VCB ~ VCE(Q VCB = VCE- VBE ~ VCE) and
designating this voltage at breakdown as VBrCEO,
1 1
=
F V 
n
1 −  BrCEO 
 VBrCBO 
1
F = n
V 
1 −  BrCEO 
 VBrCBO 
VBrCEO
= (1 −  F )
1/ n
VBrCBO
1
=
( ) F
1/ n
VBrCBO
or VBrCEO =
( F )
1/ n
Problem 4.15
A PNP silicon BJT has NAE = 1018 cm-3, NAC= 1015 cm-3, NDB =1016 cm-3 the metallurgical base
with =1.0 m and A = 3mm2. For VEB = 00.5V and VCB = -5V, determine at T = 300 K, the
effective width of the neutral base.
WBeff = W metallurgical - deplition layer width

= Wm - (XBEn + XBCn)
N AE
XBEn = XBE
N AE + N DB
(
2ò VEB0 − VEB  1
+
1  )
WBE =  
q  N AE N DB 
kT N AE N DB
VEB0 = ln
q ni2
1018  1016
= 0.026 In = 0.817V
(1.5  1010 ) 2
WBE = 2.044 × 10-5 cm = 0.204 m
1018
X BEn = 2.044  10−5  18 = 0.202  m
10 + 1016
(
2ò VCB0 − VCB  1
+
1  )
WBC =  
q  N AC N DB 
10  10
15 16
VCB0 = 0.026 ln = 0.637V

(1.5  10 )
10 2
 11.8(0.637 + 5)  1 1 
−14
2  8.854  10
WBC =
−19  1015 + 
1.6  10  
16
10
-4
= 2.845 x 10 cm
N AC
XBCn = WBC
N AC + N DB
15
−4 10 −5
= 2.845  10  = 2.586  10 cm
10 + 10
15 16
= 0.259 m
Weff = 1 - (0.202 + 0.259) = 0.539m
Problem 4.16
A silicon npn BJT has pB = 1s and pB = 440 cm2/Vs. Determine WB so that the transport
factor is 0.995 at T = 300 K. Assume WB/Lp << 1.
Solution
By equation (4.32),
1
T =
1  WB 
2
1+  
2  LP 
Dp kT
=
 pB q
Dp = 0.026 × 440 = 11.44cm2/s
Lp = Dp p
−6 −3
= 11.44  1  10 = 3.38  10 cm
1
0.995 =
1 
2
WB
1+  −3 
2  3.38  10 
WB = 3.38 x 10-4 cm = 3.38m
Problem 4.17
An npn BJT has NAB = 5 x 1016 cm-3, WB = 1m, A = 10-3 mm2 and life time of minority carriers
in all three regions is 0.1 s. For operation in the active region and at T = 300 K, determine IC
for VBE = 0.5 V. n = 1000 cm2/Vs.
Solution
By equation (4.26), neglecting eVCB / VT term in the active region for npn transistor,
 WB  V
( )
2
Dn ni
IC = qA cos ech   e
EB / VT
−1
Ln N A  Ln 
Assume ni = 1.5  1010cm-3
Dn kT
=
n q
Dn = 0.026 1000 = 26cm2 /s
Dn n =
−6 −3
Ln = 26  0.1  10 = 1.61  10 cm
26
IC = 1.6  10-19 10-310-2
1.6110−3
(1.5  1010 ) 2  1  10−4  0.5/00.026
−3  (
 cos ech  e − 1)
5  1016  1.61  10 
= 2.4110-5 = 0.241A
Problem 4.18
An npn BJT has NDE = 5  1017 cm-3, NAB = 1016 cm-3, WB = 5 m, WE = 2.25  10-3cm. If pE =
200cm2/Vs and nB = 1250 cm2/Vs, determine F at T = 300K for (a) nB = 1 s (b) nB = 10s.
Solution
By equation (4.35), for npn transistor
1
F = 2
N AB DPE WB 1  Wn 
+  
N DE DnB WE 2  Ln 
Dn B kT
= = 0.026
n B q
kT
Dn B = n B
q
=1250  0.026 = 32.5cm2/s
kT
DPE = n E
q
= 200  0.026 =5.2 cm2/s
(a)
nB = 1s
LnB = Dn B n B
= 32.5  1  10−6 = 5.7 x 10−3 cm

