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"ETH "ROWN
 A Guide to
Programming in Java™
Second Edition
for Java™ SE 5 and Java™ SE 6

Beth Brown
 Preface

W e have strived to make this edition the clearest and most compre-
hensive Java text available. Our primary objective in this text is to present
material in clear language with easy to follow examples. To meet this
objective, we use our teaching experiences as well as the feedback, com-
ments, and suggestions from other experienced instructors to determine
how best to present programming concepts.
For the best classroom experience for both the student and the instructor,
our comprehensive text book includes hands-on reviews, critical-thinking
questions, and exercises of varying difficulty levels. Additionally, our
Teacher Resource Materials correlate directly to the text book and offer
teaching hints for explaining difficult concepts, additional lessons and
exercises, and a comprehensive question bank for creating tests, quizzes,
and reviews. The Teacher Resource Materials include the applications,
Case Studies, and vocabulary from the text book, as well as answers to
all the reviews and exercises.
It is our belief that learning to program offers the student an invaluable
opportunity to develop problem-solving skills. The process of defining a
problem, breaking it down into a series of smaller problems, and finally
writing an application to solve it exercises a student’s logical abilities.
Additionally, the student is made aware of the capabilities and limita-
tions of a computer and soon realizes that the programmer—the human
element—is more important than the machine.
A Guide to Programming in Java, Second Edition, is written for a one-term
or two-term course. No previous programming experience is required or
assumed. It is our goal that this text provide students the best possible
introduction to programming using Java and to prepare them for further
study in the IT/programming/computer science field.

Preface iii
 Design and Features
Programming Concepts This text emphasizes the fundamental concepts
of programming so that this knowledge can be applied to other program-
ming languages.
Problem Solving From the very beginning, students are taught to imple-
ment programming solutions with proper algorithm design and code
conventions.
Programming Style Throughout the text, proper programming style
is emphasized so that students can make their applications easy to read,
modify, and debug.
Demonstration Applications and Runs Many demonstration applica-
tions are included, complete with sample runs, so that students are shown
both proper programming techniques and the output actually produced
by an application.
Reviews Numerous reviews are presented throughout each chapter to
provide immediate reinforcement of newly learned concepts. Solutions to
the reviews are included on the Teacher Resource Materials CD.
Case Studies Most chapters end by stating a problem, developing an
appropriate algorithm, and then implementing the solution. The process
of specification, design, implementation, and debugging and testing is
clearly outlined.
Chapter Summaries Each chapter ends by summarizing the concepts
and statements covered in the chapter.
Vocabulary Sections Each chapter contains a vocabulary section that
defines new terms. A separate section lists Java keywords, statements,
and classes.
Critical Thinking Written response questions that require critical think-
ing from the student are included at the end of each chapter.
Exercises Each chapter includes a large set of exercises of varying diffi-
culty, making them appropriate for students with a range of abilities. Most
exercises include a demonstration run to help make clear what output is
expected from the student’s application. Exercises based on previous work
are marked with a ö symbol. Answers to the exercises are included on
the Teacher Resource Materials CD.
Indexes In addition to a standard index, an index of the applications
presented in the text is also included.
Appendices A chart of Unicode symbols is included. Also included is
instruction for using JCreator, the Java compiler included with this text.
Student CD A CD with everything students need to do their assign-
ments from home, including JCreator Pro, programs from the text, and
data files.
Online Resources Materials that complement and extend this text are
free for download and distribution in your class. Supplements also cover
operating systems, personal finances, the Web, and keyboarding skills.
Students can download all the files needed to complete the reviews and
exercises from www.Lpdatafiles.com.

iv A Guide to Programming in Java

Teacher Resource Materials
Our Teacher Resource Materials correlate directly to the text book and
provide all the additional materials required to offer students an excel-
lent computer programming course. The Teacher Resource Materials
feature:
• START_HERE.htm Help files and a guide for using the text and
resource materials.
• Lesson Plans Lessons keyed to the chapters in the text. Each les-
son includes schedules, expectations, instructional strategies, and
teaching notes.
• Tutorials Flash movie files that provide animations to illustrate
searching and sorting concepts. Each movie is keyed to the text.
• PowerPoint Slides Topics from the text are in PowerPoint slides
for presentation.
• Vocabulary Word files of the vocabulary presented in the text.
• Rubrics Rubrics keyed to exercises in the text for assessment.
• Worksheets Programming assignments that supplement the
exercises in the text provide additional reinforcement of concepts
and introduce new topics.
• Critical Thinking Answers Answers for the critical thinking
questions presented in the text.
• Data files All the files the student needs to complete the reviews
and exercises in the text, as well as the files needed to complete
the tests.
• ExamView® Software Question banks keyed to the text and the
popular ExamView® software are included to create tests, quizzes,
and additional assessment materials.
• Answer files Answers to the reviews, exercises, worksheets, and
tests.

Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the many instructors who used this text in their
classroom as it was being written. I would especially like to thank the
following instructors for their many comments and suggestions:
Paul Massey Hanna-Westside Extension Campus
Edward Sapienza Peabody Veterans Memorial High School
Timothy Strohm Churchville-Chili Senior High School
Jackie Kyger Marine Military Academy
Jan Marrelli, a Lawrenceville Press author and editor, has contributed
much to this text. She has used this text as it was being written in her
classroom. The many comments and suggestions from her and her stu-
dents have helped to make this text so clearly written. Jan, an experienced
instructor, has also written many of the critical thinking questions, exer-
cises, and reviews.

Preface v
 Elaine Malfas, senior technical editor at Lawrenceville Press, has pro-
duced the format and layout for this text. The many illustrations have been
created by Elaine as well.
Thanks also to Joseph Dupree in our Customer Relations Department
for some of the original drawings included in this text.
The success of this and all of our texts is due to the efforts of Heidi
Crane, Vice President of Marketing at Lawrenceville Press. Joseph Dupree
runs our Customer Relations Department and handles the thousands
of orders we receive in a friendly and efficient manner. Michael Porter
is responsible for the excellent service Lawrenceville Press offers in the
shipping of orders.

About the Author

Beth A. Brown, a Computer Science graduate of Florida Atlantic
University, is director of development at Lawrenceville Press where she
has coauthored more than thirty programming and applications texts and
their accompanying Teacher Resource Materials. She has taught computer
applications and programming at the high school level.

vi A Guide to Programming in Java

Chapter Expectations

Chapter 1 – An Introduction to Chapter 3 – Introducing Java

Computers After completing Chapter 3, students
After completing Chapter 1, students will be able to:
will be able to: 1. Define terminology associated with object-
1. Compare and contrast various input, output, oriented programming.
and storage devices. 2. Explain why Java is a widely used
2. Identify hardware components and explain programming language.
their function. 3. Create Java applications.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of operating systems. 4. Describe the process involved in executing a
4. Discuss different computer classifications and Java application.
compatibility issues. 5. Display and format program output.
5. Differentiate among the levels of programming 6. Annotate code properly with comments,
languages. formatting, and indentation.
6. Describe communication and networking 7. Explain the importance of using code
components. conventions.
7. Understand the binary number system. 8. Demonstrate algorithm design as a problem-
8. Describe how data is stored in memory and in solving strategy.
files. 9. Use visual organizers to design solutions.
9. Use Internet services to access information and
share resources. Chapter 4 – Variables and Constants
10. Demonstrate proper etiquette and knowledge After completing Chapter 4, students
of acceptable use policies when using a will be able to:
network. 1. Declare and initialize variables and constants
11. Discuss social and ethical issues associated using the appropriate data type.
with computer use. 2. Choose legal identifiers that follow good
programming style.
Chapter 2 – Applets and Web 3. Differentiate between primitive and abstract
Programming data types.
After completing Chapter 2, students 4. Explain how to access Java packages.
will be able to: 5. Demonstrate how to read data from an input
1. Define terminology associated with the World stream.
Wide Web. 6. Write numeric expressions.
2. Discuss the impact of programming on the 7. Apply type casting.
World Wide Web community. 8. Format numeric output.
3. Create HTML documents. 9. Identify Java keywords.
4. Explain how a Web browser interprets an 10. Differentiate between syntax and logic errors.
HTML document. 11. Understand run-time exceptions.
5. Use JavaScript to demonstrate how scripts can 12. Read and understand a problem description,
enhance a Web site. purpose, and goals.
6. Create simple Java applets.
7. Specify custom values for a Java applet that has
been placed in an HTML document.
8. Apply a style sheet to an HTML document.

Preface vii
Chapter 5 – Conditional Control Chapter 8 – Classes and Object-
Structures Oriented Development
After completing Chapter 5, students After completing Chapter 8, students
will be able to: will be able to:
1. Demonstrate the use of decision structures to 1. Understand and instantiate objects.
control the flow of a program. 2. Design and implement a class.
2. Describe how a roundoff error can occur. 3. Apply functional decomposition.
3. Generate random numbers. 4. Apply appropriate naming conventions to a
4. Write compound Boolean expressions. class.
5. Access methods in the Math class. 5. Explain the difference between accessor,
6. Modify existing code. modifier, and helper methods.
7. Develop code with correct and efficient use of 6. Write constructors.
conditional control structures. 7. Compare and contrast instance and class
8. Select appropriate test data. members.
9. Create and modify solutions to problems. 8. Understand class specifications and the
relationships among the classes.
Chapter 6 – Loop Structures and 9. Understand and implement a given class
hierarchy.
Strings 10. Apply encapsulation.
After completing Chapter 6, students
11. Identify reusable code from existing code.
will be able to:
1. Demonstrate the use of repetition control
structures. Chapter 9 – Inheritance and
2. Explain how infinite loops can occur. Polymorphism
3. Differentiate between counters and After completing Chapter 9, students
accumulators. will be able to:
4. Use various tools and techniques to debug an 1. Extend a class using inheritance.
application. 2. Explain an is-a relationship.
5. Manipulate and compare strings using the 3. Implement a subclass.
String class and its methods. 4. Define and demonstrate polymorphism.
6. Develop code with correct and efficient use of 5. Understand abstract classes.
repetitive control structures. 6. Declare and implement an interface.
7. Apply problem solving strategies. 7. Extend existing code using inheritance.

Chapter 7 – Chapter Methods Chapter 10 – Arrays

After completing Chapter 7, students After completing Chapter 10, students
will be able to: will be able to:
1. Use top-down development and procedural 1. Describe types of problems that benefit from
abstraction to develop problem solutions. the use of arrays.
2. Write methods. 2. Create one and two dimensional arrays.
3. Use method parameters. 3. Include array parameters in a method
4. Demonstrate the use of method overloading. declaration.
5. Return values from a method. 4. Understand how to implement arrays with
6. Write appropriate method documentation, meaningful indexes.
including pre- and post-conditions. 5. Apply offset array indexes.
7. Identify boundary cases and generate 6. Manipulate characters in a string.
appropriate test data. 7. Understand the digital code, Unicode.
8. Describe code conventions that apply to 8. Apply search algorithms to an array.
methods. 9. Use methods in the ArrayList class.
10. Demonstrate the use of the Wrapper classes.
11. Understand autoboxing and auto-unboxing.

viii A Guide to Programming in Java

Chapter 11 – GUIS and Event-Driven Chapter 14 – Data Structures
Programming After completing Chapter 14, students
After completing Chapter 11, students will be able to:
will be able to: 1. Explain how data structures, such as stacks
1. Design graphical user interfaces. and queues, can be used to organize data.
2. Use component classes in the Java swing 2. Use and implement well known data
package. structures.
3. Create event-driven applications. 3. Describe standard operations associated with
data structures.
4. Control the layout of an interface using layout
managers. 4. Choose appropriate data structures.
5. Use text fields and combo boxes to obtain user 5. Differentiate between a LIFO and FIFO
input. structure.
6. Apply color and add images to an interface.

Chapter 12 – Files and Exception

Handling
After completing Chapter 12, students
will be able to:
1. Use the File class to create objects that
represent a file.
2. Write exception handlers.
3. Understand file streams.
4. Read the contents of an existing file.
5. Process numeric data.
6. Create an output file stream.
7. Explain the object serialization and
deserialization processes.

Chapter 13 – Recursion and

Advanced Algorithms
After completing Chapter 13, students
will be able to:
1. Implement the selection sort algorithms.
2. Sort objects using the Comparable interface.
3. Implement the insertion sort algorithm.
4. Define and demonstrate recursion.
5. Implement the mergesort algorithm.
6. Implement the binary search algorithm.
7. Explain the recursive technique, depth-first
searching.
8. Analyze algorithms for efficiency.
9. Design and document sequential search
algorithms.

Preface ix
x A Guide to Programming in Java
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – An Introduction to Chapter 2 – Applets and Web

Computers Programming
Desktop Computing .................................................1 The World Wide Web.............................................. 35
Operating Systems and Environment ....................2 HTML ...................................................................... 36
Mobile Computing ....................................................4 Creating an HTML Document .............................. 37
Programming Languages ........................................5 Review: hello_world.htm .................................. 38
Networks ....................................................................6 Review: Computer Viruses Website –
Number Systems .......................................................9 part 1 of 6 ............................................................. 38
Storing Data in Memory ........................................ 10 JavaScript .................................................................. 38
What is a File? ......................................................... 11 Review: welcome.htm........................................ 39
Storage Devices........................................................ 12 Review: Computer Viruses Website –
Intranet, Extranet, Internet .................................... 13 part 2 of 6 ............................................................. 39
Telecommunications ............................................... 14 Using Scripts to Enhance a Website .....................40
Internet Services: Web, E-mail, and Review: Computer Viruses Website –
Mailing Lists ............................................................ 15 part 3 of 6 ............................................................. 41
Finding Information on the Web and Review: System Check – part 1 of 2 ................. 41
Downloading Files .................................................. 16 Java Applets ............................................................. 41
Internet Privacy Issues ........................................... 18 Creating Java Applets ............................................. 41
Internet Acceptable Use Policy ............................. 19 Drawing Shapes and Adding Color .....................43
The Social and Ethical Implications of Review: Hot Air Balloon ...................................44
Computer Use .......................................................... 19 Placing an Applet in an HTML Document ........44
Protecting Computer Software and Data ............ 20 Applet Parameters ..................................................44
The Ethical Responsibilities of an IT Review: System Check – part 2 of 2 ................. 45
Professional ..............................................................22 HTML Tags .............................................................. 45
Chapter Summary ..................................................22 Review: Computer Viruses Website –
Vocabulary ...............................................................25 part 4 of 6 ............................................................. 47
Review Questions ................................................... 29 Hyperlinks, Tables, and Images ............................ 47
Exercises ................................................................... 32 Review: Computer Viruses Website –
part 5 of 6 ............................................................. 49
Style Sheets .............................................................. 49
Review: Computer Viruses Website –
part 6 of 6 ............................................................. 51
Chapter Summary .................................................. 51
Vocabulary ............................................................... 53
HTML Tags ..............................................................54
Critical Thinking ..................................................... 55
Exercises ................................................................... 56

Table of Contents xi
Chapter 3 – Introducing Java Chapter 5 – Conditional Control
Why Program in Java? ............................................ 59 Structures
Objects, Classes, and Packages ............................. 59
The if Statement..................................................... 105
A Java Application .................................................. 61
Roundoff Error ...................................................... 106
Executing a Java Application ................................. 62
Review: SurfsUp – part 1 of 3 ......................... 106
Review: Greeting................................................ 62
The if-else Statement............................................. 106
Displaying Output ..................................................63
Review: SurfsUp – part 2 of 3 ......................... 107
Review: AboutMe – part 1 of 2 .........................64
Review: CircleCircumference – part 2 of 2... 107
Formatting Output..................................................64
Nested Statements ................................................. 107
Review: AboutMe – part 2 of 2 .........................65
Review: Stages .................................................. 107
Code Conventions ...................................................65
The if-else if Statement ......................................... 108
Algorithm Design ................................................... 66
Review: SurfsUp – part 3 of 3 ......................... 108
Chapter Summary .................................................. 67
Review: Discriminant...................................... 108
Vocabulary ............................................................... 69
The switch Statement............................................ 109
Java ............................................................................ 70
Review: Hurricane ........................................... 110
Critical Thinking ..................................................... 71
Generating Random Numbers ............................ 110
Exercises ................................................................... 72
Review: RandomNum ..................................... 111
Compound Boolean Expressions ........................ 112
Review: Delivery .............................................. 113
Chapter 4 – Variables and The Math Class ...................................................... 113
Review: PerfectSquare ..................................... 114
Constants Chapter 5 Case Study ........................................... 114
Declaring Variables.................................................77 Review: RPS – part 1 of 2 ................................ 118
Using Variables ........................................................ 78 Review: RPS – part 2 of 2 ................................ 118
Review: RectanglePerimeter............................. 79 Chapter Summary ................................................ 119
Primitive Data Types .............................................. 79 Vocabulary ............................................................. 120
Review: Distance – part 1 of 2 .......................... 79 Java .......................................................................... 121
Abstract Data Types ................................................80 Critical Thinking ................................................... 122
Java Packages ...........................................................80 Exercises ................................................................. 123
Obtaining a Value from the User .......................... 81
Review: Distance – part 2 of 2 .......................... 82
Numeric Expressions..............................................83
Review: Digits.....................................................84
Chapter 6 – Loop Structures and
Type Casting ............................................................84 Strings
Review: GradeAvg – part 1 of 2 .......................85
The while Statement ............................................. 131
Review: TempConverter ....................................85
The do-while Statement ....................................... 131
Formatting Numeric Output ................................. 86
Infinite Loops ........................................................ 132
Assignment Operators ........................................... 86
Review: Prompter ............................................ 133
Review: GradeAvg – part 2 of 2 ....................... 87
Counters and Accumulators................................ 133
Using Named Constants ........................................ 87
Review: Evens ................................................... 134
Identifiers and Keywords ......................................88
Review: NumbersSum .................................... 134
Review: CircleCircumference – part 1 of 2..... 88
Review: PercentPassing ................................... 134
Programming Errors .............................................. 88
The for Statement .................................................. 135
Chapter 4 Case Study .............................................90
Review: Factorial .............................................. 136
Chapter Summary .................................................. 93
Review: OddSum ............................................. 136
Vocabulary ............................................................... 95
Debugging Techniques ........................................ 136
Java ............................................................................ 96
Review: Variable Trace .................................... 137
Critical Thinking ..................................................... 97
The String Class .................................................... 138
Exercises ................................................................... 99
Review: AccountSetup .................................... 139
Comparing Strings................................................ 140
Review: FormalGreeting ................................. 141

xii Table of Contents

Chapter 6 Case Study ........................................... 141 Chapter 8 Case Study ........................................... 196
Review: WordGuess ......................................... 146 Review: RPS2 – part 1 of 2 .............................. 202
Chapter Summary ................................................ 146 Review: RPS2 – part 2 of 2 .............................. 202
Vocabulary ............................................................. 148 Chapter Summary ................................................ 202
Java .......................................................................... 148 Vocabulary ............................................................. 204
Critical Thinking ................................................... 149 Java .......................................................................... 205
Exercises ................................................................. 150 Critical Thinking ................................................... 206
Exercises ................................................................. 208

