RADFORD (Resumen)

In traditional grammar, words are assigned to grammatical categories (called parts of
speech) on the basis of their semantic properties (i.e. meaning), morphological properties
and syntactic properties: a set of words which belong to the same category thus have a
number of semantic, morphological and syntactic properties in common.
There are traditionally said to be two different types of word:

● content words/contentives :words which have substantive lexical content → often (though not
always) have antonyms (i.e. ‘opposites’)
● function words/functors: words which essentially serve to mark grammatical
properties
Corresponding to these two different types of (content and function) word are two different
kinds of grammatical category:
● lexical/substantive categories :categories whose members are content words
● functional categories :categories whose members are function words
The main lexical/substantive categories found in English are: noun, verb, adjective,
adverb and preposition.
1. Nouns (N) are traditionally said to have the semantic property that they denote
entities. There are a number of distinct subtypes of noun:
● a count noun in that it can be counted. Generally have the morphological property
that they have two different forms:
○ a singular form used to denote a single entity
○ a plural form used to denote more than one entity
● a mass noun in that it denotes an uncountable mass
● a common noun.They have the syntactic property that only (an appropriate kind of)
can be used to end a sentence.
● a proper noun
2. Verbs (V) are traditionally said to have the semantic property that they denote actions
or events.
From a syntactic point of view, verbs have the property that only an appropriate kind
of verb (in its uninflected infinitive form) can be used to complete a sentence.
From a morphological point of view, regular verbs have the property that they have
four distinct forms: alongside the bare (i.e. uninflected) form we find the present
tense, the past tense/perfect participle/passive participle and the progressive
participle.
3. Adjectives (A) are traditionally said to have the semantic property of denoting states
or attributes. They have the syntactic property that they can occur after be and the
further syntactic property that (if they denote a gradable property: property that they
have comparative forms ending in -er and superlative forms ending in -est, which can
exist in varying degrees) they can be modified by a degree word like very, etc.
4. Adverbs (ADV) often have the semantic property that they denote the manner in
which an action is performed. Regular adverbs have the morphological property that
they are formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffix -ly. A syntactic property
of adverbs is that is the only kind of word which could be used to end sentences.
5. Prepositions (P) have the semantic property of marking location. They have the
syntactic property that can be modified by right in the sense of ‘completely’, or by
straight in the sense of ‘directly’. Prepositions have the morphological property that
they are invariable/uninflected forms.
In addition to the five lexical/substantive categories identified above, English also has a
number of functional categories:
1. Determiner (D) include the definite article the and the demonstrative determiners:
this, that, these, those. They determine specific semantic properties of the noun
expression that they introduce.
2. Quantifier (Q) denoting expressions of quantity, such as: some, all, no, any, each,
every, most, much,many. (We shall also take the indefinite article a to be a quantifier:
one, which quantifies over a single entity.)
3. Pronouns (PRN) are items which are said to ‘stand in place of’ (the meaning of the
prefix pro-) or ‘refer back to’ noun expressions. There are different types such as:
pronominal noun (N-pronoun), pronominal quantifier (Q-pronoun) and pronominal
determiner (D-pronoun). Some linguists have argued that so-called personal
pronouns like I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it, they, them are also D-
pronouns. Because there are a number of different types of pronouns, some linguists
prefer to refer to them by using the more general term proform.
4. Auxiliary (verb) have the semantic property of marking grammatical properties such
as tense, aspect, voice or mood. They have the syntactic property that (unlike
lexical/main verbs) they can be inverted with their subject in questions.
5. Conjunctions or Complementiser (C) are functors in the sense that they encode
particular sets of grammatical properties. For example encode (non)finiteness by
virtue of the fact that they are intrinsically finite or nonfinite. More specifically:
○ that and if are inherently finite in the sense that they can only be used to
introduce a finite clause (i.e. a clause containing a present or past tense
auxiliary or verb
○ for is an inherently infinitival complementiser, and so can be used to introduce
a clause containing infinitival to
○ that introduces a declarative clause (i.e. one which has the force of a
statement)
○ if introduces an interrogative clause (i.e. one which has the force of a
question)
○ for introduces an irrealis clause (i.e. one relating to a hypothetical event
So we can say that is a finite declarative complementiser, if is a finite interrogative

complementiser, and for is an infinitival irrealis complementiser.
Using the set of syntactic categories outlined above, we can employ the traditional labelled
bracketing technique to categorise words (i.e. assign them to grammatical categories) in a
way which describes how they are being used in a particular sentence.
When traditional grammarians analyse the syntax of sentences, they begin by assigning
each of the words in the sentence to a grammatical category which describes how it is being
used in the sentence concerned. Grammatical differences between individual words
belonging to the same category are traditionally described in terms of sets of grammatical
features, and these features (by convention) are enclosed in square brackets.

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RADFORD (Resumen)

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In traditional grammar, words are assigned to grammatical categories (called parts of

There are traditionally said to be two different types of word:

So we can say that is a finite declarative complementiser, if is a finite interrogative

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