1
F = 2
10 16
5.2 5  10−4 1  5  10−4 
  +  
5  1017 32.5 2.25  10−3 2  5.7  10−3 
= 219.7
(b) nB = 10s
LnB = 32.5  10  10−6 = 18.02 x 10−3
1
F = 2
10 16
5.2 5  10−4 1  5  10−4 
  +  
5  1017 32.5 2.25  10−3 2  18.02  10−3 
= 912.45
Problem 4.19
A silicon npn BJT has NAB = 1017 cm-3, NDC = 1016 cm-3 and WB0 = 0.25 m.
Determine at T = 300 K,
(a) the punch through voltage
(b) the average value of electric field intensity at punch through.
Solution
By equation (4.48), for npn transistor
qN A ( N DC + N A )WB20
VPT =
2òN DC
1.6  10−19  1017 (1016 + 1017 ) ( 0.25  10−4 )
2
=
2  8.854  10−14  11.8  1016
= 52.64 V
VPT
(b)Electric field  =
WB0
52.64
=
0.25  10−4
= 2.10x106V/cm
Problem 4.20
An npn silicon BJT at T = 300 K has heavy collector doping and NA = 1016 cm-3.
Given WB = 1.0 m. Determine
(a) the breakdown voltage for active operation in the common-base mode. The breakdown field
in silicon is 3 x 105 V/cm.
(b) The punch through voltage.
Solution
By equation (3.89)
òEcrit
2
VBrCBO =
2qN A
8.854  1014  11.8  ( 3  105 )

2
=
2  1.6  1019  1016
= 29.38 V
By equation (4.8)
qN AWB20
VPT=
2ò
For npn BJT with NDC >> NAB
1.6  10−19  1016  (1 x 10−4 )
2
VPT=
2  8.854  10−14  11.8
= 7.65 V
Problem 4.21
For a silicon pnp transistor operating at T = 300 K and at IC = 1 mA, VEB = 0.7 V and VBC = 5
V. The device has 0 = 200, NDB = 1017 cm-3, NAC = 1016 cm-3,WB = 0.8 m, VA = 100 V and
DPB = 10 cm2/s. Determine (a) gm (b) , (c) 0.
Solution
(a)
IC 10−3
= =
VT 0.026 38.46 10 A/V
= -3
gm
 200
 = g = 38.46  10−3 = 5.2 103 = 5.2k
0
(b)
m
V 100
0= I = 10−3 = 105
A
(c)
C
Problem 4.22
A GaAs pnp BJT has NAE = 1020 cm-3, NDB = 1016 cm-3, DpB = 30 cm2/s, p = 10s, A = 10-3 cm2
and WB = 12 m. At T = 300 K and for IC = 2 mA in the active region. Determine
(a) the base storage capacitance, CB
(b) the emitter junction capacitance
(c) if o = 100 and C = 0.25 pF determine r, and fT(ni, = 2  106 cm-3)
Solution
2  10−3
I
gm = C = = 76.92  10−3 A / V
VT 0.026
(a) CB = gm tB
I 2 10−3
gm = C = = 76.92 10−3 A / V
VT 0.026
W 2 (12  10−4 )
 tB = B = = 2.4  10−8 s
2Dp 2  30
= 24 ns
-3 -8
CB = 76.92 × 10 × 2.4 × 10
= 184.6 × 10-11 F = 1.853nF
òA
(b) CjE =
WBE
WBE =
(
2ò VBE0 − VBE )
qN DB
kT N A N D
VBE0 = ln
q ni2
1020 1016
= 0.026 ln = 1.4V
(2 106 ) 2
From equation (4.25) neglecting eV CB /VT
term
qADp po
IC = eqVEB / kT
WB
n i2 (2 106 ) 2
po = = = 4 10−4 cm−3
N DB 1016
1.6  10−19  10−3  30  4  10−4 VEB /VT
2 10-3 = e
12 10−4
VEB = 1.08V
2  8.854  10−14 13.1  (1.4 − 1.08 )16
WBE =
1.6  10−19  1016
= 2.15  10-5 cm
8.854  10−14  13.1 10−3