Chapter 7 – Methods
Program Development Using Methods ............. 157
Chapter 9 – Inheritance and
Writing Methods ................................................... 159 Polymorphism
Review: TimeConverter................................... 160
Extending a Class .................................................. 213
Method Parameters............................................... 160
Implementing a Subclass ..................................... 214
Review: SpanishNumbers .............................. 161
Review: Puck – part 1 of 2 ............................... 216
Review: DisplayBox – part 1 of 2 ................... 162
Polymorphism ....................................................... 217
Method Overloading ............................................ 162
Review: Music – part 1 of 2 ............................. 221
Review: DisplayBox – part 2 of 2 ................... 163
Abstract Classes ....................................................222
The return Statement ............................................ 163
Review: Music – part 2 of 2 .............................225
Review: Exponentiation .................................. 164
Interfaces ................................................................225
Documenting Methods ........................................ 164
Review: Disk ..................................................... 227
Review ............................................................... 165
Review: Puck – part 2 of 2 ............................... 227
Chapter 7 Case Study ........................................... 165
Review: Rectangle – part 4 of 4 ...................... 227
Review: GradeConverter ................................. 171
Review: Rectangle – part 4 of 5 ...................... 227
Chapter Summary ................................................ 171
Chapter 9 Case Study ........................................... 227
Vocabulary ............................................................. 173
Review: SalesCenter.........................................234
Java .......................................................................... 173
Chapter Summary ................................................234
Critical Thinking ................................................... 174
Vocabulary ............................................................. 236
Exercises ................................................................. 175
Java .......................................................................... 236
Critical Thinking ................................................... 237
Exercises ................................................................. 238
Chapter 8 – Classes and Object-
Oriented Development
What is an Object? ................................................ 179
Chapter 10 – Arrays
Designing and Writing a Class ........................... 180 Declaring Arrays ................................................... 239
Review: Circle – part 1 of 4 ............................. 182 Using Arrays .......................................................... 240
Review: Coin – part 1 of 2 ............................... 182 Review: StudentRoster .................................... 241
Writing Constructors ............................................ 183 Review: Squares ............................................... 241
Review: Circle – part 2 of 4 ............................. 184 Review: Reverse ............................................... 241
Review: Rectangle – part 1 of 5 ...................... 184 Array Parameters .................................................. 241
Instance and Class Members............................... 184 Arrays with Meaningful Indexes ....................... 242
Review: Circle – part 3 of 4 ............................. 185 Review: DiceRolls – part 1 of 2 ....................... 243
Review: Rectangle – part 2 of 5 ...................... 185 Review: DiceRolls – part 2 of 2 ....................... 243
The Object Class .................................................... 185 Review: NumberCounts.................................. 243
Review: Circle – part 4 of 4 ............................. 187 Characters and Arrays ......................................... 244
Review: Rectangle – part 3 of 5 ...................... 187 Review: CountLetters ...................................... 246
Review: Coin – part 2 of 2 ............................... 187 Review: NameBackwards ............................... 246
Classes Using Classes ........................................... 187 Searching an Array ............................................... 246
Review: Bank .................................................... 191 Review: FindName .......................................... 247
Object-Oriented Development ............................ 191 Two-Dimensional Arrays ..................................... 247
Review: Carnival .............................................. 195 The ArrayList Class .............................................. 252

Table of Contents xiii

Wrapper Classes .................................................... 253 The FileReader and BufferedReader Classes .... 314
Review: HighestGrade .................................... 255 Review: Assignment ........................................ 315
Autoboxing and Auto-Unboxing ........................ 255 Processing Numeric Data .................................... 316
Chapter 10 Case Study ......................................... 256 Review: Stats – part 1 of 2 ............................... 317
Review: LocalBank .......................................... 265 The FileWriter and BufferedWriter Classes ...... 317
Chapter Summary ................................................ 265 Review: Stats – part 2 of 2 ............................... 319
Vocabulary ............................................................. 266 Object Serialization ............................................... 319
Java .......................................................................... 266 Review: Roster .................................................. 322
Critical Thinking ................................................... 267 Chapter 12 Case Study ......................................... 323
Exercises ................................................................. 268 Review: LocalBank2 ........................................ 328
Chapter Summary ................................................ 329
Vocabulary .............................................................330
Java ..........................................................................330
Chapter 11 – GUIs and Critical Thinking ................................................... 331
Event-Driven Programming Exercises ................................................................. 332

What is a GUI? ....................................................... 275

The Swing Package ............................................... 275
Review: Name – part 1 of 2 ............................. 278 Chapter 13 – Recursion and
The JButton Class .................................................. 278
Handling Events.................................................... 279
Advanced Algorithms
Review: Name – part 2 of 2 ............................. 281 Selection Sort ......................................................... 337
Review: NumClicks ......................................... 281 Sorting Objects ...................................................... 339
Controlling Layout ................................................ 281 Review: ArrayListSort ..................................... 341
Review: Sunflower ...........................................284 Insertion Sort ......................................................... 341
Review: Riddle..................................................284 Review: ObjectsInsertionSort .........................343
Getting Input from the User ................................ 285 Recursion ................................................................343
Review: DivisibleBy3 ....................................... 287 Review: RecursiveFactorial.............................345
Combo Boxes ......................................................... 288 Mergesort ...............................................................345
Review: MetricConversion.............................. 290 Review: ObjectsMergesort ..............................348
Changing Colors ................................................... 291 Binary Search ......................................................... 349
Adding Images ...................................................... 292 Review: SearchLocations ................................ 351
Review: Roll ...................................................... 294 Review: ObjectsBinarySearch ........................ 352
Using Nested Classes to Handle Events ............ 295 Review: BinarySearch2 ................................... 352
Chapter 11 Case Study ......................................... 298 Depth-First Searching .......................................... 352
Review: BreakAPlate .......................................303 Review: DetectColonies – part 1 of 3............. 356
Chapter Summary ................................................304 Review: DetectColonies – part 2 of 3............. 356
Vocabulary .............................................................305 Review: DetectColonies – part 3 of 3............. 356
Java ..........................................................................306 Algorithm Analysis .............................................. 356
Critical Thinking ................................................... 307 Chapter Summary ................................................ 357
Exercises .................................................................309 Vocabulary ............................................................. 358
Java .......................................................................... 358
Critical Thinking ................................................... 359
Exercises ................................................................. 361
Chapter 12 – Files and Exception
Handling
What is a File? ........................................................ 311 Chapter 14 – Data Structures
The File Classes ..................................................... 311
The Stack Data Structure ..................................... 365
Review: MyFile – part 1 of 2 ........................... 312
The Stack Class ...................................................... 366
Handling Exceptions ............................................ 312
Review: Stack2 .................................................. 368
Review: MyFile – part 2 of 2 ........................... 313
Review: Stack3 .................................................. 369
The File Streams .................................................... 313
The Queue Data Structure ................................... 369

xiv Table of Contents

The Queue Class ................................................... 370
Review: Queue2................................................ 372
Review: Queue3................................................ 372
The Linked List Data Structure .......................... 373
The LinkedList Class ............................................ 374
Review: LinkedList – part 1 of 3 .................... 376
Review: LinkedList – part 2 of 3 .................... 376
Review: LinkedList – part 3 of 3 .................... 376
Chapter Summary ................................................ 377
Vocabulary ............................................................. 377
Critical Thinking ................................................... 378
Exercises ................................................................. 379

Appendix A – Unicode
Unicode ................................................................... 381

Appendix B – Using JCreator Pro

The JCreator IDE ................................................... 383
Compiling and Running a Program ..................384
Creating a Basic Java Applet ................................384
Review: Welcome ............................................. 385
Creating a Console Application .......................... 387
Review: Message – part 1 of 2 ........................ 388
Errors ...................................................................... 391
Opening a Project Workspace and Printing ..... 391
Review: Message – part 2 of 2 ........................ 391
Adding Files to a Project ...................................... 392
Help Features ......................................................... 392

Index
Index ....................................................................... 393

Table of Contents xv
xvi Table of Contents
 Chapter 1
An Introduction to Computers

T his chapter discusses current computing technologies, networks, the

Internet, and the World Wide Web. Issues related to computers, including
privacy, viruses, and copyright are also discussed.

Desktop Computing
A desktop computer and its components are designed to fit on or under
a desk:
TIP Desktop computers are
referred to as either PCs or
Macs.
BASE UNIT
#$ 27$6$ DRIVE
MONITOR DISK DRIVE
SCANNER
KEYBOARD
MOUSE

• The physical components of the computer, such as the monitor and

Scanner system unit, are called hardware.
A scanner is an input device • Data and instructions are entered into the computer using input
that uses a laser to create a devices, such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, digital
digital image from artwork camera, CD-RW/DVD drive, and disk drive.
such as photos and drawings.
The digitized image can then • A PC becomes much more versatile when peripheral devices, such as
be incorporated into an elec- printers and scanners, are added. A peripheral device is attached
tronic document. to a port on the computer. There are different types of ports, such
as serial, parallel, FireWire, USB, and Bluetooth ports.
• Computers process data into meaningful, useful information.
Processed data is conveyed using output devices. Monitors and
Printers printers display data, CD-RWs, disk drives, and memory keys store
data, and speakers communicate audio output.
A laser printer uses a laser and
toner to generate characters
and graphics on paper. An ink The base unit also contains the motherboard, which is the main circuit
jet printer uses an ink cartridge board. The motherboard contains several components:
to place very small dots of ink
onto paper to create characters
• Expansion boards are circuit boards that connect to the motherboard
and graphics. to add functionality to the computer. Examples include sound
cards and video adapters.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 1

 • The CPU (Central Processing Unit) or processor processes data
Real-time Clock and controls the flow of data between the computer’s other units.
Within the CPU is the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), which can
A battery chip called a real- perform arithmetic and logic operations. It can also make com-
time clock keeps track of the
parisons, which is the basis of the computer’s decision-making
date and time in a computer
even when the computer is power. The ALU is so fast that the time needed to carry out a single
off. addition is measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). The
speed at which a CPU can execute instructions is determined by
the computer’s clock rate. The clock rate is measured in megahertz
(MHz, million of cycles per second) or gigahertz (GHz, billion of
cycles per second).
CPU Manufacturers • A bus is a set of circuits that connect the CPU to other components.
Intel and AMD are two proces- The data bus transfers data between the CPU, memory, and other
sor manufacturers. Processors hardware devices on the motherboard. The address bus carries
are identified by a model name memory addresses that indicate where the data is located and
or number, such as Pentium® where the data should go. A control bus carries control signals. All
4, Itanium® 2, and Opteron™. data flows through the CPU:
The Intel Pentium 4 (P4) CPU
has a clock rate of 3.06 GHz.
The AMD Opteron CPU has a )NPUT -EMORY /UTPUT
clock rate of 2.4 GHz. These
CPUs contain more than 40
million transistors on a single
chip.
#05

• Memory in the form of integrated circuits (ICs) stores data

electronically. ROM (Read Only Memory) contains the most basic
operating instructions for the computer. The data in ROM is a
permanent part of the computer and cannot be changed. RAM
Integrated Circuits (Random Access Memory), also called primary or main memory,
Integrated circuits, also called is memory where data and instructions are stored temporarily.
chips, are created from silicon Data stored in RAM can be written to secondary memory, which
wafers which are etched with includes any type of storage media, such as a floppy disk, hard
intricate circuits and coated disk, memory key, or CD-RW. Secondary memory must be copied
with a metallic oxide to allow
the circuits to conduct elec-
into primary memory before it is processed by the CPU. SRAM
tricity. The silicon wafers are (Static Random Access Memory) is high-speed memory referred
housed in special plastic cases to as cache (pronounced “cash”). This memory is used to store
that have metal pins. The pins frequently used data so that it can be quickly retrieved by an
allow the integrated circuits application.
to be plugged into circuit
boards.
Operating Systems and Environment
A desktop computer also contains programs, or software. Operating
system (OS) software is run automatically when the computer is turned on
and is used to control processing and peripherals, run application soft-
BIOS ware, and control input and output, among other tasks. Desktop operating
system software includes Windows, Mac OS X Tiger, Unix, and Linux.
BIOS (basic input/output sys-
tem) is firmware that contains
Each of these operating systems have different features and functions.
the computer’s start-up instruc- Applications software is written by programmers to perform a specific task,
tions. Firmware is instructions such as a word processor.
or data that is written onto
ROM. The type of OS a computer can run depends on the computer hardware,
and can be multiuser, multiprocessing, multitasking, multithreading, or

2 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 real time. A multiuser OS is supported by mainframes and minicomputers
Mainframes and and allows for two or more users at the same time. The terms multiprocessing
Supercomputers and multitasking are often used interchangeably when referring to an
OS that allows for multiple applications (“processes” or “tasks”) to run
A mainframe is a large
at the same time. This type of OS determines how to divide processor
computer system that supports
multi-user applications and time between running applications. A multiprocessing OS should not be
tasks that require the storage confused with a multiprocessing computer system, which has more than
a n d p r o c e s sin g o f h u g e one processor and performs parallel processing because the processors are
amounts of information. Large used simultaneously for multiprocessing. Multithreading refers to an OS
corporations, airlines, banks, that can execute different parts of a single program, called threads, at the
government agencies, and same time. A real-time OS responds to input immediately. This type of
universities use mainframes.
OS is used in situations where immediate feedback is required, such as
A supercomputer is the fastest navigation systems or medical monitoring equipment.
and most powerful type of
computer. Supercomputers Environment refers to a computer’s hardware and software configura-
focus on executing a few tion. For example, a Windows XP environment means that the computer is
programs as fast as possible running the Windows XP Professional OS software and hardware includes
and are used for weather a 300MHz processor or better, 128MB of RAM or more, and at least 1.5GB
forecasting and nuclear energy of hard disk space. The hardware requirements are based on what will
research.
be needed to allow the OS software to properly manage the computer’s
tasks. The term platform is sometimes synonymous with environment.
Environment types vary widely and can refer to the computer type or
the way the user interacts with the computer as well as the software/hard-
ware configuration. A desktop environment refers to a desktop or notebook
computer running an OS designed for the typical hardware found in a
desktop or notebook computer. A multiuser environment is sometimes called
time sharing because each user gets a portion of the processor’s “time.”
A distributed environment shares the load of processing among several
computers. When discussing environments, a distinction is usually made
between multiprocessing and multitasking. A multiprocessing environment
means that more than one processor is being used for executing an appli-
cation, and a multitasking environment is one in which processing time for
TIP For information on a multiple applications is divided among one processor. Most environments
specific operating system, refer
run an OS with a graphical user interface (GUI):
to the appropriate chapter at
Lpdatafiles.com.

Windows XP Operating System

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 3

 The functions of an OS are based on the intended OS platform.
Functionality is implemented through utility programs that are written
utility program as part of the OS. A utility program has one clearly defined task, unlike
an application which can usually perform many different tasks. Utility
programs are run by the OS to manage input and output, read and write
to memory, manage the processor, maintain system security, and manage
device driver files and disks. One type of utility program, called a device driver, is needed
for printing, viewing graphics, using a CD/DVD drive, and using periph-
erals in general. Some utility programs load when the computer starts and
memory-resident are called memory-resident because they are always in memory.
Features are added to an OS by incorporating utility programs to per-
form tasks that are in addition to the tasks required to run the computer.
For example, an OS intended for a desktop or notebook environment will
often include utilities for disk defragmentation, text narration and other
accessibility tools, and system restore and backup tools. For example:

Windows XP Utilities

Mobile Computing
Improved technology has brought about the miniaturization of computer
components and the development of long-lasting batteries. Computers now
come in many shapes, sizes, and with many levels of features. Among
Bluetooth these computers are notebooks, tablets, handhelds, smart phones, and
Blueto oth is a wireless wearables. Because of their portability, these types of computers are
technology used to allow classified as mobile computing devices:
mobile computing devices to
communicate. • A notebook computer is a portable, lightweight computer with a
CPU, memory, and hard disk space comparable to that of a typical
desktop computer.
• A tablet PC is a computer designed similar to a pad of paper and
a pencil. Users simply “write” on a screen with a device called a
stylus that is shaped like a thin pencil. Handwriting recognition
software is used to interpret a user’s handwriting. A keyboard can
also be attached.

4 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 • Handheld computers, also called PDAs, are palm-sized and contain
Handheld Computers applications for storing contact information, schedules, lists, and
games. Handhelds come with a stylus for input and have a screen
Handheld computer s are that is several inches vertically. Many types of application software
widely used in occupations
have been written for handhelds, including spreadsheets and word
that require constant travel,
such as parcel delivery, meter processors. Some handhelds recognize handwriting, have a built-in
reading, and sales. keyboard, include a cellular phone, and provide Internet access.
• Smartphones are cellular phones that are able to send and receive
e-mail messages and access the Internet. Some smartphones have
digital camera, MP3 player, and color display capabilities.
• Wearable computers vary greatly in size and application. MP3 play-
ers have been incorporated into clothing, and one type of wearable
computer includes voice recognition. Wearable computers are also
in the form of goggles, which incorporate a monitor, digital camera,
ear bud, and microphone. Wrist-top computers are worn like a tra-
ditional wrist watch and work as a pager, provide Internet access,
and contain other features usually found in a handheld PC.

cross-platform connectivity One issue involved with using so many types of PCs is cross-platform
connectivity, which is the ability for one type of PC to link to and share
data with a different type of PC. Notebook and desktop PCs typically have
good cross-platform connectivity because their file formats can be used on
either computer. Tablets and handhelds use a different OS and generate
different file formats, requiring special hardware and software to use their
files on a desktop or notebook PC. Wearable computers typically have a
cable that allow a connection to other types of PCs, but special software
must be used to communicate between the devices.

Programming Languages
A programming language is a set of words, codes, and symbols that allow
a programmer to give instructions to the computer. Many programming
languages exist, each with their own rules, or syntax, for writing these
instructions.
Programming languages can be classified as low-level and high-level
languages. Low-level programming languages include machine language
and assembly language. Machine language, which is referred to as a first
generation programming language, can be used to communicate directly
with the computer. However, it is difficult to program in machine language
because the language consists of 0s and 1s to represent the status of a
switch (0 for off and 1 for on). Assembly language uses the same instruc-
tions and structure as machine language but the programmer is able to
Fourth and Fifth use meaningful names or abbreviations instead of numbers. Assembly
Generation Languages language is referred to as a second generation programming language.
Fourth generation languages
( 4GL), such as SQL, have High-level programming languages, which are often referred to as third
higher English-like instructions generation programming languages (3GL), were first developed in the late
than most high-level languages 1950s. High-level programming languages have English-like instructions
and are typically used to access and are easier to use than machine language. High-level programming
databases. Fifth generation languages include Fortran, C, Basic, COBOL, and Pascal. In order for the
languages are used for artificial
computer to understand a program written in a high-level language, pro-
intelligence.
grammers convert the source code into machine language using a compiler
or an interpreter. A compiler is a program that converts an entire program

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 5

 interpreter into machine code before the program is executed. An interpreter translates
and executes an instruction before moving on to the next instruction in
the program.
object-oriented programming In the 1980s, object-oriented programming (OOP) evolved out of the need to
better develop complex programs in a systematic, organized approach. The
OOP approach allows programmers to create modules that can be used
over and over again in a variety of programs. These modules contain code
called classes, which group related data and actions. Properly designed
classes encapsulate data to hide the implementation details, are versatile
enough to be extended through inheritance, and give the programmer
options through polymorphism. Object-oriented languages include Java,
C++ and Visual Basic.

Networks
A network is a combination of hardware and software that allows
computers to exchange data and share software and devices, such as
printers. Networks are widely used by businesses, universities, and other
organizations because a network:
• allows users to reliably share and exchange data
• can reduce costs by sharing devices such as printers
• offers security options including password protection to restrict
access to certain files
• simplifies file management through centralized software updates
and file backups
• provides e-mail for network users

Networks are classified by their size, architecture, and topology. A

MAN and HAN common size classifications is LAN (Local-Area Network), which is a
network used to connect devices within a small area such as a building or
A MAN ( Metropolitan Area
a campus. A WAN (Wide-Area Network) is used to connect devices over
Network) and a HAN ( Home
Area Network) are network large geographical distances. A WAN can be one widespread network or
technologies classified by the it can be a number of LANs linked together.
size of a network. A MAN is a
high-speed network that typi- The computers and other devices in a LAN each contain an expansion
cally connects LANs within a card called a network interface card:
city or town. A HAN is used
to connect personal devices
within the home.

Network interface card

6 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 A cable plugs into the adapter card to connect one device to another to
Transmission Media form a LAN. Cables are not required for network cards that have wireless
capabilities. Network interface cards are available for desktop and mobile
Computers must be con- computers and take various other forms including an adapter card, a PC
nected in order to transmit
card, or a Flash memory card
data between the nodes. Cable
transmission media includes Along with the physical, or hardware, aspects of setting up a network,
twisted-pair wiring, coaxial
there is also the software aspect. A network operating system is software that
cable, and fiber optic cable.
allow users and devices to communicate over the network. A networked
Wireless transmission media environment refers to a set of networked computers running an OS that can
includes infrared signals, handle the communication between the computers. The operating system
broadcast radio, cellular radio,
installed must be capable of supporting networking functions, such as
microwaves, and communica-
tions satellites.
security access features and support for multiple users. Operating systems
capable of network functions are available for Linux, Windows, Unix, and
The amount of data and the Mac. The network architecture, discussed next, must also be considered
speed at which data can travel when choosing a network OS.
over a media is called band-
width, which is measured in Network architecture includes the type of computers on the network and
bits per second (bps). Each determines how network resources are handled. Two common models are
transmission media has a spe-
peer-to-peer and client/server. In a peer-to-peer network, each computer on
cific length or range restric-
tion, data transmission rate,
the network is considered equal in terms of responsibilities and resource
and cost. sharing. A client/server network consists of a group of computers, called
clients, connected to a server. A server is a computer with more RAM, a
larger hard disk, and sometimes multiple CPUs that is used to manage
network functions.
Physical topology refers to the arrangement of the nodes on a network.
A node is a location on the network with a device capable of processing
information, such as a computer or a printer. There are three common
Ethernet physical topologies:
The Ethernet LAN protocol was
• The bus topology is a physical LAN topology that uses a single cen-
developed by Bob Metcalfe in
1976. Ethernet uses a bus or tral cable, called the bus or backbone to attach each node directly:
star topology with twisted-
pair wiring, coaxial cable,
or fiber optic cable transmis-
sion media. Newer protocols
include Fast Ethernet, which
operates at 100 Mbps, Gigabit
Ethernet which operates at
1 Gbps, and 10G Ethernet,
which operates at 10 Gbps.

LAN using a bus topology

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 7

 • In a star topology, each node is attached to a hub, which is a device that
joins communication lines at a central location on the network:

Baseband and
Broadband Technology
Most L ANs use baseband
technology which means the
transmission media carries one LAN using a star topology
signal at a time. Broadband
technology allows for data • In a ring topology, each node is connected to form a closed loop.
transmission of more than one A LAN with a ring topology can usually cover a greater distance
signal at a time and is found in
than a bus or star topology:
cable television transmission.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi ( Wireless Fidelity) is
a term used to describe an
802.11 network, which is a LAN using a ring topology
specification or protocol for
wireless networks. • Wireless networks use high frequency radio waves or infrared sig-
nals instead of cables to transmit data. A router/wireless access
point device is used to allow nodes to transfer data through the
air.

logical topology Another type of topology is logical topology, which refers to the way data
is passed between the nodes on a network. A LAN’s logical topology is
not always the same as its physical topology.

8 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Network users are given a user name and password to log on to a
network through a computer connected to the network. Users are also
assigned a level of access to maintain security. Network users should
netiquette follow a certain etiquette referred to as netiquette:
• Do not attempt to access the account of another user without
authorization.
• Do not share your password, and change it periodically.
• Use appropriate subject matter and language, and be considerate
of other people’s beliefs and opinions.

Number Systems
The electrical circuits on an IC have one of two states, off or on. Therefore,
binary number system the binary number system (base 2), which uses only two digits (0 and 1), was
adopted for use in computers. To represent numbers and letters, a code
was developed with eight binary digits grouped together to represent a
bit single number or letter. Each 0 or 1 in the binary code is called a bit (BInary
byte digiT) and an 8-bit unit is called a byte.
base 10 Our most familiar number system is the decimal, or base 10, system. It
uses ten digits: 0 through 9. Each place represents a power of ten, with
the first place to the left of the decimal point representing 100, the next
place representing 101, the next 102, and so on (remember that any number
raised to the zero power is 1). In the decimal number 485, the 4 represents
4×102, the 8 represents 8×101, and the 5 represents 5×100. The number 485
represents the sum 4×100 + 8×10 + 5×1 (400 + 80 + 5):
Decimal Base 10 Equivalent
485 4×102 + 8×101 + 5×100 = 400 + 80 + 5

base 2 The binary, or base 2, system works identically except that each place
represents a power of two instead of a power of ten. For example, the
binary number 101 represents the sum 1×22 + 0×21 + 1×20 or 5 in base ten.
Some decimal numbers and their binary equivalents are:
Decimal Binary Base 2 Equivalent
0 0 = 0×21 + 0×20 = 0×2 + 0×1 =0+0
1 1 = 0×21 + 1×20 = 0×2 + 1×1 =0+1
2 10 = 1×21 + 0×20 = 1×2 + 0×1 =2+0
3 11 = 1×21 + 1×20 = 1×2 + 1×1 =2+1
4 100 = 1×22 + 0×21 + 0×20 = 1×4 + 0×2 + 0×1 =4+0+0

The hexadecimal system is used to represent groups of four binary

base 16 digits. The hexadecimal, or base 16, system is based on 16 digits: 0 through
9, and the letters A through F representing 10 through 15 respectively.
Each place represents a power of sixteen. For example, the hexadecimal
number 1F represents the sum 1×161 + 15×160. Some decimal numbers and
their hexadecimal equivalents are:
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal Base 16 Equivalent
0 0000 0000 0 = 0×160 = 0×1 =0
10 0000 1010 A = 10×160 = 10×1 = 10
25 0001 1001 19 = 1×161 + 9×160 = 1×16 + 9×1 = 16 + 9
30 0001 1110 1E = 1×161 + 14×160 = 1×16 + 14×1 = 16 + 14

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 9

 For clarity, a non-base 10 number should have the base subscripted after
ASCII and EBCDIC the number. For example, to show the difference between 100 in base 10
and 100 in base 2 (which represents 4), the base 2 number should be writ-
ASCII (American Standard ten as 1002.
Code for Information
Interchange) and EBCDIC Every letter of an alphabet (Latin, Japanese, Cherokee, and so on) and
( E x te nd e d Binar y C o d e d symbols of every culture (=, @, ½, and so on) have been given a representa-
Decimal Interchange Code)
tion in a digital code called Unicode. Unicode uses a set of sixteen 1s and 0s
are two other digital coding
schemes. Unlike Unicode, to form a 16-bit binary code for each symbol. For example, the uppercase
ASCII and EBCDIC are not letter V is Unicode 00000000 01010110, which can be thought of as the base
large enough to support Asian 10 number 86 (8610). Lowercase v has a separate code of 00000000 01110110,
and other languages that use a or 11810.
different alphabet.

Storing Data in Memory

Computer memory is measured in bytes. For example, a computer might
have 512MB of RAM. In computers and electronics MB stands for megabytes
where mega represents 220 or 1,048,576 bytes and GB stands for gigabytes,
which is 230 or 1,073,741,820 bytes.
Data stored in memory is referred to by an address. An address is a
unique binary representation of a location in memory. Therefore, data
can be stored, accessed, and retrieved from memory by its address. For
data to be addressable in memory, it must usually be at least one byte in
length. For example, to store JIM in memory each character is converted
to Unicode and stored in two bytes of memory with each memory location
designated by its address:

Because JIM is a character string, it will probably be stored in adjacent

memory addresses.

words Bits grouped in units of 16 to 64 (2 to 8 bytes) are called words. Data

stored in a word is also located by an address. The size of a word depends
on the computer system.
The binary representation of an integer number is usually stored in four
bytes of memory. Because an integer is stored in four bytes, the range of
overflow error integers that can be stored is –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. An overflow error
occurs when the number of bits that are needed to represent the integer is
greater than the size of four bytes.
real numbers Real numbers, also called floating point numbers, are numbers that contain
decimal points. The binary representation of a real number is usually
in a 32-bit or 64-bit word. A 32-bit word is divided into a 1-bit sign, an
8-bit exponent, and a 23-bit significand. For example, the decimal num-
ber 821.625 in binary is 1100110101.101 and will be stored in memory as
sign bit 1.100110101101×29. The sign bit is either 0 (positive) or 1 (negative). In this
exponent case, the sign bit is 0. Next, the exponent, in this case 9, is stored in binary
significand form. A process called biasing means that the exponent is stored as 9 + 127,
or 10001000, in binary. Finally, the significand (significant digits) is stored
with trailing zeros:

10 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

TIP Significand is also known
as mantissa.
                               

The overflow problem discussed for integers can also occur in real
roundoff error numbers if there are not enough bits to store the exponent. A roundoff error
occurs when there are not enough bits to store the significand.

What is a File?
A file is related data stored on a persistent media. A file can be an appli-
cation (program) or the product of an application. For example, a word
File Size Limitations processor application is used to create document files. As another example,
a digital camera is used to create photo files. A file is stored on a persistent
File size can be decreased
or compressed using a
media so that it is retained even after the computer or computerized device
compression program, such is turned off. A file can be used over and over again whenever the data it
as WinZip. This technique is stores is needed.
often used to accommodate
storage device and e-mail A file is really just 1s and 0s because it is stored in binary code. Computers
account limitations. are programmed to translate bytes and words into symbols. Depending
on the file type, these symbols are either human-readable or computer-
readable after translation. Human-readable files are called text files, and
computer-readable files are called binary files. Simple files, such as a text
document, can be measured kilobytes, for example 64K. The K comes from
the word kilo and represents 210 or 1,024. Therefore, a 64K file uses 65,536
bytes (64×210) of storage.
File types are distinguished by the extension that comes after the file
name. An application adds a unique extension to the files it creates. For
Extensions example, MyResume.docx is a document file type. A .docx file is a binary
file created using Microsoft Word. Executable files are .exe files and are
Common extensions include:
also binary files. A file named TestData.txt is a plain text file. A .txt file
.xlsx - Excel file contains only letters, numbers, and common symbols readable by humans.
.class - Compiled Java file Folders are used to organize commonly related files.
.java - Java file
.zip - compressed file Binary files are more complex than text files and often contain data for
.gif - GIF image file photos, formatted text, spreadsheets, sound, and so on. The disadvantage
.bmp - Bitmap graphic of binary files is that they require another application to interpret the
contents. A binary file may have content similar to:
ÿÿñU_ÿÿþ}9UTýÿ–÷}]Ï_ñÿÑßÿÿý ÿ×_ÿ÷Äõÿ
TIP The format an application
ÿ ÿ ð – U _ÿ ÿ w u s U U ü w] U/ U _ ñ ÿ U Ww w t w wU Ww wD õ ÿ
normally uses for saving a file
is called native format. þ»ÿÿúªî¿þÿþûïûüÿ¾þïìÿ
þÿÿï¿¿ÿïìôÿ UÿÿüET_ÿÿ÷wìÿ–þ»ÿÞþïýÿþøÿ¯ÿëÿúþÿ«ºòÿþýÿûÿûèôÿ
ÿÝþ_ÿÿ ÿwþuUuWýw÷÷ÿ{þÿß¿ß÷ÿuWwwu÷uuUUwwDõÿþ»ÿÌ®è lïÿþ
>«~﮿þÿ
ýUÝUUÕ]UU]UÕ]Õ]æÝDôÿ¿Îÿàôÿøÿ
ßýÕW_ý_õW_ÕÕ]uåÿDõÿþ¿óÿïþÿÿþáÿèôÿøwÿuþWuWUUwWþUåwDõ
ÿþ
A binary file is computer-readable

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 11

 Storage Devices
Storage devices use a persistent media to maintain files. These devices,
which are also referred to as drives, mass storage, and auxiliary storage, can
be categorized in three ways:
• internal or external
• removable or permanent media
• magnetic, optical, or solid state technology

Internal devices are drives mounted inside the PC case. These devices
can include hard disk, CD/DVD, disk, tape, Zip, and Jaz drives. Except for
the Iomega® RRD (Removable Rigid Disk) system, which uses a removable
media, hard drives typically have permanently installed disks that are not
accessible from outside the PC case. Other devices have an external slot
for removable storage media.
External devices have a stand-alone drive housing and connect to a
computer’s USB port with a cable. USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a standard-
ized technology with data transfer rates up to 480 Mbps. As many as 127
devices can be connected to a single port with USB hubs.
External drives offer the advantage of portability because they can be
easily moved to other computers that support the technology. External
devices include hard disk, RRD, CD/DVD, diskette, tape, Zip, and Jaz
drives. Except for the hard disk drive, these drives have removable
media.
Ultra-portable devices include keychain, watch, mini drive, and mouse
storage to name just a few. These external devices are small and easy-to-
use, but currently more expensive than comparable storage devices that
are larger in size. Most ultra-portable devices, including the keychain and
mini drive, have storage media attached directly to a USB plug that is con-
nected to a USB port. The watch and mouse storage devices use a cable
with a USB plug to connect to a USB port. The watch has a short cable and
USB plug hidden in the band. The mouse storage device requires a longer
cable so that it can also function as a pointing device.
Firewire Storage device technologies determine the media, size, and portabil-
Using the IEEE 1394 standard, ity of a device. Magnetic technology uses a mechanical drive with tiny
a FireWire port allows devices electromagnetic heads for reading and writing data to media. The media
to quickly t rans fe r lar ge required with magnetic technology is a disk, usually made of aluminum or
amounts of data (greater than
Mylar®, coated with iron oxide. The disk is either encased in hard plastic
400Mbps). FireWire is often
used for digital video cameras
(floppy diskette and Zip) or several disks, called platters, are sealed in a
and sometimes external hard case (Jaz, RRD, and hard disk). A data signal sent through the heads in
drives because of the amount the drive magnetize a bit of the media in one direction to store a 1 and in
of data associated with these the other direction to store a 0.
devices. FireWire devices can
be daisy-chained together, Optical technology uses a drive with a laser and an optoelectronic sen-
which means one device sor. The media required with optical technology is a compact disc made
is connected to another’s of polycarbonate plastic. A CD-R (CD-Recordable) disc is used for stor-
FireWire port and that device ing files. CD-Rs are coated with a reflective organic compound and then
is connected to another and so sealed with a plastic layer to protect the reflective layer from scratches.
on. FireWire also supports iso-
The laser in the drive is focused on a bit of the CD-R to darken, or “burn,”
chronous mode for real-time
data transfer. the organic compound to store a 1. The areas of the CD-R left unburned
are read as bits storing a 0.