CjE =
2.15  10−5
=5.38  10-11
= 53.8 pF
 100
(c) r = = = 1.3  103 = 1.3k 
gm 76.92  10−3
1
fT =
2 (C + C  )
C = 5.38  10-11 + 184.6  10-11
=1.899  10-9 = 1.89 nF
1
fT =
2 (1.89 x 10 + 0.25 10 −12 )
−9
= 83.7MHz
Problem 4.23
A base current pulse of 250 A with a duration of 300 ns is used to turn ON a silicon pnp BJT
in the circuit of Figure 4.26(a). Given VCC = 5.2 V, RC = 1 K, p = 1 s,WB = 5 m and Dp =
10 cm2/s, determine at T = 300 K; (a) turn ON time (b) storage time.
Solution
VCC − VCEsat
(a) In equation (4.73), substituting I Csat =
RC
1
tON =  p ln
 V − VCEsat 
1 −  CC  tB /  p
 I B RC 
WB2
 tB =
2Dp
=
( 5 x 10 )
−4 2
= 1.25 10-8s
2  10
1
tON = 10-6 In −8
 50  1.25  10
1 −  50  10−6  1 103  −5
 2  10
= 0.3 10−6 s = 0.3 s
(b) By equation (4.76),

QB (0)
tsd = pIn
QB sat
QBsat = IC sat t B
5.0
= 1.25 10−8 = 6.25 10−11 C
1103
− t /
QB(t) = I B p [1 − e ] p
QB(0) = QB (t = 300 ns)

 
−9
−30010
−6 −6
= 250  10  10 1 − e 10
−6

 
= 6.47  10-11 C
6.47  10−11
tsd = 10-6  In
6.25  10−11
= 34.59  10-9 s
= 34.6ns
▪ Points to Remember
All the defenitions and expressions given below are for p-n-p transistors.
• Emitter injection efficiency (  ) is the ratio of emitter current due to injection from
emitter to base to the total emitter current
I pE
=
IE
• Base transport factor ( T ) is the effectiveness of base in transporting charge carriers
through the base to collector, which are injected from the emitter
I pC
T =
I pE
• In BJT, emitter region is heavily doped, base is moderately doped and collector region
is lightly doped.
• The currents in BJT mainly depend on the minority carrier distribution in the base
region. The expressions for terminal currents and other important parameters of a pnp,
BJT are as follows.
Dp  W  W 
I pE = qA   pE Coth  B  −  pC cosech  B  
L p  L
 p   Lp  
Dp  W  W 
I pC = qA   pE Co sec h  B  −  pC cot h  B  
L p  L
 p   Lp  
DnE W 
I nE = qA  nE coth  E 
LnE  Ln E 
DnC W 
I nC = −qA  nC coth  C 
LnC  LnC 
IE = IpE + InE
IC = IpC + InC ; IB = -(IE + IC)
1
=
DnE N D WB
1+  
D p N AE WE
1
T =
W 
cosh  B 
L
 p 
1
for WB<< Lp, T = 2
1 W 
1+  B 
2  L p 
1
Common-base current gain, T ; 2
DE N W 1 W 
1+ n  D  B +  B 
D p N AE WE 2  Lp 
2 L2p
Common-emitter current gain,  ;
WB2
• Ebers Moll equations
( ) (
I E = −  I ES eVEB /VT − 1 − 1 I ES eVEB /VT − 1  )
I C = −  I ES (e
VCB /VT
− 1) −  I
F ES (eVEB /VT
− 1) 
 F I ES =  I ICS
I EBO
I ES =
1 −  F 1
I CBO
I CS =
1 −  F 1
• Punch through occurs when depletion layer width towards the base equals the base width.
qN D ( N AC + N D )WBO
2
VpT=
2 N AC
VBrCBO
VBrCEO=
(1 +  )
1/ n
WB2
 tB =
2Dp
QB
I rB =
p
QB
IC =
 tB
qA pEWB
QB =
2
dQB QB
By charge control analysis, iB = +
dt p
Turn-ON time of a BJT switch
 
 
 1 
tON =  p ln  
1 −  I C ( sat )    t  
 
  I  
  B1   p 
Turn-OFF time tOFF = ts + tf
 QB (0) 
ts =  p ln  
 QB ( sat ) 
tf = 2.3  p
Transconductance of BJT
Ic
gm =
VT