12 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Another application of optical technology is the DVD drive, which
Tera, Peta, Exa uses a DVD-R disc, similar to a CD-R. The DVD-R (Digital Video Disc-
Recordable) can store much more data than a CD-R because of the preci-
As more and more data is sion used in manufacturing the drive and the DVD-R itself. Bits are much
stored electronically, file sizes
smaller and stored much more closely together on the DVD-R.
become very large and require
storage devices with very large Solid state technology allows for the smallest, most portable storage
capacities. TB (terabyte) is 240
devices because the technology requires no moving parts. The media is
bytes or 1 trillion bytes, pet-
abyte (PB) is 250 bytes or 1,024 Flash memory, which consists of a grid with two tiny transistors at each
terabytes, and EB (exabyte) is cell. Each cell corresponds to a bit. Applying a charge to a cell stores a
260 bytes or 1,024 petabytes. 0, while applying a stronger charge stores a 1. The grid of transistors is
Device s with TB storage encased in hard plastic and is very small. Some devices can store 2MB or
capacities are gradually com- more within a package thinner and smaller than a quarter. Slightly larger
ing into use, especially for media can store gigabytes of data. Encased media is often directly attached
database files.
to a USB plug for use with a computer, or simply has conductive material
imprinted so the media can slide into a digital camera slot.
Magnetic technology allows for storage devices that range in capacity from
1.44MB (a floppy diskette) to many gigabytes (hard disk drives with many
platters). Optical technology includes CDs that can store about 700MB of
data, while DVDs can store at least 4GB of data. Solid-state devices store
from 64KB of data to many gigabytes.
storage media care Storage media can be very sensitive. Care should be taken to avoid
damaging files:
• Never attempt to open a case containing a disk.
Storage Media • Keep magnetic media away from magnets.
The capacity of storage media • Handle CD/DVDs by the center hole or by the edges.
varies. For example, a disk has
a storage capacity of 1.44 MB, • Store CD/DVDs in a jewel case or sleeve to prevent scratches.
a CD has a storage capacity • Keep media away from moisture and extreme temperatures.
of 650 MB, and a DVD has a
storage capacity of over 4GB.
Intranet, Extranet, Internet
An intranet is a network that is used by a single organization, such as
a corporation or school, and is only accessible by authorized users. The
purpose of an intranet is to share information. However, a firewall is also
firewall used to lock out unauthorized users. A firewall is a network security system
that prevents unauthorized network access.
An extranet extends an intranet by providing various levels of acces-
sibility to authorized members of the public. For example, a corporation
may extend their intranet to provide access to specific information, such
as their ordering system, to registered customers.
The largest and most widely accessed network is the Internet, a world-
History of the Internet
wide network of computers that is not controlled by any one organization.
The Internet evolved from The Internet has had an undeniable impact on modern society because it
ARPANET, a network cre- allows users worldwide to communicate in a matter of seconds.
ated in the late 1960s by the
Depar tment of Defense’s
ARPA (Advanced Research
Projects Agency), and the
theory of open architecture
networking.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 13

 The Internet is actually numerous networks all linked together through
routers. A router is a device that connects different network technolo-
gies. Networks connected to routers use TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) software to communicate.
Computers on the Internet are either servers or clients. The client is sent
information from a server. The client/server structure of the Internet is
called interactive because the information accessed is a result of selections
made by the user. For example, a computer with just minimal software
for accessing the Internet is a client. The client user selecting options from
the Internet is receiving the information from a server, a computer with
additional software and files that is also connected to the Internet.

Telecommunications
Telecommunications is the transmitting and receiving of data. Data can be
in various forms including voice and video. Telecommunications requires
TIP Access to the Internet a modem or adapter and a line or cable. The speed of data transmission
re quire s tele communica-
tions and an Internet Service
(sending) and receipt (receiving) is measured in Kbps (thousands of bits
Provider (ISP). per second) or Mbps (millions of bits per second). Numerous telecommu-
nications options are available, which vary in speed and cost:
• A conventional modem uses standard telephone lines to convert
analog signals to digital data. A conventional modem is a 56 Kbps
modem, which transmits data at 28.8 Kbps and 36.6 Kbps, and
receives data at 56 Kbps. Home computers sometimes use a con-
ventional modem.
• A DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modem uses standard telephone
TIP In a wireless network, a
router/wireless access point is lines with data transmission up to 640 Kbps. Data receipt is from
typically connected by a cable 1.5 Mbps to 9 Mbps. A DSL (Asymmetric DSL) is the most common
to a cable or DSL modem. form used.
• A cable modem transmits data through a coaxial cable television
network. Data transmission is from 2 Mbps to 10 Mbps and data
receipt is from 10 Mbps to 36 Mbps.
• Leased/Dedicated lines are used by many businesses and schools
for Internet access. They allow for a permanent connection to the
Internet that is always active. The cost of a leased line is usually a
fixed monthly fee. A T-1 carrier is a type of leased line that trans-
mits data at 1.544 Mbps.
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a digital telephone
network provided by a local phone company. ISDN is capable of
transmitting and receiving data at up to 64 Kbps. ISDN requires
the use of an ISDN terminal adapter instead of a modem.

14 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Internet Services: Web, E-mail, and
Mailing Lists
Internet services include the World Wide Web, e-mail, and mailing lists.
World Wide Web The World Wide Web (WWW), also called the Web is the most widely used
Internet service. The Web can be used to search and access information
Web browser available on the Internet. A Web browser application, such as Microsoft
Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox, provides a graphical interface to
present information in the form of a Web site:

Blog
Blog is short for weblog and is
a type of Web site where users
can post entries in a journal
format.

A Web page that is part of the CNN Web site

Another widely used Internet service is e-mail or electronic mail, which
is the sending and receiving of messages and computer files over a com-
munications network, such as a LAN (Local Area Network) or the Internet.
E-mail can be received in a matter of seconds, even if the recipient is
located half way around the world.
Digital Signature An e-mail address is required in order to send and receive e-mail mes-
A digit al signature is a sages. E-mail addresses are provided when you sign up with an ISP or an
code that is attached to an online service. A typical e-mail address is similar to:
electronic message to verify
the authenticity of a Web site
or e-mail message.

An e-mail client is software that is used to create, send, receive, and

organize e-mail messages. Outlook, Eudora, and Yahoo! Mail are e-mail
Instant Messaging clients. Yahoo! Mail runs in a browser and is called a Web-based e-mail
client.
Instant messaging ( IM) is an
application that allows for real
time, or immediate, text-based
communication.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 15

 E-mail etiquette for composing messages includes:
E-mail Protocols • Use manners. Include “please” and “thank you” and also properly
When an e-mail client sends or address people you do not know as Mr., Ms., Mrs., Dr., and so on.
receives a message, it connects
• Be concise.
to an e-mail server, which is
a computer running special • Be professional. Use proper spelling, grammar, and capitalization.
software and connected to Using all capitals is the equivalent of SCREAMING.
the Internet. The e-mail client
typically connects to an SMTP In general, re-read a message before it is sent. Always fill in the To box last
server (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) for outgoing mail.
to avoid sending a message before it is complete.
For incoming mail, a connec- Using e-mail also requires following a code of ethics:
tion to a POP3 (Post Office
Protocol3) or IMAP (Internet • Send messages through your account only. Do not try to deceive
Mail Access Protocol) server recipients by falsely representing yourself.
is made.
• Keep the subject in the message header short and truly representa-
tive of the message.
• Use appropriate subject matter and language.
• Be considerate of other people’s beliefs and opinions.
The CAN-SPAM Act
• Respond to e-mail messages in a timely manner.
Along with personal and
busine ss me ssage s, most • Do not attempt to access e-mail from another account without
people also receive a lot of permission.
“junk e-mail” or spam. The
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 was • Do not give out another’s e-mail address without first obtaining
enacted to provide penalities permission.
to commercial e-mailers who
send deceptive messages. E-mail messages are not private. An e-mail message goes through
E-mail clients also include several mail servers before it reaches the recipient, making it possible for
f iltering sys te ms to help
others to intercept it. E-mail messages are also easily forwarded. When
block messages from specific
senders.
sending e-mail at work or school, it is important to remember that employ-
ers and school administrators have the right to read any e-mail messages
sent over the corporate or school network, as well as the right to track
online activity.
A mailing list server manages Internet mailing lists. Two mailing list
servers are LISTSERV and Majordomo. Special interest groups often use a
mailing list for discussion purposes. When a subscriber posts a message,
every subscriber receives a copy. Mailing lists sometimes have a moderator
who filters the messages before they are posted.

Finding Information on the Web and

Downloading Files
Search Engines A search engine is used to locate information on the Web. Search engines
use a program to search a database of Web pages for specified words or
A search engine usually works
by sending out an agent, phrases and then list the hyperlinks to the pages containing the text.
such as spider. A spider is an Commonly used search engines include:
application that gathers a list
of available Web page docu- Google (www.google.com)
ments and stores this list in a Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com)
database that users can search Ask (www.ask.com)
by keywords.
MSN (www.msn.com)
Excite (www.excite.com)

16 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 search criteria The words or phrases used in a search are called the search criteria.
Search criteria should be carefully specified using keywords related to the
topic of interest. For example, if searching for information about the Bryce
Canyon, the criteria bryce returns numerous Web sites, many of which
have nothing to do with the Bryce Canyon. A more successful search uses
the criteria bryce canyon to limit the number of Web sites.
There are several ways to specify search criteria. Surrounding phrases
with quotation marks finds Web pages that contain the entire phrase
exactly. The + (plus sign) can be used to find pages that contain specified
words. For example, hawaii +museum matches pages that contain the
words Hawaii and museum. Separating words with a space has the same
effect as the plus sign. The – (minus sign) can be used to exclude unwanted
Web pages. For example, hawaii –museum matches pages that contain the
word Hawaii but not the word museum.
The +, –, and space can be combined to produce more precise search
criteria. For example:
horse + buggy –carriage
tuna salmon –salad
recipe chicken –soup
university + connecticut –yale
The logical operators AND, OR, and NOT are sometimes used to specify
search criteria. The operator AND has the same effect as the + and space.
The operator OR is used to find Web pages that contain one word or
another or both. For example, florida OR hotel returns links to pages con-
taining Florida, hotel, and Florida and hotel. The operator NOT has the
same effect as – (minus sign).
Boolean expression When operators are used in search criteria, a Boolean expression is
formed. A Boolean expression evaluates to either true or false. For example,
the criteria hawaii +museum evaluates to true when Web page contains
Hawaii and Web page contains museum where Web page is the page being
compared to the criteria. When an expression evaluates to true, a link to
Web page is displayed.

TIP Just because a file is Information on a Web site is sometimes in the form of a downloadable
available on a Web site for file. Downloading is the process of copying a file from a Web site to the
download does not mean that user’s computer. For example, virus definitions can be downloaded from a
it is legal to download the file. antivirus software company’s Web site and software updates can be down-
Downloading copyrighted loaded from the software company’s Web site. When a file is downloaded,
files that have not been made the user specifies where the file should be saved on the local computer.
freely available is a violation of
Files should only be downloaded from known, authentic Web sites since
copyright law.
downloadable files are often associated with viruses.
If information from a Web site is to be referenced or quoted in a report,
essay, or other document, a citation must be used to give credit to the
original author and allow the reader to locate the cited information. A
widely accepted form for citation is published by the Modern Language
MLA Association (MLA) in its publication MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers, Sixth Edition.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 17

 In general, a citation for material located at a Web site should look
similar to:
Author's Last Name, First Name MI. “Document Title.“ Site
Title and last updated date. Access date. Organiza-
tion name. <URL>.

A citation of a personal Web site does not have many details and may
look similar to:
Rawlings, Julie. Home page. 23 Dec. 2007. 15 May 2009
<http://www.Lpdatafiles.com/jrawlings/index.htm>.

A citation of an article in an online magazine should include a volume

number or issue number and could look similar to:
Schiffman, Paula. "Making Vinegar at Home." Vinegar
Monthly Vol. 1 May 2007. 30 Oct. 2009. <http://www.
Lpdatafiles.com/vinegarassoc/journal.asp>.

A citation of a posting to a mailing list server could look similar to:

Cruz, Anthony. "Are Orchestras Going Downhill?" Online
posting. 10 June 2008. Oboe Discussion Group. 23 Nov.
2009 <http://www.Lpdatafiles.com/odg/downhill.txt>.

Internet Privacy Issues

The growth of the Internet has caused additional concerns about
personal privacy. Searching for information on the Internet is not as
Spyware anonymous as it might seem.
Spy ware is sof t ware that
The collection of data about consumers visiting a Web site is a marketing
gathers personal information
from an unsuspecting user technique known as online profiling. When a commercial Web site is visited,
and then transmits the infor- information about the user may be collected using various methods such
mation to another computer as cookies or Web beacons.
over the Internet. Spyware
is unknowingly downloaded A cookie is a text file created by the server computer when a user enters
and installed with another file, information into a Web site. The cookie file is then stored on the user’s
such as freeware or shareware computer and accessed each time the user visits that Web site. Cookies
programs. are often created when online purchases are made. Although cookies can
only store information that the user has selected or entered, their use has
raised concerns over privacy issues.
Web beacons, also called Web bugs or pixel tags, are tiny, transparent
TIP An IP address is an identi- graphics located on Web pages or in e-mail messages that are used in
fier for a computer or device combination with cookies to collect data about Web page users or e-mail
on a TCP/IP network. senders. Usually the monitoring is done by an outside advertising company.
The information a Web beacon collects includes the IP address of the
computer, the URL being visited, the time the Web page was viewed, the
type of browser being used, and the cookie file.
TIP A Web site’s privacy Before providing a company with personal information through a Web
policy is typically found as a site, check the site’s privacy policy. A privacy policy is a legally binding
link at the bottom of the home
document that explains how any personal information will be used.
page of a Web site.
The Internet has opened up access to many files that were previously
inaccessible. To protect both the privacy of an individual and the accuracy
of data stored about individuals, several laws have been passed:

18 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 • The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 ( ECPA)
makes it a crime to access electronic data without authorization.
NET Act
It also prohibits unauthorized release of such data.
The NET (No Electronic Theft)
Act of 1997 closed a loophole • The Electronic Freedom of Information Act of 1996 ( E-FOIA)
in the law that allowed copy- requires federal government agencies to make certain agency
righted material to be given information available for public inspection and is designed to
away on the Internet without improve public access to agency records by making more informa-
any legal penalty. tion available online.
• The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 (COPPA)
requires commercial Web sites that collect personal information
from children under the age of 13 to obtain parental consent.
• The Safety and Freedom through Encryption Act of 1999 (SAFE)
gives Americans the freedom to use any type of encryption to
Encryption protect their confidential information.
Encryption is the process of
translating data into a code that Other laws have been passed that may invade the privacy of some to
is not readable without the key protect the safety of others. For example, the Provide Appropriate Tools
to the code. Encryption pre-
Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (PATRIOT) Act of 2001
vents unauthorized access to
the data. Data that is encrypted gives law enforcement the ability to monitor individual’s e-mail and Web
is referred to as cipher text. activity.

Internet Acceptable Use Policy

Internet content, unproductive use, and copyright have prompted many
schools and businesses to develop an Acceptable Use Policy or Internet
Use Agreement. Acceptable Use Policies typically contain rules similar
to:
• Use appropriate language.
• Do not reveal personal address or phone numbers.
Internet Filtering • Do not access, upload, download, or distribute inappropriate
Software materials.
Many schools and organiza-
tions install Internet filtering • Do not access another user’s account.
software to block offensive • Use of the network for private business is prohibited.
material.
• Only administrator installed software may be used on the com-
puters. Adding, deleting, or modifying installed software is not
permitted.

The Social and Ethical Implications of

Computer Use
The society in which we live has been so profoundly affected by
information age computers that historians refer to the present time as the information age.
This is due to the our ability to store and manipulate large amounts of
information (data) using computers. As an information society, we must
consider both the social and ethical implications of our use of computers.
By ethical questions we mean asking what are the morally right and wrong
ways to use computers.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 19

 ergonomics Ergonomics is the science that studies safe work environments. Many
health-related issues, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and computer vision
syndrome (CVS) are related to prolonged computer use.
Power and paper waste are environmental concerns associated with
computer use. Suggestions for eliminating these concerns include recycling
paper and printer toner cartridges and turning off monitors and printers
when not in use.
Employee monitoring is an issue associated with computers in the work-
place. It is legal for employers to install software programs that monitor
employee computer use. As well, e-mail messages can be read without
employee notification.
As discussed in a previous section in the chapter, the invasion of privacy
is a serious problem associated with computers. Because computers can
Identity Theft store vast amounts of data we must decide what information is proper to
Identity theft is a growing crime store, what is improper, and who should have access to the information.
where personal information is Every time you use a credit card, make a phone call, withdraw money,
stolen electronically in order reserve a flight, or register at school, a computer records the transaction.
to make fraudulent purchases These records can be used to learn a great deal about you—where you have
or loans. been, when you were there, and how much money was spent. Should this
information be available to everyone?
Computers are also used to store information about your credit rating,
which determines your ability to borrow money. If you want to buy a car
and finance it at a bank, the bank first checks your credit records on a
computer to determine if you have a good credit rating. If you purchase
the car and then apply for automobile insurance, another computer will
check to determine if you have traffic violations. How do you know if
the information being used is accurate? The laws listed below have been
passed to help ensure that the right to privacy is not infringed by the
improper use of data stored in computer files:
• The Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970 gives individuals the right
to see information collected about them for use by credit, insur-
ance, and employment agencies. If a person is denied credit they
are allowed to see the files used to make the credit determination.
If any of the information is incorrect, the person has the right to
have it changed. The act also restricts who may access credit files
to only those with a court order or the written permission of the
individual whose credit is being checked.
• The Privacy Act of 1974 restricts the way in which personal data
can be used by federal agencies. Individuals must be permitted
access to information stored about them and may correct any infor-
mation that is incorrect. Agencies must insure both the security
and confidentiality of any sensitive information. Although this law
applies only to federal agencies, many states have adopted similar
laws.
• The Financial Privacy Act of 1978 requires that a government
authority have a subpoena, summons, or search warrant to access
an individual’s financial records. When such records are released,
the financial institution must notify the individual of who has had
access to them.

20 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Protecting Computer Software and
Data
As society becomes more and more reliant on digital information,
copyright and exposure to malicious code have become two important
copyright issues among computer users. Copyright is protection of digital informa-
tion. Copyright infringement is the illegal use or reproduction of data
(text, pictures, music, video, and so on). Laws, such as the NET Act (No
Electronic Theft Act) of 1997, protect against copyright infringement. There
have been several well-known cases of high penalties for individuals guilty
of copyright infringement.
Copyright infringement includes duplication of computer software
when copies are being used by individuals who have not paid for the
piracy software. This practice is called piracy when illegal copies are distributed.
Developing, testing, marketing, and supporting software is an expensive
TIP It is usually legal to make process. If the software developer is then denied rightful compensation,
one backup copy of a pur- the future development of all software is jeopardized. Therefore, it is
chased software program. important to use only legally acquired copies of software, and to not make
illegal copies for others.
Malicious code comes in many forms and is delivered in many ways. A
virus, a Trojan horse, and an Internet worm are three forms of malicious
code. They can appear on a system through executable programs, scripts,
macros, e-mails, and some Internet connections. One devastating effect
of malicious code is the destruction of data.
virus A virus is a program or series of instructions that can replicate without
the user’s knowledge. Often a virus is triggered to run when given a cer-
tain signal. For example, a virus might check the computer’s clock and then
destroy data when a certain time is reached. A virus is easily duplicated
when the file is copied, which spreads it to other computers.
Trojan horse A Trojan horse program appears as something else, usually a program
that looks trustworthy. Running the program runs the malicious code
worm and damages files on the computer. A worm is a program that is able to
reproduce itself over a network. Worms are a threat because of the way
they replicate and use system resources, sometimes causing the system
to shut down.
antivirus programs Malicious code has become so widespread that software called antivirus
programs must be installed on computers and networks to detect and
remove the code before it can replicate or damage data. Precautions can
also be taken to prevent damage from malicious code:
• Update antivirus software. An antivirus program can only detect
the viruses, Trojan horses, and worms it is aware of. Antivirus
programs have a Web link for updating the virus definitions on
the computer containing the antivirus program.
• Do not open e-mail attachments without scanning for malicious
code. One estimate states that 80% of virus infection is through
e-mail.

crackers, hackers Newspapers have carried numerous reports of crackers, or hackers, gain-
ing access to large computer systems to perform acts of vandalism. This
malicious act is illegal and can cause expensive damage. The Electronic

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 21

 Communications Privacy Act of 1986 specifically makes it a federal offense
to access electronic data without authorization. Networks usually include a
firewall, which is a combination of hardware and software, to help prevent
unauthorized access.
The willful destruction of computer data is no different than any other
vandalizing of property. Since the damage is done electronically the
result is often not as obvious as destroying physical property, but the
consequences are much the same. It is estimated that computer crimes
cost billions of dollars each year.
phishing Phishing is the act of sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to
be a legitimate business in an attempt to trick the user into revealing
personal information that could be used for crimes such as identity theft.
The Communications Privacy Act of 1986 specifically makes it a federal
offense to access electronic data without authorization. Networks usually
include a firewall, which is a combination of hardware and software, to
help prevent unauthorized access.

The Ethical Responsibilities of an IT

Professional
An IT (information technology) professional has responsibilities that
relate to system reliability. System reliability involves installing and updat-
IT Careers ing appropriate software, keeping hardware working and up-to-date, and
The growth of computers, maintaining databases and other forms of data. Governments, schools, and
the Internet, and the Web employers rely on IT professionals to maintain their computer systems.
have created many new job
opportunities in the IT field. In addition to ensuring system reliability, an IT professional must take
IT careers include data-entry responsibility for the ethical aspects of the career choice. For example,
operator, systems analyst, IT professionals involved in creating software must ensure, as best he or
p r o g r a m m e r, c o m p u t e r she can, the reliability of the computer software. This means the ethical
e n g in e e r, a n d t e c h ni c al
responsibility of the IT professional includes using the appropriate tools
support technician.
and methods to test and evaluate programs before distribution. A special
cause for concern is the increased use of computers to control potentially
dangerous devices such as aircraft, nuclear reactors, or sensitive medical
equipment.
IT professionals must also consider the impact they have on computer
users. Web users for example often rely on data from Web sites providing
real-time information. The information displayed is determined with a
program written using a 4GL or other language that accesses a database.
The IT professionals involved in such a project have the ethical respon-
sibility to possibly millions of individuals for ensuring, as best they can,
accurate data retrieval.
As capable as computers have proven to be, we must be cautious when
allowing them to replace human beings in areas where judgement is cru-
cial. As intelligent beings, we can often detect that something out of the
ordinary has occurred which has not been previously anticipated and then
take appropriate actions. Computers will only do what they have been
programmed to do, even if it is to perform a dangerous act.

22 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

Chapter Summary
A desktop computer and its components are designed to fit on or under
a desk. Mobile computers include notebooks, tablets, handhelds, smart
phones, and wearables. A computer must run operating system (OS)
software in order to control processing and peripherals, run application
software, and control input and output, among other tasks.
A network is a combination of hardware and software that allows com-
puters to exchange data and share software and devices, such as printers.
Networks are classified by their size, architecture, topology, and protocol.
Network users should use netiquette.
A programming language is a set of words, codes, and symbols that
allows a programmer to communicate with the computer. Programming
languages can be classified as low-level and high-level languages. Low-
level programming languages include machine language and assembly
language. High-level programming languages have English-like
instructions and are easier to use than machine language. High-level
programming languages include Fortran, C, Basic, COBOL, and Pascal.
The electrical circuits on an IC have one of two states, off or on. Therefore,
the binary number system (base 2), which uses only two digits (0 and 1),
was adopted for use in computers. Our most familiar number system is the
decimal or base 10 system. The binary number system is a base 2 system
and the hexadecimal system is base 16. Every letter of an alphabet (Latin,
Japanese, Cherokee, and so on) and symbols of every culture (=, @, ½, and
so on) have been given a representation in a digital code called Unicode.
Computer memory, file sizes, and storage device capacities are measured
in bytes. In computers and electronics MB stands for megabytes, GB stands
for gigabytes, and K stands for kilobytes.
The binary representation of an integer number is usually stored in four
bytes of memory. Real numbers are numbers that contain decimal points
and the binary representation of a real number is usually in a 32-bit or
64-bit word of memory.
A file is related data stored on a persistent media. A file is really just 1s
and 0s because it is stored in binary code. Computers are programmed to
translate bytes and words into symbols. File types are distinguished by
the extension that comes after the file name. Folders are used to organize
commonly related files.
Storage devices use a persistent media to maintain files. These devices,
which are also referred to as drives, mass storage, and auxiliary storage,
can be categorized as internal or external, as removable or permanent
media, and as magnetic, optical, or solid state technology.
An intranet is a network that is used by a single organization and is only
accessible by authorized users. A firewall is a network security system that
prevents unauthorized network access. An extranet extends an intranet
by providing various levels of accessibility to authorized members of the
public. The largest and most widely accessed network is the Internet. The
most widely used Internet service is the World Wide Web, also called the
Web. Other Internet service include e-mail and mailing lists.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 23

 Telecommunications is the transmitting and receiving of data.
Telecommunication options include a conventional modem, a DSL modem,
a cable modem, leased/dedicated lines, and ISDN.
A search engine is used to locate information on the Web. Search crite-
ria is used to specify which pages are to be located. Operators including
+, –, space, AND, OR, and NOT can be used in specifying criteria. When
operators are used, a Boolean expression is formed.
There are guidelines for citing electronic material on the Internet. The
primary purpose of a citation is to give credit to the original author and
allow the reader to locate the cited information.
The growth of the Internet has caused concerns about personal privacy.
Online profiling, cookies, and Web bugs are all areas of concern. Before
providing personal information through a Web site, check the site’s pri-
vacy policy. To protect an individual’s privacy, several laws have been
passed. Concerns about Internet content, unproductive use, and copyright
have prompted many schools and businesses to develop an Internet Use
Agreement.
Historians refer to our present time as the information age. The poten-
tial for the use of computers to invade our right to privacy has prompted
legislation to protect individuals. Piracy is the illegal act of duplicating
software without permission. A virus is a computer file that erases data
and can cause considerable damage.
Working as an IT (information technology) professional includes taking
responsibility for the ethical aspects of a career choice. IT professionals
must also consider the impact they have on computer users.

24 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Vocabulary

Address A unique binary representation of a location Cookie Text file created by the server computer
in memory. when a user enters information into a Web site.
Address bus Carries memory addresses that indi- Copyright Protects a piece of work from reproduc-
cate data storage locations. tion without permission from the work’s author.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) The part of the CPU CPU (Central Processing Unit) Processes data and
that handles arithmetic and logic operations. controls the flow of data between the computer’s
other units. Also contains the ALU. Located on the
Antivirus program Software used to detect and
motherboard.
remove viruses.
Cracker Person who accesses a computer system
Applications software Program written to perform
without authorization.
a specific task.
Cross-platform connectivity The ability of one
Base unit Housing that contains the mother-
type of PC to link to and share data with a different
board, CD-RW/DVD drive, disk drive, and hard
type of PC.
disk drive.
Dedicated line See Leased line.
Binary number system Number system used by
computers that uses only digits 0 and 1. Also called Device driver One type of utility program.
base 2.
Downloading The process of copying a file from
Bit (BInary digiT) A single 0 or 1 in binary code. a Web site to the user’s computer.
Bus A central network cable. Also a set of circuits DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modem A modem
that connect the CPU to other components. that uses standard telephone phone lines. ADSL is
the most common form used.
Bus topology A physical LAN topology that uses a
single central cable to attach each node directly. E-mail (electronic mail) The sending and receiving
of messages and electronic files over a communica-
Byte A group of 8 bits.
tions network such as a LAN or the Internet.
Cable modem A modem that transmits data through
E-mail client Software used to create, send, receive,
a coaxial cable television network.
and organize e-mail messages.
Cache High-speed memory used to store frequently
Environment A computer’s hardware and soft-
used data so that it can be quickly retrieved by an
ware configuration. Also referred to as platform.
application.
Environment types include desktop, multiuser, net-
Client A computer that is sent information from a work, handheld, distributed, multiprocessing, and
server computer. multitasking.

Client/server network A type of network that Ergonomics The science that studies safe work
consists of a group of computers, called clients con- environments.
nected to a server computer.
Expansion boards Circuit boards that connect to the
Clock rate The speed at which a CPU can execute motherboard to add functionality to the computer.
instructions, measured in megahertz or gigahertz.
Exponent The bits that represent the exponent of
Compiler A program that converts an entire pro- a floating point number.
gram into machine code before the program is
Extension Added after a file name to distinguish
executed.
file types.
Control bus Carries control signals.
Extranet An extended intranet that provides vari-
Conventional modem A modem that uses stan- ous levels of access to authorized members of the
dard telephone lines to convert analog signals to public.
digital data.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 25

File A collection of related data stored on a lasting Kbps Thousands of bits per second.
medium.
Kilobytes (K) Approximately a thousand bytes.
Firewall A network security system that prevents
LAN (Local Area Network) A network used to
unauthorized network access.
connect devices within a small area.
Folder Used to organize commonly related files.
Leased line A telecommunication option used
Gigabytes (GB) Approximately one billion bytes. for a permanent connection to the Internet that is
always active.
Gigahertz (GHz) Billion of cycles per second.
Logical topology Refers to the way in which data
Hacker see Cracker.
is passed between the nodes on a network.
Handheld computer A mobile computing device.
Low-level programming languages First and
Hardware The physical components of the computer, second generation programming languages including
such as the monitor and system unit. machine language and assembly language.

Hexadecimal system Number system based on 16 Mailing list server A server that manages mailing
digits. Also called base 16. lists for groups of users.

High-level programming languages Third Magnetic technology Storage device technology that
generation programming languages that have uses a mechanical drive with tiny electro-magnetic
English-like instructions. heads for reading and writing data to media.

Hub A communication device that joins communica- Mbps Millions of bits per second.
tion lines at a central location on the network.
Megabytes (MB) Approximately one million
Information age Present time characterized bytes.
by increasing dependence on the computer’s
Megahertz (MHz) Million of cycles per second.
ability to store and manipulate large amounts of
information. Memory-resident A program that is always in
memory.
Input device Device used to enter data and instruc-
tions into the computer. Minus sign (–) Used in search criteria to exclude
unwanted Web pages.
Integrated circuits (ICs) A silicon wafer with intri-
cate circuits etched into its surface and then coated Modern Language Association (MLA) Organization
with a metallic oxide that fills in the etched circuit that publishes standards used for citations.
patterns. Also called a chip.
Motherboard The main circuit board inside the
Interactive Information accessed as a result of base unit.
selections made by the user.
Netiquette The etiquette that should be followed
Internet The largest and most widely accessed when using a network.
network.
Network A combination of software and hardware
Interpreter A program that translates and that allows computers to exchange data and to share
executes an instruction before moving on to the software and devices, such as printers.
next instruction in the program.
Net work architect ure The st ruct ure of a
Intranet A network that is used by a single organi- network.
zation and only accessible by authorized users.
Network interface card A circuit board that goes
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) A into a computer or other device in a LAN.
digital telephone network provided by a local tele-
Network operating system Software that allows
phone company.
users and devices to communicate over a network.
IT (Information Technology) A term that
Node A location on the network capable of processing
encompasses all aspects of computer-related
information, such as a computer or a printer.
technology.

26 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

Notebook A portable, lightweight computer. Real time Occurs immediately.
Object-oriented programming (OOP) An approach Ring topology A physical LAN topology where each
to programming where modules are created that can node is connected to form a closed loop.
be used over and over again.
ROM (Read Only Memory) Memory that stores
Online profiling A marketing technique that data and is a permanent part of the computer.
collects online data about consumers.
Roundoff error An error that occurs when there
Operating system Software that allows the user are not enough bits to hold the significand.
to communicate with the computer. Types include
Router A device that connects different network
multiuser, multiprocessing, multitasking, multi-
technologies.
threading, or real time.
Search criteria A single word or phrase that is used
Optical technology Storage device technology
by the search engine to match Web pages.
that uses a drive with a laser and optoelectronic
sensor. Search engine A program that searches a database
of Web pages for keywords and then lists hyperlinks
Output device A device used to convey processed
to pages that contain those keywords.
data.
Secondary memory Any type of storage media.
Overflow error An error that occurs when the num-
ber of bits that are needed to represent the integer Server A computer used to manage network func-
is greater than four bytes. tions such as communication and data sharing.
Over writes Updates an original file with Sign bit The bit that represents the sign of a number
changes. by either a 0 (positive) or a 1 (negative).
Peer-to-peer network A type of network that does Significand The bits that represent the significant
not have a server. digits of a floating point number.
Peripheral device A device attached to a PC. Smartphone Cellular phone that is able to send and
receive e-mail messages and access the Internet.
Phishing The act of sending an e-mail to a user
falsely claiming to be a legitimate business in an Solid state technology Storage device technology
attempt to trick the user into revealing personal that requires no moving parts.
information that could be used for crimes such as
identity theft. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) High-
speed memory referred to as cache.
Piracy Illegally copying or distributing software.
Star topology A physical LAN topology where
Plus sign (+) Used in search criteria to limit a search each node is attached to a hub.
to only those Web pages containing two or more
specified words. Storage devices Devices that use persistent media
to maintain files. Also referred to as drives, mass
Port Used to attach a peripheral device to a storage, and auxiliary storage.
computer.
Subject tree A list of sites separated into
Privacy policy A legally binding document that categories.
explains how any personal information will be
used. Tablet PC A computer designed similar to a pad
of paper.
Programming languages A set of words, codes, and
symbols that allows a programmer to communicate TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
with the computer. Protocol) Software used by networks connected
to routers to communicate.
RAM (Random Access Memory) Memory that
temporarily stores data and instructions. Also called Telecommunications The transmitting and receiv-
primary or main memory. ing of data.

Real numbers Numbers that contain decimal Topology The physical or logical arrangement of
points. the nodes on a network.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 27

Transmission media The media that joins the nodes
on a network to enable communication.
Trojan horse Malicious code in the form of a program
that appears as something else, usually a program
that looks trustworthy.
Ultra-portable devices Storage devices, such as
keychains, that are small and easy-to-use.
Unicode A digital code that uses a set of sixteen
1s and 0s to form a 16-bit binary code for each
symbol.
Utility program Program run by the operating
system to manage input and output, read and write
to memory, manage the processor, maintain system
security, and manage files and disks.
Virus A program that is designed to reproduce
itself by copying itself into other programs stored
on a computer without the user’s knowledge.
WAN (Wide Area Network) A network used to con-
nect computers over large geographical distances.
Wearable computer A mobile computing device
that is incorporated into clothing, eyewear, wrist-
wear, and other wearables.
Web See World Wide Web.
Web beacon A tiny, transparent graphic located on
a Web page used to collect data about the Web page
user. Also called a Web bug or pixel tag.
Web browser Interprets an HTML document to
display a Web page.
Web directory See Subject tree.
Wireless network A type of network that does not
require the use of cables.
Word Bits grouped in units of 16 to 64.
World Wide Web The most widely used Internet
service. Used to search and access information
available on the Internet.
Worm Program that is able to reproduce itself over
a network.

28 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Review Questions

1. a) What is hardware? 15. a) What does physical topology refer to?

b) What are input and output devices used b) What is a node?
for? c) Which topology uses a hub?
c) What is a peripheral device? d) Which topology connects each node to form
a closed loop?
2. List and describe five components found on the e) What is the difference between physical and
motherboard. logical topology?

3. Describe the flow of data between the compo- 16. List three netiquette rules.
nents of a computer, starting with input.
17. Explain why the binary number system was
4. a) Describe one difference between operating adopted for use in computers.
system software and applications software.
b) Describe three different types of operating 18. a) What is the decimal equivalent of 1112?
systems. b) What is the decimal equivalent of 2C16?
c) What does environment refer to?
19. What is Unicode?
5. What is a utility program? Give an example.
20. a) How many bytes of data can 512 MB of RAM
6. List four types of mobile computing devices. store?
b) How many bytes of data can a 40 GB hard
7. What is a stylus used for? drive store?

8. Describe one type of wearable computer. 21. What are bits grouped in units of 16 to 64
called?
9. Why is cross-platform connectivity important
to many computer users? 22. When would an overflow error occur?

10. a) What is the difference between low and high 23. a) What are real numbers?
level programming languages? b) When would a roundoff error occur?
b) L i st t h r e e h ig h -le ve l pr o g ra m m i ng
languages. 24. a) What is the difference between a text file and
c) What is the difference between a compiler a binary file?
and an interpreter? b) Explain how an extension distinguishes file
d) List an advantage of using an object-oriented types.
programming language. c) Why would organizing files into folders be
considered a good practice?
11. List four benefits of using a network.
25. List three ways storage devices can be classified
12. a) What are the two common size classifica- and give an example of a storage device in each
tions for networks? category.
b) What size classification is used to connect
devices over large geographical distances? 26. Describe three storage device technologies.

13. a) What is a network operating system? 27. List four rules that should be followed to avoid
b) What does a network environment refer damaging files stored on disks or CD/DVDs.
to?
28. a) What is the difference between an intranet
14. Describe two common network architecture and an extranet?
models. b) Who controls the Internet?

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 29

29. List three telecommunications options. 38. a) List four questions to answer when evaluat-
ing a Web site source.
30. a) If a business needed constant access to the b) Why is it necessary to cite sources?
Internet, what type of connection line would c) On August 2, 2009 you accessed a posting
be a good choice? Why? dated July 1, 2009 from the Clewiston Kite
b) What does a cable modem use instead of Surfing discussion list serve at http://www.
analog phone lines? Lpdatafiles.com/kitesurf/color.txt. The post-
ing was made by Tara Perez on the topic of
31. W hat is t he most widely used I nter net kite colors. Write a citation for a research
service? paper that quotes Tara’s posting.