 =
gm
CB = gm tB
C = CB + C jE
−dQB VT
C = = CB
dVCB VA
Figure of merit (fT) =  f =  f 
gm
=
2 [C + C ]
▪ Exercise Problems
(1) Plot the current components in an n-p-n bipolar junction transistor and explain.
(2) The following parameters are given for an n-p-n transistor. InE = -5 mA, IpE = -0.01 mA, InC=
-4.99 mA, IpC= -0.001 mA. Determine T, , ,IB, IC and IE.
Ans: 0.998, 0.998, 0.996, 249, 0.019 mA, 4.991 mA, -5.01 mA.
(3) A symmetrical germanium p-n-p transistor with a diameter of 1mm for emitter-base and
collector-base junctions has the following specifications.
NDB = 5  1015 cm-3, NAC = NAE = 1019 cm-3
WB = 10m, pB = 4 s, nE = 10-8 s,
2
DpB == 47 cm /s, DnE = 52 cm2/s.
Determine  and  of the transistor, assuming that WE >> LnE
Ans: 0.9965, 285.
(4) Draw the energy band diagram of an n-p-n transistor at equilibrium and inverse active mode
of operation.
(5) A symmetrical silicon p-n-p BJT has NAE = 1018 cm-3, NDB = 5  1016 cm-3, WB = 2 m, pB
= 1 s, DpB = 12 cm2/s, A = 0.01 cm2 and is operating in the active region. For VEB = 0.65 V
and VCB = -3 V, determine at 300 K (a) IC (b) p.
Ans: 600, 31.1 mA.
(6) Explain an experimental setup to plot  as a function of IC. What is the expected shape?
Why?
(7) Given a silicon BJT in forward active mode of operation at 300 K with NDE = 1019 cm-3, NAB
= 1014 cm-3, DnB = 10 cm2/s, WB = 4 m, nB = 2 s. Find JE if VEB = -0.5 V.
Ans: 250. 2.02 A/cm2.
(8) A p-n-p silicon BJT has ND = 1015 cm-3 on the base and the collector is heavily doped.
Determine the base width if the avalanche breakdown voltage VBrCBO equals the punch
through voltage. Assume crit = 3  105 V/cm. What will be VBrCEO it  = 150 and n = 4.
Ans: 19.59 m, 83.82 V.
(9) A Ge alloyed p-n-p transistor has IES = -2A, ICS = -3 A and  = 0.95. The transistor is
connected to a 5 V battery in series with a 1 K resistor such that positive of the battery is
connected to the emitter, the negative to the collector, and the base is open circuited.
Calculate fhe current through the circuit and voltage drop across each of the two junctions.
Ans: 23.9 A, 64.38 mV, 4.91 V.
(10) A base current pulse of 100 A. and width 500 ns is applied to the base of a switching
transistor shown in Fig. EP.4.10.
Fig. EP.4.10
Given pB = 1 s, WB =5 m, Dp = 6 cm2/s. Determine tON,ts and QB(sat). Plot QB(t) and IC(t).
Ans: 0.53 s, 0.868 s, 4.166  10-11 C.
▪ Review Questions
(1) Why is it not possible to use two p-n junctions connected as in Fig. 4.1(b) as a transistor?
(2) Explain the fabrication sequence of a monolithic BJT.
(3) What is the role of buried layer in BJT?
(4) What are the different modes of operation of a BJT?
(5) Draw the current components in BJT.
(6) List the current components in a BJT. How are they related to the terminal currents?
(7) Define injection efficiency and transport factor of a BJT. How are they related to  and ?
(8) What are the doping and dimensional requirements of emitter, base and collector regions of
a BJT?
(9) Draw a typical doping profile in BJT and explain its significance.
(10) Draw the energy band diagram of an n-p-n transistor with uniform doping in all regions
under (a) equilibrium (b) forward active (c) saturation and (d) cutoff.
(11) Plot the minority carrier distribution in a pnp BJT in different regions and label it properly.
(12) What are the approximations made in the derivation of terminal currents of BJT?
(13)Derive expression for IC, IE and IB of a n-p-n BJT.
(14) Derive expressions for T, ,  and  of an n-p-n BJT.
(15) Draw Ebers Moll model of pnp BJT and write the Ebers Moll equations. Explain the terms
involved.
(16) Describe an experimental procedure to measure ICS and IES of a BJT.
(17) How will you experimentally determine ICBO and ICEO of a BJT.
(18) Show that FIES = IICS
(19) Derive relationship between ICS and ICBO.
(20) Derive relationship between IES and IEBO
(21) Plot the minority carrier distribution in n-p-n BJT in (a) forward active mode (b) saturation
mode (c) cutoff mode and (d) inverse active mode.
(22) List the non-idealities in a BJT.
(23) Draw Gummel plot and explain.
(24) Explain effect of non-uniform doping in the base region of BJT.
(25) What is early effect? What are its effects on IC, IB, IE,  and  of a transistor?
(26) What is meant by punch through in a BJT? How is it avoided?
(27) What is meant by emitter crowding?
(28) What is Kirk effect?
(29) Plot the input and output characteristics of a p-n-p transistor in common-base configuration
and explain. Mark different regions of operation.
(30) Plot the input and output characteristics of a pnp transistor in common-emitter
configuration and explain. What are the effects of base width modulation as seen in the
characteristics?
(31) Explain early effect. What is early voltage?
(32) Explain how a transistor works as a current amplifier.
(33) What is the difference between transit time and lifetime with respect to base region of a
BJT? Derive expression for transit time.
(34) Derive charge control equations for I BF , I CF and I EF .
(35) Derive expression for turn-ON time of transistor switch in Fig. 4.27.
(36) What are the factors which determine the tum-OFF time of a transistor switch?
(37) Derive expression for storage delay of a pnp transistor switch.
(38) Draw the low-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of BJT and explain.
(39) Draw the high-frequency small signal equivalent circuit of a BJT and explain different
parameters.
(40) Define figure of merit of a BJT. Derive an expression for the same.
(41) What are the short comings of Ebers Moll model? How are these overcome in Gummel
poon model of BJT?