32. a) What is e-mail? 39. What is online profiling?

b) List one benefit of e-mail over standard
mail. 40. What is a cookie?
c). Write your e-mail address and label the parts
of the address. 41. a) What is a Web beacon?
d) What are the two requirements for sending b) Who usually monitors the information
and receiving e-mail messages? collected by Web beacons?
e) List one example of a Web-based e-mail
client. 42. Locate a Web site’s privacy policy and document
its contents.
33. a) Explain why sending an e-mail message
should be thought of the same as sending a 43. Name and briefly describe one law that helps
postcard. protect the privacy of an individual.
b) List three examples of e-mail etiquette.
c) List three examples of e-mail ethics. 44. a) List three reasons why many schools have
developed an Acceptable Use Policy.
34. a) What is a search engine? b) List an example of a rule that typically
b) List three commonly used search engines. appears on an Acceptable Use Policy.
c) Which search engine do you prefer to use,
and why? 45. What can you do if you are turned down for
d) What is search criteria? credit at a bank and believe that the data used
to deny credit is inaccurate?
35. Write search criteria to locate Web pages that
contain the following information: 46. a) What is necessary for a federal government
a) restaurants in Los Angeles authority to access an individual’s financial
b) art museums in Boston records?
c) auto repair jobs in Montreal, Canada b) What must a financial institution do after
d) mosquitoes and bees, but not ants releasing an individual’s records?
e) the English author Jane Austen
f) the phrase to each his own 47. a) What is copyright infringement?
g) George Washington and John Adams, but b) Why is computer piracy such a concern to
not Thomas Jefferson software developers?
h) travel to Ireland, but not Dublin c) What is a computer virus?
d) Describe phishing.
36. List the three logical operators than can be used
in search criteria. 48. What ethical responsibilities does an IT
professional have?
37. a) What is downloading?
b) Why should files only be downloaded from
authentic sites?

30 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

True/False
49. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
a) A computer must have an operating system
installed before application software can be
installed.
b) FireWire and USB are types of ports.
c) A peer-to-peer network has a server.
d) A LAN’s logical topology is always the same
as its physical topology.
e) The hexadecimal system is a base 2 system.
f) Computer memory is measured in bytes.
g) The most widely accessed network is the
Internet.
h) A conventional modem transmits data faster
than a cable modem.
i) E-mail messages are private.
j) Information found at a Web site is always
accurate.
k) The present time is referred to as the
industrial age.
l) Ergonomics is the science that studies safe
work environments.
m) A virus is a harmless computer game.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 31

Exercises

Exercise 1 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will research your classroom computer network by answering a series of
questions:

a) Is your computer network a LAN or a WAN?

b) List one device that is shared on the network.
c) Locate the cable that plugs into the network interface card on your workstation.
d) What type of physical topology is used?
e) What type of transmission media is used?
f) What network protocol is used?
g) What operating system is used?
h) Describe your workstation’s environment.
i) What telecommunication option is used?
j) Does the school have an intranet?
k) List four rules on the school’s Internet Use Agreement.

Exercise 2 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will assess the input and output devices you have access to.

a) List the input devices accessible on the classroom network.

b) List the output devices accessible on the classroom network. List advantages and dis-
advantages associated with each accessible output device.

Exercise 3 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will organize your existing files. You may need to refer to the appropriate operating
system chapter on www.Lpdatafiles.com to complete this exercise.

a) Examine the files you currently have saved on your computer. Use the appropriate
operating system command to rename any files that do not have descriptive names.
b) Use the appropriate operating system commands to organize your existing files into
appropriate folders.

32 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

Exercise 4 ——————————————————————————
A good friend has been diagnosed with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and would like you to find out as
much as you can about the injury and possible treatments.

a) Conduct a search on the Internet using at least two search engines to find three Web
pages that have information about Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.
b) Write a brief description of the injury.
c) In a second paragraph, write about possible treatments for the injury.
d) Write a citation for each source.

Exercise 5 ——————————————————————————
Expand on the information presented in this chapter by researching one of the following topics:
• Network Protocols
• Operating Systems
• The History of the Internet
• Evolution of Programming Languages
• Identity Theft

a) Use the Internet, magazines, and books to find at least three sources of information.
b) Write a two page report that summarizes your research.
c) Write a citation for each source.

Exercise 6 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will research and compare the advantages and cost of obtaining Internet access
through three different telecommunication options.

a) Use the Internet and newspapers to find information about Internet service providers
(ISPs).
b) Compare the costs and the advantages of at least three different telecommunication
options.
c) Write a one paragraph conclusion that explains what telecommunication option would
be the best choice.
d) Write a citation for each source.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers 33

Exercise 7 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will further research emerging technologies and find real-life examples of how
these technologies have impacted individuals and businesses.

a) Use the Internet, magazines, and books to learn more about at least three emerging
technologies. Look specifically for information on how these emerging technologies
impact individuals and businesses. For example, speech recognition technology greatly
impacts those individuals who must rely on voice input rather than keyboard input
for a PC.
b) Write a two-page report that summarizes the impact of and lists several functions of
the emerging technologies you have researched.
c) Write a citation for each source.

Exercise 8 ——————————————————————————
Many computer viruses have been associated with e-mail attachments.

a) Conduct a search on the Internet to find information about a virus associated with an
e-mail attachments.
b) Write a one-paragraph description of the virus. Include details, such as the damage
caused by the virus and steps necessary to remove the virus.
c) Write a citation for each source.

Exercise 9 ——————————————————————————
You have decided to investigate computer programming as a possible career path.

a) Conduct a search on the Internet using at least two search engines to find three appro-
priate bachelor degree programs.
b) List each program location (college name), the number of credits required to finish the
degree, and the tuition cost per credit or per course.

Exercise 10 ——————————————————————————
In this exercise you will investigate list serves.

a) Join an appropriate computer-related mailing list.

b) Participate on the mailing list as a learner.
c) Contribute to the mailing list content.

34 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computers

 Chapter 2
Applets and Web Programming

T his chapter discusses Web programming by introducing HTML and

JavaScript. Java applets are also introduced.

The World Wide Web

The most widely used Internet service is the World Wide Web (WWW),
also called the Web. The Web is used to search and access information avail-
Web browser application able on the Internet. A Web browser application, such as Internet Explorer
provides a graphic interface to present information from a Web site. A Web
Web site site consists of a series of related Web pages. For example, a CNN Web page
looks similar to:

Browsers
Commonly used Web browser
applications include Internet
Explorer, Firefox, Netscape,
Opera, Amaya, and Safari.

A Web page displayed in a Web browser

Most Web pages are created using HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
HTML and other code. HTML is a markup language that is well suited for the
hypertext Web because it supports hypertext and multimedia. Hypertext is a database

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 35

 multimedia system where objects, such as text and images, can be linked. Multimedia
includes images, video, audio, and Java applets, which can be embedded
in an HTML document.
Millions of people all over the world are able to view and author Web
content because the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) continuously
develops standards for the Web. These standards include HTML standards
to ensure that HTML documents display similarly in different browsers
and across different platforms. They have also developed Web accessibility
standards for those with disabilities.

Tim Berners-Lee HTML

1955 –
Tim Berners- Lee is cred- HTML uses a set of codes, called tags, to “mark up” plain text so that
ited with creating the World a browser application, such as Internet Explorer, knows how to interpret
Wide Web. Berners-Lee now
the text. A tag is comprised of an element inside angle brackets (<>). For
heads a non-profit group,
the W3C (World Wide Web example, <title> is called the title tag, where title is the element. Tags
Consortium), which sets tech- affect the text they surround, and are usually paired to indicate the start
nical standards for the Web. and end of an instruction. A slash (/) before the element indicates the end
of an instruction, such as </title>.
A Web page with one line of text will be displayed when the HTML
document below is opened in a browser:
TIP HTML is not a case <html>
sensitive language.
<head>
<title>An example HTML document</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello world!</p>
</body>
TIP A tag should not have any
spaces between the opening </html>
bracket and the element or
slash. Text marked up with <title> and </title> is displayed in the title bar of
the browser window. In Internet Explorer, the title is also displayed in the
tab. The text Hello world! is marked to be displayed as a paragraph (<p>
and </p>) in the body of the browser window (<body> and </body>). When
viewed in Internet Explorer, the HTML tags are interpreted sequentially
TIP A Web server is a com- and the document appears similar to:
puter that uses the Internet and
HTTP to send HTML text to a
Web browser.

Viewing HTML
Documents
An HTML document stored
on a local computer can also
be viewed in a browser. In A Web browser is used to access and view HTML documents that have
Internet Explorer, click been published to a Web server. The Web browser first interprets the URL
j Menu Bar. Next, select File to identify the location of the page on the Web and then interprets the
j Open and then Browse to HTML document to display a Web page in the browser window. HTML
navigate to the location of the documents saved on a local computer can also be viewed in a browser.
HTML document.

36 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Creating an HTML Document
HTML documents are plain text files and can be created using any text
TIP In Internet Explorer, the editor, such as Notepad, or by using a word processor. In general, the
HTML for a displayed Web structure of an HTML document should be similar to:
page can be viewed by click-
ing j View Source.

Validating HTML
HTML document s can be
validated to ensure they are
meeting W3C standards at the
http ://v a lid ator.w3.or g
Web site.
An HTML document contains pairs of tags
In order to validate an HTML
document, a DTD (docu- The html, head, title, and body tags are called document tags:
ment definition tag) must be
included as the first line of an • The <html> tag tells the browser that the file contains HyperText
HTML document. For exam- Markup Language.
ple, to check to see if an HTML
document meets HTML 4.01 • The <head> tag defines the section that contains information about
standards, include the tag: the document, including its title. This section will not be displayed
as part of the document content.
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-
//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01// EN" • The <title> tag marks the document title. The title section
"http://www.w3.org/TR/ must be within the head section. The document title should be
hmtl4/stict.dtd"> descriptive and meaningful because it is displayed in the title bar
of the browser’s window and is also used when the user adds the
document to the browser’s Favorites list.
• The <body> tag defines the body section, which contains the doc-
ument’s content. All content must be enclosed in the appropriate
tags. For example, on the previous page, the content is marked as
a paragraph.

HTML documents are free-form, which means that spaces and blank lines
generally have no effect on how the document is interpreted. Therefore,
the document:
TIP To help make an HTML <html><head><title>An example HTML document</title>
document easier to under- </head>
stand, place document tags <body> <p>Hello world!</p></body></html>
on separate lines, except the
title tags, and use blank lines to Poorly structured HTML document
separate sections of HTML.
displays exactly the same as the HTML document on the previous page.
However, editing a poorly structured document can be time-consuming
and error-prone.
saving an HTML document An HTML document is saved with a lowercase, descriptive file name.
The file name should not contain any spaces and the .htm extension needs
to be added. If using a word processor to save the file, be sure to save the
file in text format.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 37

 Review: hello_world.htm
Create a properly structured HTML document that displays “My name is Name. Hello world!”, replacing
Name with your name. Include the title “First HTML Document”. View the HTML document in a browser.

Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 1 of 6

Create a properly structured HTML document that displays the text “Computer Viruses.” Include the title
“Computer Viruses”. Save the document as computer _ virus.htm in a folder named Computer Viruses. View
the HTML document in a browser.

JavaScript
Scripts are used to add dynamic content to an HTML document and
consist of a list of commands that execute without user interaction. Scripts
Java vs JavaScript are written in a scripting language, such as JavaScript. JavaScript is a
JavaScript is similar to the Java scripting language that is interpreted by a browser’s built-in JavaScript
programming language, but it engine.
is a separate language.
In an HTML document, JavaScript code is written as a script block
between <script> and </script> tags. Scripts are typically found in
the head section, but can be placed anywhere in an HTML document.
Displaying a message in an alert dialog box is one form of dynamic content
that can be added to an HTML document using a script:
T I P Java S cript is c a s e
sensitive. <head>
<title>JavaScript Greeting</title>
<script type="text/javascript">
// Display a greeting
alert("Hello World!");
</script>
</head>
JavaScript Files • The type attribute in the script tag specifies which scripting
Scripts can also be written as a language is used to define the script.
separate JavaScript file, which
is saved with a .js extension,
• // is used to add a single line comment that explains the script.
and then referenced in the • a ler t() displays an alert dialog box with the specified text
script tag. message.
• A semicolon is used to end each JavaScript statement.

The script above is interpreted when the HTML document is loaded:

38 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 JavaScript can also be used to prompt the user for information:
<head>
<title>JavaScript User Name</title>
<script type="text/javascript">
//initialize a variable with a null value
var name = null;
// Ask user for their name
name = prompt("Please enter your first name", " ");
//Greet the user
alert("Welcome " + name);
</script>
</head>

• A variable called name is initialized to represent the user’s name.

• prompt() displays the specified message in a prompt dialog box.
TIP JavaScript terminology
is similar to Java terminology The empty string, " ", after the message indicates the prompt box
which is explained throughout is to be blank when the dialog box is first displayed. When the user
the text. enters their name, it is assigned it to the variable name.
• The text message and variable are joined by a +.

The script above generates output similar to:

Review: welcome.htm
Create an HTML document that contains a script block that prompts the user for their full name and then
displays the message “Welcome to our site Full Name”, replacing Full Name with the user’s name, in an alert
dialog box.

Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 2 of 6

Modify computer _ virus.htm to include a script block that prompts the user for their first name when the
page loads and then displays “Ready to Learn About Computer Viruses Name?”, replacing Name with the
user’s name, in an alert dialog box.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 39

 Using Scripts to Enhance a Website
Static Web sites can be enhanced by the dynamic nature of scripts.
For example, JavaScript can be used to define the default message that is
displayed in the status bar of the browser window:
<script type="text/javascript">
// Display a status bar message
window.defaultStatus="Hello World";
</script>

The script above is interpreted when the HTML document is loaded, and
displays a message in the status bar of the browser window:

Note that priority is given to system messages, such as when a page is

loading.
JavaScript can also be used to display the current date and time on a
Web page:
<head>
<title>JavaScript Current Date</title>
TIP The current date and time <script type="text/javascript">
is accessed from the operating // Display the current date
system clock on the user’s var now = new Date();
computer. document.write(now);
</script>
</head>

• A new date object called now is created. Objects are discussed in

chapter 4.
• document.write is used to display output on the Web page:

Web applications are often programmed to display differently depend-

ing on the user’s browser, platform, and whether Java is enabled. These
settings can be detected using JavaScript:
<head>
<title>JavaScript Setting Detector</title>
<script type="text/javascript">
// Detect the browser
var browser = navigator.appName;
// Detect the platform
var platform = navigator.platform;
//Detect Java enabled
var JavaCheck = navigator.javaEnabled();
alert(browser +" \n" + platform + " \n" + "Java is enabled: "
+ JavaCheck);
</script>
</head>

• navigator.appName detects the browser name.

• navigator.platform detects the operating system.

40 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 • navigator.javaEnabled() detects whether Java is enabled and
Java Enabled returns a value of true or false.

Users can enable and disable • \n creates a new line.

Java in their Web browser’s
Internet options settings. The script will generate output similar to:

Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 3 of 6

Modify computer _ virus.htm to display “Computer Viruses” in the status bar of the browser window and
to display the current time and date on the first line of the Web page.

Review: System Check – part 1 of 2

Create an HTML document that detects the browser, platform, and whether the browser is Java enabled.
Display the output in an alert dialog box.

Java Applets
A Java applet is a small Java application that is embedded in an HTML
TIP This section provides document and run in a browser window. When a browser interprets a
a brief overview on writing document that contains a Java applet, the program files are downloaded
Java applets. You may want onto the user’s machine and then the browser’s Java interpreter runs the
to revisit this section after
becoming familiar with the
applet. Java applets are well suited for the Web because they are able to
Java programming language. run on different hardware and across different platforms. Applets are
secure because they do not have the ability to read or write to files on a
user’s computer.
Numerous applets can be downloaded from the Web and embedded in
an HTML document to add dynamic content. Applets take various forms,
such as animated banners, stock ticker tapes, photo cubes, and animated
video clips. Original applets can also be created.

Creating Java Applets

An applet is created in a Java compiler, such as JCreator. The Java code for
the applet is saved with a .java extension and then compiled to convert the
Java code to bytecode. The bytecode is saved with a .class extension.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 41

 The code below is for a basic applet that paints the message “My first
Java applet” at a specific screen location:
/*
* Example _ Applet.java
*/

import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;

public class Example _ Applet extends Applet {

String message;

public void init() {

message="My first Java applet";
}
TIP The example applet uses
the Applet class, which is part public void paint(Graphics g) {
of the java.applet package, g.setColor(Color.blue);
a n d t h e G r a p hic s cla s s, g.drawString(message, 50, 60 );
which is part of the java.awt }
package. }

• The two import statements indicate which Java packages are

used.
• A class is used to define an applet and extend the Applet class.
Applets are always an extension of the Applet class.
TIP Packages, classes, and • The init() method is used to initialize variables to starting values.
methods are explained in The variable message is assigned the text string, “My first Java
Chapter 3.
applet”.
• The paint() method is used to paint text, shapes, and graphics onto
the screen. In this example, the paint() method defines a Graphics
object named g.
• The setColor() method sets the text color.
• The drawString() method draws the message on the screen at the
Coordinates specified coordinates.
A picture painted on the
screen is made up of series Java SE includes the JRE (Java SE Runtime Environment) with an applet-
of pixels (picture elements.) viewer, which can be used to interpret, execute, and test an applet. When
Each pixel maps to a screen executed, the example applet above will appear similar to:
location. Screen locations are
represented using (x,y) values.
The top-left corner has the
coordinates (0,0) with the x-
axis running horizontal and the
y-axis running vertical.

42 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Drawing Shapes and Adding Color
Original applets can be created to draw colorful images. The applet
below illustrates how shapes can be drawn and filled and how the back-
ground and foreground colors are set:
/*
* Drawing Shapes and Changing Color Example
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;

public class Shapes _ Color extends Applet {

public void paint(Graphics g) {

setBackground (Color.darkGray);
Predefined Colors g.setColor(Color.pink);
Predefined colors include g.drawRect(50, 50, 40, 40);
black , blu e, c yan, g r ay, g.setColor(Color.blue);
darkGray, lightGray, green, g.fillRect(100, 100, 150, 150);
magenta, orange, pink, red, g.setColor(Color.green);
white, and yellow. g.drawLine(20, 20, 300, 20);
g.setColor(Color.red);
g.fillOval(250, 250, 50, 50);
}
}

When executed, the applet looks similar to:

The different shapes require specified coordinates. For example:

• drawLine (x1, y1, x2, y2) Paints a line from coordinates (x1,
y1) to (x2, y2).
• drawOval (x, y, width, height) Paints an oval with the upper
left corner at position (x, y) with the specified width and height.
• drawRect (x, y, width, height) Paints a rectangle with the
upper left corner at position (x, y) with the specified width and
height.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 43

 • drawArc (x, y, width, height, startAngle, arcAngle) Paints
an arc with the upper left corner at position (x, y) with the specified
width, height, starting angle, and arc angle.

Review: Hot Air Balloon

This review requires a Java compiler. Experiment with drawing shapes and adding color by
creating an applet that paints a picture of a hot air balloon on the screen. Compile the applet
and view it in the appletviewer.

Placing an Applet in an HTML

Accessibility Document
I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e A DA
(Americans with Disabilities An applet is embedded in an HTML document within the <applet>
Act), enacted in 1990, the and </applet> tags. The tags can surround an alternative text message
W3C has developed guidelines that will be displayed if the applet cannot run in the browser:
called the Web Accessibility
Initiative (WAI). These guide- <html>
lines call for alternative text to
be provided for any content on <head>
a Web page that is not text. <title>Embedding an Applet</title>
</head>

<body>
<applet code = "FirstApplet.class" width = "300" height = "60">
You are unable to view the applet.
</applet>
</body>
<object> Tag
The <applet> tag has three required attributes:
The <object> tag allows for
multimedia resources, such as • code=“name” specifies the name of the applets to run
video and audio, to be embed-
ded in an HTML document.
• width=“value” specifies the width for the applet display in pixels
When interpreting an <object> • height=“value” specifies the height for the applet display in
tag, the browser determines if pixels
another application, such as
the Windows media player, is
needed to display the object.

The <object> tag can also be

Applet Parameters
used to embed a media player
console in an HTML docu- Parameters allow users to specify custom values to use in a Java applet. In
ment using Microsoft ActiveX an HTML document, parameter information is specified in a <param> tag,
controls. which requires two attributes, name and value. For example, the HTML
document below specifies a specific image file, scenery.gif, to use in the
applet.
<body>
<applet code = "AppletParam.class" width = "300" height = "60">
<param name ="image" value = "scenery.gif">
TIP Parameters typically need You are unable to view the applet.
to be specified for applets
</applet>
downloaded from the Web.
</body>

44 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Review: System Check – part 2 of 2
An applet available at the Sun Microsystems Web site, http://java.sun.com, is an analog
clock. Modify the body section of the System Check HTML document as follows, which
embeds the JavaClock.class applet data file:
<applet code="JavaClock.class" width="150" height="150">
<param name="bgcolor" value="ffffff">
<param name="border" value="5">
<param name="ccolor" value="dddddd">
<param name="cfont" value="TimesRoman|BOLD|18">
<param name="delay" value="100">
<param name="hhcolor" value="0000ff">
<param name="link" value="http://java.sun.com/">
<param name="mhcolor" value="00ff00">
<param name="ncolor" value="000000">
<param name="nradius" value="80">
<param name="shcolor" value="ff0000">
</applet>

Save the modified System Check HTML document in the classes folder in the CLOCK folder, which is included
as a data file for this text.

HTML Tags
In addition to applets and scripts, a Web page can contain text. For
HTML 4 example, consider the following Web page:

The current version of HTML is

HTML 4. HTML 4 is supported
by newer browsers.

The HTML for the Web page is shown below. The body section of the
HTML document includes the content and tags that format the content:
<body>
<h1>Computer Viruses</h1>
<hr>

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 45

 <p>A computer virus is a program that is loaded onto the computer
without the user's knowledge. Computer viruses have varying
effects, such as:</p>
<!--creates a bulleted list-->
<ul>
<li>displaying annoying messages</li>
<li>causing programs to run incorrectly</li>
<li>erasing the contents of the hard drive</li>
</ul>
<p>In order to protect against viruses:</p>
<!--creates a numbered list-->
<ol>
<li>install an antivirus program</li>
<li>update antivirus definitions on a regular basis</li>
</ol>
<h4>Report by Student Name</h4>
</body>
Browser Preferences
The formatting associated with There are six levels of headings, which are represented with tags <h1>
heading tags varies between through <h6>. Heading tags are used to emphasize enclosed text. Each
browsers and is dependent heading level has specific formatting associated with it, which includes
on the preferences set by the font size, bold text, and space above and below the heading. Heading 1 has
user. the largest font size and is used to represent the most important informa-
tion. Heading 6 has the smallest font size.
horizontal rule The <hr> tag places a horizontal rule (line) across the width of the
browser window. This feature is used to divide the text in the browser
window into sections for easier reading. The horizontal rule tag does not
need to be paired.
attribute HTML tags may also contain attributes. An attribute is placed in the start
tag and set to a value that modifies the element. For example, the hori-
zontal rule width attribute specifies the width of the line in the browser
window as a percentage, <hr width="50%">. Other attributes of the <hr>
tag include:
• size=“value” specifies the thickness of the rule in pixels.
• align=“value” specifies the rule alignment. The default alignment
is center.
paragraphs Text enclosed by <p> and </p> is a paragraph. Lines of paragraph text
are automatically wrapped by the browser, and a blank line is added after
each paragraph. To move a line of text within a paragraph to the next line,
a break tag <br> is used. A break tag does not need to be paired.

comments Comments are text used to explain and clarify HTML to the reader of an
HTML document. They do not appear in a browser window. Comments
start with an angle bracket, followed by an exclamation mark and two
hyphens. At the end of the comment are two more hyphens and an ending
bracket, <!--comment-->.
lists Lists are used to organize information. Bulleted and numbered are
two types of lists that can be created in an HTML document. A bulleted
list, also called an unordered list, is used when each item is equally impor-
tant. A numbered list, also called an ordered list, is used to show priority of
importance.
Bulleted list tags include:
• <ul> </ul> defines the start and end of a bulleted list
• <li> </li> defines the start and end of an item

46 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Numbered list tags include:
• <ol> </ol> defines the start and end of a numbered list
• <li> </li> defines the start and end of a list item

Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 4 of 6

Modify the body section of computer _ virus.htm to include the content and tags shown on the two previous
pages. View the HTML document in a browser.

Hyperlinks, Tables, and Images

The display of an HTML document can be further enhanced with
hyperlinks, tables, and images. Tables are used to arrange data in an HTML
document. Note the virus table:

The HTML for the Web page is shown below:

<html>
<head>
<title>Antivirus Program</title>
</head>
<body>
<h2>Checking for Viruses</h2>
<p>A computer can be checked for <a href="computer _ virus.htm">
viruses</a> using an antivirus program. An antivirus program is a
utility that scans a hard disk for viruses. If a virus is located,
it will be removed by the antivirus program.</p>
<h2>Example Virus Threats </h2>
<table border="2" width="300" cellpadding="5">
<th>Virus</th>
<th>Threat </th>

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 47

 <tr><td>Worm MyDoom.p</td>
<td>Low</td></tr>
<tr><td>Worm Blueworm.D</td>
<td>Low</td> </tr>
<tr><td>Worm Bagle.AI</td>
<td>Medium</td> </tr>
</table>
<img src="VIRUS.gif" height="150" width="100">
<h5>Report by: Student Name</h5>
</body>
</html>

The anchor tag (<a>) is used in an HTML document to mark text that is
a link. The href attribute is set in the tag to the name of the linked docu-
ment. For example, <a href="digicam.htm">digital cameras</a>.
A hyperlink, also called a link, is text displayed in a browser window
that can be clicked to display a different HTML document in the browser
window. Hyperlinks are what make a hypertext system, such as the Web
TIP Visited hyperlinks are work. Hyperlinks are typically displayed as blue, underlined text in the
typically displayed as purple,
underlined text in the browser browser window. Countless documents can all be linked, allowing the
window. user to go from topic to topic, or browse HTML documents.
A table requires several tags for formatting:
• <table> </table> creates a table.
TIP Tables can also be used to • <th> </th> creates a table header, which is a cell with bold, centered
control the layout of an HTML text.
document by placing content
in table cells and setting the • <tr> </tr> defines the start and end of a table row.
border attribute to 0. • <td> </td> defines the start and end of a table data cell.

The <table> tag attributes include:

• border=“value” specifies the thickness of the cell border where
value is in pixels.
• cellpadding=“value” sets the amount of space between table cells
where value is a number.
• width=“value” specifies the width of a table where value is a num-
ber in pixels or a percentage of the document’s width.

The display of an HTML document can also be enhanced with images.

The <img src="file name"> tag inserts an image where file name is the
file name of the graphic. Image files added to an HTML document should
GIF, JPG, PNG be GIF, JPG, or PNG format. The image tag does not need to be paired.
GIF (Graphics Interchange Attributes of the <img> tag include:
Format) format is limited to
• border=“value” specifies the size of the border around the image
256 colors and best used for
clip art or logos, JPG (Joint where value is a number in pixels.
Photographic Expert Group) • alt=“value” specifies alternate text for the graphic where value is
format supports millions of the alternative text.
colors and is best used for
photographs. PNG (Portable • height=“value” specifies the height of the image in pixels.
Network Graphic) format is a
newer format supported by the
• width=“value” specifies the width of the image in pixels.
newest browsers.

48 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 5 of 6
Modify computer _ virus.htm to make the text “antivirus program” a hyperlink to a document named
antivirus.htm. Create the antivirus.htm document using the content and formatting shown in the HTML
document in the “Hyperlinks, Tables, and Images” section. Note that the first paragraph links “viruses” back
to computer _ virus.htm. Save the antivirus.htm document in the Computer Viruses folder. The VIRUS.gif
image file is a data file for this text. Place a copy of this data file in the Computer Viruses folder. View the
antivirus.htm document in a browser and test the hyperlinks.

Style Sheets
A style sheet is used to define the type, paragraph, and page formats
for an HTML document. Style sheets give HTML documents a consistent
appearance because they override the browser settings that interpret how
tags are displayed:

embedded style sheet A style sheet can be embedded or linked. An embedded style sheet is
defined within <style type="text/css"> and </style> tags in the head
section of the HTML document. The embedded style sheet for the Web
page above appears as:
<html>
<head>
<title>Computer Viruses</title>
<!--apply style sheet rules to the document-->
<style type="text/css">
h1 {color: #FF0000; text-align: center}
p {font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;
font-size: 16 px; line-height: 18 px}
ul {font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;
font-size: 14 px; line-height: 18 px}
ol {font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;
font-size: 14 px; line-height: 18 px}
h4 {text-align : right}
</style>
</head> …rest of HTML document

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 49

 linked style sheet A linked style sheet is a separate file that is saved with a .css extension.
A <link> tag is then added to HTML documents that should apply the
style sheet. The <link> tag has a format similar to <link rel="stylesheet"
href= "style.css" type="text/css">, where style.css is the name of the
style sheet.
Font Family Style sheets can include rules and classes, a linked style sheet can con-
Declarations tain only rules. A rule modifies an HTML element and is comprised of a
F o n t- f a mily d e cla r at io n s selector and declarations. The selector is the HTML element being redefined
indicate the first font that a and the declarations are the formats to be applied. For example:
browser should display, and
then alternate fonts if the first p { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;
is not installed on the user’s font-size: 16px; }
computer. Style Sheet Rule
The rule above will automatically display paragraphs in 16 px Georgia.
The font-family property can also be specified as generic font, such as
serif, sans serif, or monospace and the font-size may be defined in points,
pixels, inches, or centimeters (pt, px, in, cm).

class A class is a set of declarations that can be applied to different tags. Class
names begin with a dot (.). For example:
.para _ with _ space {
font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;
font-size: 14px;
line-height: 28px;
}
Style Sheet Class
The class above can be applied to individual paragraphs to format the
paragraph in 14px Georgia with a line-height of 28 px. For example:
<p class="para _ with _ space">Spyware is software that collects
information without the user's knowledge. The information is
usually for advertising purposes.</p>

Text and background colors in an HTML document are specified using

hexadecimal hexadecimal numbers. Hexadecimal is a base-16 numbering system that
consists of the numbers 0 through 9 and the letters A through F. Color
constants and corresponding hexadecimal values include:
Black (#000000) Silver (#C0C0C0)
Gray (#808080) White (#FFFFFF)
Maroon (#800000) Red (#FF0000)
Purple (#800080) Fuchsia (#FF00FF)
Green (#008000) Lime (#00FF00)
Olive (#808000) Yellow (#FFFF00)
Navy (#000080) Blue (#0000FF)
Teal (#008080) Aqua (#00FFFF)

text and background color To change the background and text color of an HTML document, the
HTML body element is modified in a style sheet rule:
body { background-color : #000000; color : #FFFFFF }

50 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 To change the text color of a selected tag, the appropriate HTML element
is modified in a style sheet rule. For example:
h1 {color : #0000FF }

text alignment HTML content is left aligned by default. To change the alignment of an
entire HTML document, the HTML body element is modified in a style
sheet rule:
body { text-align : center }

To change the alignment of certain parts of a document, modify the

appropriate HTML element. For example, the Heading 1 tag is modified
in a style sheet rule to be right aligned:
h1 { text-align : right }

Review: Computer Viruses Website – part 6 of 6

Modify computer _ virus.htm to include an embedded style sheet with rules to format Heading 1 style in
a red color, center aligned and Heading 4 style as right aligned. Also include rules to format paragraphs in
Georgia, Times New Roman, Times, serif font-family in a font size of 16 pixels and a line height of 18 pixels
and unordered, and ordered list tags in Georgia, Times New Roman, Times, serif font-family in a font size
of 14 pixels and a line height of 18 pixels. Add an appropriate comment to the document.
Create a linked style sheet named antivirus.css, which defines rules to format Heading 2 style in a navy
color and Heading 5 style as right aligned. Save antivirus.css in the Computer Viruses folder. Add the
appropriate <link> tag to antivirus.htm to apply the style sheet to the document. View the HTML docu-
ments in a browser.

Chapter Summary
Most Web pages are created using HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
and other code. HTML is a markup language that is well suited for the Web
because it supports hypertext and multimedia. HTML uses a set of codes,
called tags, to “mark up” plain text so that a browser application, such as
Internet Explorer, knows how to display the text in a browser window.
Scripts are used to add dynamic content to an HTML document.
JavaScript is a scripting language that is interpreted by a browser’s built-
in JavaScript engine. In an HTML document, JavaScript code is written as
a script block between <script> and </script> tags.
A Java applet is a small Java application that is embedded in an HTML
document within the <applet> and </applet> tags and run in a browser
window. Applets can be downloaded from the Web and embedded in an
HTML document to add dynamic content. Original applets can also be
created. Parameters allow users to specify custom values to use in a Java
applet. In an HTML document, parameter information is specified in a
<param> tag.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 51

 HTML documents are plain text files and can be created using any text
editor. The structure of an HTML document should include the document
tags <html>, <head>, <title>, and <body>. Other HTML tags introduced
in this chapter include:
• the paragraph tag, <p>
• the break tag, <br>
• the heading tags, <h1> through <h6>
• the horizontal rule tag, <hr>
• the unordered list tag, <ul>
• the ordered list tag, <ol>
• the table tag, <table>
• the link tag, <link>
• the image tag, <img>
• the anchor tag, <a>
• the comment tag, <!--comment-->
• the style sheet tag, <style>

Text enclosed by <p> and </p> is a paragraph. To move a line of text

within a paragraph to the next line, a break tag <br> is used. Heading
tags are used to emphasize enclosed text. The horizontal rule tag places
a horizontal rule across the width of the browser window. Lists are used
to organize information. Tables are used to arrange data in an HTML
document. The anchor tag is used to mark text that is a link. A link can
be clicked to display another HTML document in the browser window.
Comments are text used to explain and clarify HTML to the reader of an
HTML document.
Tags may also contain attributes. An attribute is placed in the start tag
and set to a value that modifies the element.
A style sheet is used to define the type, paragraph, and page formats
for an HTML document. Style sheets give HTML documents a consistent
appearance. A style sheet can be embedded or linked. Embedded style
sheets can include rules and classes, a linked style sheet can contain only
rules. A rule modifies an HTML element and is comprised of a selector
and declarations. The selector is the HTML element being redefined
and the declarations are the formats to be applied. Text and background
colors in an HTML document are specified using hexadecimal numbers.
Hexadecimal is a base-16 numbering system that consists of the numbers
0 through 9 and the letters A through F. HTML content is left aligned by
default. The alignment can be changed in a style sheet rule.

52 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Vocabulary

Attribute Used to modify the features of an element Multimedia Images, video, audio, and Java applets
in an HTML tag. embedded in an HTML document.
Bulleted list A list that is used when each item is Numbered list A list that is used to show a priority
equally important. of importance.
Class A set of declarations that can be applied to Ordered list see Numbered list.
different tags.
Parameters Used to specify custom values to use
Comment Text used to explain and clarify HTML in a Java applet.
for a reader.
Rule A line in a browser window for dividing
Declarations The formats to be applied in a style content.
sheet rule.
Scripts Used to add dynamic content to an HTML
Document tags The html, head, title, and body document. Scripts are written in a scripting language,
tags. such as JavaScript.
Element The part of an HTML tag placed inside Selector The HTML element being redefined in a
angle brackets (<>). For example, <title> is called style sheet rule.
the title tag, where title is the element.
Style sheet Used to define the type, paragraph, and
Embedded style sheet A style sheet defined with page formats for an HTML document.
<style> and </style> tags in the head section of an
Tables Used to arrange data in an HTML
HTML document.
document.
Free-form Spaces and blank lines generally have
Tag Comprised of an element inside angle brackets
no effect on how the document is interpreted. The
that is used to “mark up” plain text so that a browser
format of an HTML document.
application knows how to display the text.
Hexadecimal A base-16 numbering system that
Unordered list see Bulleted list.
consists of the numbers 0 through 9 and the letters
A through F. Web Tool used to search and access information
available on the Internet.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) A set of tags
that are used to “mark up” plain text so that a browser Web browser application Provides a graphic inter-
application knows how to display the text. face to present information in the form of a Web
site.
Hyperlink Text that can be clicked to display another
HTML document. Also called a link. Website Series of related Web pages.
Hypertext A database system where objects, such
as text and images, can be linked.
Java applet A small Java application that is
embedded in an HTML document and run in a
browser window.
JavaScript A scripting language that is interpreted
by a browser’s built-in JavaScript engine.
Link see hyperlink.
Linked style sheet A style sheet saved as a sepa-
rate file with a .css extension and applied using a
<link> tag.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 53

 HTML Tags

<a> The anchor tag. Links text to another HTML

document. Attributes include href.
<applet> The applet tag. Embeds an applet in an
HTML document.
<br> The break tag. Moves a line of text within a
paragraph to the next line.
<!--com ment--> A comment tag. Explains and
clarifies HTML to the reader.
<h1> through <h6> The heading tags. Emphasizes
text.
<head> The head tag. Indicates information about
the document, including its title.
<hr> The horizontal rule tag. Displays a line in the
browser window. Attributes include width, align,
and size.
<html> The HTML tag. Indicates that the file contains
HTML.
<img> The image tag. Inserts an image.
<li> The list item tag. Defines the start and end
of an item.
<link> The link tag. Links a style sheet.
<ol> The ordered list tag. Defines the start and end
of a numbered list.
< p > The paragraph tag. Formats the content.
Attributes include align.
<script> The script tag. Defines a script.
<style> The style sheet tag. Embeds a style sheet.
<table> The table tag. Creates a table.
<title> The title tag. Displays the document title
in the title bar of the browser window. Must be in
the head section of an HTML document.
<ul> The unordered list tag. Defines the start and
end of a bulleted list.