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4 Bipolar Junction Transistors

B (b) Representation of p-n-p

(c) A long base transistor

Fig. 4.2 Fabrication sequence of monolithic BJT

4.3 CURRENT COMPONENTS

The following are the major components of current:

4.4 TERMINAL CURRENTS

Fig. 4.4 Circuit symbol of BJT

4.5 BASIC PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Base Transport Factor

For a good transistor (dc) and ( (ac) must be close to unity.

Current leaving collector region

 is maximum when  is maximum (close to unity),  and  of a BJT can be maximised by

(b) Physical position of emitter base and collector

Fig. 4.5 Practical doping profile of BJT

4.6 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

Fig. 4.6 Energy band diagrams of p-n-p BJT

4.7 MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION

Similar to equations (3.26) and (3.27),

4.8 DERIVATION OF TERMINAL CURRENTS

Solution to this equation is of the form

p(x) = C1e-x/Lp + C2 ex/Lp (4.12)

Referring to Fig. 4.7, the boundary conditions are

Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.12)

[Equation (4.13) × e−W B / Lp

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation (4.12)

The hole diffusion current in the base

IB = -(IC + IE) (4.27)

and WE << LE coth ( ) WE

In the active region of operation pC  0

For WB << Lp, equation (4.31) becomes

The multiplication factor M is given by

where n varies between 2 and 7.

Substituting for  we get

Emitter Base Collector

mobility p= 350 cm2/Vs n = 1250 cm2/Vs p= 450

Emitter Base Collector

× 104cm-3 = 22.5 × 105cm-3

nE = nBo ( eV BE /VT

For an n-p-n transistor equation (4.15) modifies to

4.9 CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OF TRANSISTOR

4.10 THE EBERS MOLL MODEL

Fig. 4.9 Ebers Moll Model of a p-n-p BJT

Fig. 4.10 Set-up to measure IES and F

Fig. 4.11 Set-up to measure ICS and I

ICS is the reverse saturation current of collector-base junction.

Fig. 4.12 Set-up to measure IEBO

Emitter Base Collector

Using equations (4.25) and (4.26)

= 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 10-4 × 2.25 × 1020

4.11 REGIONS OF OPERATION AND MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 4.13 Minority carrier distribution of a p-n-p transistor

4.12 REAL TRANSISTOR

4.12.1 Carrier Recombination in the Emitter-Base Depletion Layer

where, XEB - depletion layer width of emitter-base junction.

Fig. 4.14 Gummel plot

4.12.2 Drift in the Base Region

 Built-in electric field

4.12.3 Effect of Bias to Collector-Base Junction (Early Effect)