54 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

 Critical Thinking

1. a) What is the most widely used Internet 8. a) What does a style sheet define?
service? b) Why are style sheets used?
b) List two examples of Web browsers. c) What is the difference between an embedded
and a linked style sheet?
2. a) What is used to create most Web pages?
b) Why is HTML well suited for the Web? 9. What element is modified to change the back-
c) Why is it important for the W3C to develop ground color or alignment of a Web page?
Web standards?
True/False
3. Why is the order of HTML tags and content
important in an HTML document? 10. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
4. a) List the four document tags. a) A Web site consists of a series of Web
b) Why is it important to properly structure an pages.
HTML document when HTML is a free-form b) Hypertext is a database system.
language? c) An HTML document must be published to
c) What rules are followed when saving an a Web server in order to be viewed in a Web
HTML document? browser.
d) Spaces and blank lines generally have no
5. a) Where are scripts placed in an HTML docu- effect on how an HTML document is inter-
ment? preted.
b) How can scripts enhance a Web site? e) HTML documents are saved with a TXT
c) Write a script to display “Good-bye” in an extension.
alert dialog box. f) Scripts must be placed in the head section of
d) Write a script to display “Today’s News” in an HTML document.
the status bar of the browser window. g) JavaScript is used to add dynamic content to
an HTML document.
6. a) What is a Java applet? h) Java applets are i nter preted on Web
b) How is a Java applet interpreted by a Web servers.
browser? i) Java applets can only run on a Windows
c) List two reasons why Java applets are well platform.
suited for the Web? j) Java applets have the ability to write files on
a user’s computer.
7. The following HTML document has seven k) Java applets have to be compiled.
errors. What are they? l) T he a nc hor t ag i s u s e d to c r e at e a
hyperlink.
<html> m) A rule modifies an HTML element.
<body>
<title>Operating Systems</title>
</body>

<head>
<!--adds a horizontal rule>>
<hr width is 50%>
<p>Every computer must have an operat-
ing system. Types of operating systems
include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Windows<li>
<li>UNIX</li>
<li>Linux</li>
<li>OS/2</li>
</ul>
</head>
</html>

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 55

Exercises

Exercise 1 ——————————————— tourist_attractions.htm

Research tourist attractions in a particular city by using the Internet, magazines, and books and then
create an HTML document that lists tourist attractions for a particular city. The HTML document
should include:
• a comment with your name
• an appropriate title
• the city name in Heading 1 format
• “Tourist Attractions” in Heading 2 format
• a horizontal rule
• at least five tourist attractions, each displayed in a bulleted list
• a style sheet with at least three rules
• a script

Exercise 2 ————————————————— sports_report.htm

Create an HTML document that documents recent school sports related news. The HTML document
should include:
• a comment with your name
• appropriate titles formatted with heading tags
• a horizontal rule
• at least three news stories
• an image
• a style sheet with at least three rules
• a script

Exercise 3 ————————————————————— applet.htm

Create an “Applet Help” HTML document that documents the steps to create an original applet or
download an applet and embed the applet in an HTML document. Display an example of an original
applet or a downloaded applet from http://java.sun.com/openstudio/index.html on the HTML
document.

56 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming

Exercise 4 —————————————— electronic_portfolio.htm
A portfolio is a collection of work that clearly illustrates effort, progress, and achievement of knowledge
and skills. An electronic portfolio stores and presents portfolio content in a digital format such as a
Web site. Create linked HTML documents that presents your contact information, academic history,
work and volunteer experience, and accomplishments.

Exercise 5 ——————————————— computer_history.htm

Research the history of computers by using the Internet, magazines, and books and then collaborate in
small groups to create linked HTML documents that outline key events in computer history by decade.
Describe at least five key events for the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. Use a style sheet to format the
HTML documents.

Exercise 6 ———————————————— html_reference.htm

Create an “HTML Reference” document that lists HTML tags, describes the tag, and provides corre-
sponding examples. Research and include at least three HTML tags not covered in this chapter. The
www.w3c.org Web site documents HTML tags.

Exercise 7 ——————————————————— copyright.htm

Research copyright laws and issues as they pertain to digital information. Present your research in the
form of at least two linked HTML documents. Include an additional linked HTML document to cite
the sources used using an established method, such as MLA or APA style.

Exercise 8 ——————————————— technology_report.htm

Create an HTML document that reviews a recently released software application or hardware device.
List the product specifications and target market for the product. Include your opinion on whether you
think the product will be successful or useful.

Exercise 9 ——————————————————— interview.htm

Interview a local Web programmer about software, tools, and knowledge they feel are important when
creating Web sites. Document your interview. In small groups, share your interview documentation.

Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming 57

58 Chapter 2 Applets and Web Programming
 Chapter 3
Introducing Java

J ava, developed by Sun Microsystems, is a widely used high-level

programming language. One reason for its wide-spread use is the ability
to create platform-independent applications. This chapter introduces Java,
OOP terminology, code conventions, and program design.

Why Program in Java?

Java is an object-oriented programming language. Object-oriented
programming (OOP) evolved out of the need to develop complex programs
The Gutenburg Press
in a systematic, modular approach. OOP programmers create modules,
About 1450, Johann Gutenburg called classes, that can be used over and over again in a variety of
designed a system that used programs. A class groups related data and the instructions for performing
cast metal letters and a printing
actions on that data. Properly designed, classes encapsulate data to hide
pre ss where each of t he
letters could be easily loaded implementation details, are versatile enough to be extended through
and then inked to make an inheritance, and give the programmer options through polymorphism.
impression on paper. The key Encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism are features of every object-
to the Gutenburg press was oriented language.
the reusable metal type that
could be reorganized over and Java is more than just a programming language, it is a platform. A
over again to inexpensively platform can be a combination of hardware and software like an operating
create books and other printed system, but the Java platform is software only and is used to run Java
materials. The impact on applications. The current Java platform is called Java 2 and runs on all
society was immeasureable as
major operating systems allowing Java applications to run on just about
people of every social standing
became literate. any computer. Java applications are therefore referred to as platform-
independent applications.
The OOP and platform-independence features of Java have allowed
programmers to create programs for the masses—similar to the way the
Gutenburg press revolutionized the printing process, making printed
materials available to the masses.
Program Specification
A program specification is a
definition or outline of what
a program is expected to
Objects, Classes, and Packages
do. In industry, a program
specification can serve as Object-oriented program development involves selecting objects to
a contract bet ween the perform the tasks outlined in a program specification. An object consists
programmer and the client. of related data and the instructions for performing actions on that data.

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 59

 The design for an object is called a class. A class defines the type of data
TIP Reusability is a feature and actions that will be associated with an object of that class, but not the
that reduces development time
and decreases the likelihood
actual data for an individual object. Classes are required to create objects.
of bugs. Many objects of the same class may be needed in an application.

A class can be used to create many objects—each object

will have the same type of data and possible actions, but
each object maintains its own set of data.
package, library A package, sometimes called a library, is a group of related classes. For
example, classes related to a particular task, such as input and output, can
be grouped together in a package. A media package containing a DVD
T I P T h e J av a p l a t f o r m class and a CD class can be illustrated as:
includes the Java Application
Programming Interface (API)
with numerous libraries.

A package contains related classes.

TIP Applications use, or An application is a type of package. It contains a controlling class and
import, packages to define can contain other classes as well:
objects.

An application is contained in a package.

Packages are importable, which means an application can use existing
classes from another package.

60 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

 A Java Application
A Java application is a package with at least one class that contains a
main() method. The following Greeting application is a simple, yet com-
Java 2 Platform plete Java program:
Standard Edition
/*
Java 2 Plat form Standard * Greeting.java
Edition, abbreviated J2SE, * A first Java application.
indicates the second generation * A Student
Java platform. J2SE products * Course
include the J2SE Development * Date
Kit (JDK) and the J2SE Runtime */
Environment (JRE). The JDK
is used by programmers to package firstApplication;
write applications. The JRE is
needed by end-users to run /**
the applications. * The Greeting class displays a greeting.
*/
public class Greeting { //start class definition

public static void main(String[] args) {

TIP The static void in the System.out.println("Hello, world!");
main() method means that it is }
a method of the class and does
not generate a value. } //end class definition

Greeting generates output similar to:

statements A program consists of a set of instructions called statements. A semi-

colon is required to indicate the end of a statement. Related statements
are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) to begin and end the instructions. The
statements in the Greeting application are:
TIP Application development
requires careful organization. • package firstApplication declares a package name. If a package
Typically, the folder for an
name is not declared, then the application is given the package
application is given the same
name as the package name, name Default by the compiler. Simple applications often do not
and the application name is have package statements.
the same as the controlling • public class Greeting is a class declaration. The class is available
class name.
to anyone (public) and is named Greeting. The Greeting class does
not define any data or actions for objects. However, it contains the
main() method making it the application’s controlling class. The
controlling class controlling class is a program’s starting point.
• public static void main(String[] args) defines the main() method.
method A method is a named set of statements that perform a single, well-
defined task. The main() method is placed in the controlling class.
Its statements are automatically run when the program is executed.
The statement in this main() method uses the println() method to
display “Hello, world!” to the system output (the screen).
comments In addition to statements, programs contain comments, which provide
information about the program to the reader of the code. Comments have
no affect on the program, but they allow a reader of the program to quickly
understand the purpose and logic behind segments of code. Because
complex applications are often developed and maintained by more than
one programer, properly commented code allows for easier modifications
and can decrease the number of mistakes.

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 61

 Java programs can contain three types of comments:
• /* */ are used to enclose single or multiline comments. These
comments are appropriate at the beginning of a program to describe
the application and where necessary to clarify a segment of code.
• // are used for adding a comment to the end of a statement or to
create a single line comment. The // is also useful for debugging
a program, and is discussed in Chapter 6.
• /** */ are used for documentation. The javadoc tool copies
these comments into a separate HTML document to create an
instructional manual or external documentation. Documentation
comments are appropriate for describing a class or method.
TIP The main() method does Multiline comments that describe a program, class, or method are some-
not typically have a comment times referred to as a comment block. Tips throughout the text will provide
block. additional pointers about commenting code.

Executing a Java Application

Java code typed by a programmer is called source code. For source code
to execute, or run, it must be translated to code the computer understands
in a process called compiling. Many Java compilers provide an environ-
ment for entering the source code as well as for compiling and running
an application. Source code files have the extension .java, while compiled
files have the extension .class.

TIP Virtual means not real. Compiled Java source code is called bytecode. Executing a Java applica-
A virtual machine is there- tion means that its bytecode is interpreted with the Java Virtual Machine
fore conceptual, not made of (Java VM), part of the Java 2 platform. The interpreter runs each bytecode
hardware and other physical instruction as it is read. The Java VM can reside on any computer, regard-
components.
less of operating system environment, making Java applications extremely
portable, reliable, and platform-independent.
Although bytecode is versatile for porting applications to several dif-
Platform-Dependent ferent environments, programs compiled to machine code run faster.
Programming languages such Machine code is comprised of just 1s and 0s and is different depending on
as C++ and Visual Basic are the computer platform. A just-in-time compiler (JIT) converts bytecode to
compiled directly to machine machine code before it is executed with the Java VM.
language. Although faster,
t h e s e p r o gram s mu s t b e A program containing syntax errors will not compile. A syntax error
recompiled for every platform occurs in a statement that violates the rules of Java. For example, all Java
that will run the application.
statements must end with a semicolon. A statement without a semicolon
generates a syntax error when the program is compiled, preventing the
compiler from generating bytecode for the application.

Review: Greeting
Create a Greeting application similar to the one shown in the “A Java Application” section. Refer to Appendix
B for guidance with JCreator Pro. Your instructor may also have specific information regarding your com-
piler. The goal of this review is to write the source code for a simple application and then compile and run
the code.

62 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

 Displaying Output
output stream An output stream sends data to an output device. To process data for the
output stream, Java provides the System class with methods for display-
ing output. For displaying data to the standard output stream, which is
print() println() typically the computer screen, use System.out. out contains print() and
println() methods. The difference between these methods is how they
control output. The print() method displays data and leaves the insertion
TIP The System class is in the point at the end of the output, while println() moves the insertion point to
java.lang package.
the next line after displaying output. The following application uses both
methods:
/**
* Displays a welcome message.
*/
public class MulticulturalGreeting {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.print("Hello");
System.out.print("Buenos Dias");
System.out.println("Bonjour");
System.out.println("How do you greet another?");
}
}

argument The print() and println() methods require arguments. An argument is data
passed to a method for processing. In this case, the print() and println()
string arguments are strings. A string is a set of characters, which are enclosed
by quotation marks.
MulticulturalGreeting produces output similar to:

escape sequence An escape sequence is a backslash (\) followed by a symbol that together
represent a character. Escape sequences are used to display special char-
acters. Common escape sequences include:
\n newline
\t tab (8 spaces)
\\ backslash
\" double quotation mark
The modified MulticulturalGreeting illustrates the use of escape
sequences:
/**
* Displays a welcome message.
*/
public class MulticulturalGreeting {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.print("Hello\t");
System.out.print("Buenos Dias\t");
System.out.println("Bonjour");
System.out.println("How do you greet another?");
}
}

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 63

Review: AboutMe – part 1 of 2
Create an AboutMe application that displays your first name and last initial, your instructor‘s name, and
your school name on three separate lines. Below the personal information, display a phrase that encourages
your school team. For example, “Go Bears!” Be sure the phrase is displayed with quotation marks.

Formatting Output
The format() method can be used in place of the print() or println()
methods to control the way output is displayed. The format() method
arguments include a format string and an argument list. The format
NumberFormat Class string contains specifiers that indicate how the corresponding strings in
The NumberFormat class, the argument list should be displayed. The following code demonstrates
discussed in Chapter 4, can the format() method:
also be used to format numeric
data. System.out.format("%-10s %8s %8s", "Team", "Wins", "Losses\n");
System.out.format("%-10s %8s %8s", "Jaguars", "10", "5\n");
System.out.format("%-10s %8s %8s", "Cheetahs", "14", "1\n");
System.out.format("%-10s %8s %8s", "Panthers", "8", "7\n");
System.out.format("%-10s %8s %8s", "Penguins", "4", "11\n");

When executed, the statements display:

TIP The format () method

requires JDK 5 or later.

A format string specifier takes the form:

%[alignment][width]s

% indicates the start of a specifier

[alignment] skip for right alignment.
Include a minus sign (–) for left alignment
[width] the number of characters to use for output
s indicates that the corresponding argument is a string

If [width] is greater than the number of characters in the corresponding

string argument, then spaces pad the output. A string longer than [width]
characters is displayed, but any strings to the right are moved over.
Text may also be included within the format string. For example, the
statement:
System.out.format("The final game score: %-8s %8s", "10", "5");

displays:

64 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

Review: AboutMe – part 2 of 2
Modify the AboutMe application to include your class schedule, the days of the week that your class meets,
and the start and end time of each class. Include code to properly align the data into three columns with the
weekdays left aligned and the class start and end times right-aligned.

Code Conventions
Code conventions are a set of guidelines for writing an application. These
guidelines provide details about commenting, rules for naming methods,
classes, and packages, and statement formatting. Just as comments inform
a reader about a segment of code, a program that follows specific code
conventions is easier to read and understand.
A company or organization that employs programmers will typically
adhere to specific code conventions. A programmer familiar with the
code conventions will more quickly become familiar with code written
by another programmer in the company. Code conventions can make
modifying and maintaining code faster, easier, and less expensive. Because
of these benefits, organizations often not only encourage the use of code
conventions, but require it.
The code conventions introduced in this chapter are:
TIP Code conventions are
important. About 80% of the • An introductory comment should begin a program. This comment
lifetime cost of a piece of soft- should include information such as your name, class name, the
ware goes to maintenance.
date, and a brief statement about the program.
Rarely is software maintained
for its whole life by the original • Package names should begin with a lowercase letter and then an
author. uppercase letter should begin each word within the name. Package
names may not contain spaces.
• Class names should be nouns and begin with an uppercase letter
and an uppercase letter should begin each word within the name.
Class names may not contain spaces.
• A comment block should be included before each class and
method. A comment block is not typically placed before the main()
method.
• Comments should not reiterate what is clear from the code.
• Statements in a method should be indented.
• An open curly brace ({) should be placed on the same line as
the class or method declaration, and the closing curly brace (})
should be on a separate line and aligned with the class or method
declaration.

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 65

 Algorithm Design
Programs are created to solve problems. However, problems of any
complexity require outlining, or designing, a solution before typing any
source code. One method of design is called an algorithm. An algorithm is
a set of steps that outline how to solve a problem.
Algorithms can be created in several ways. Often more than one
approach is implemented. Steps written out in plain English is one
pseudocode approach. Pseudocode is a mix of English and program code, and is useful
flowcharts for refining a plain English algorithm. Flowcharts use symbols and text to
give a visual representation of a solution.
A description of the problem to be solved is used in developing an
algorithm. For example, a program specification may state “The Triangle
application displays a right triangle made up of the asterisk (*) symbol. The
triangle should be 4 asterisks high by 4 asterisks wide.” Triangle appears
to be a very simple application. From the description, we conclude that
Triangle should display an image of a right triangle.
The next step after analyzing the problem is to produce the algorithm. In
most cases, use more than one method to generate the algorithm to ensure
that the solution to the problem is accurate. The following illustrates the
Triangle program in both plain English steps and a flowchart:
The Triangle algorithm in plain English:
1. Print an asterisk to the screen.
2. Print two asterisks to the screen.
3. Print an asterisk followed by a space and an asterisk to the
screen.
4. Print four asterisks to the screen.

The Triangle flowchart:

66 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

 Each flowchart symbol has a different meaning. The indicates start
or end. The shape indicates input/ouput. Other flowchart symbols
will be introduced throughout the text as new concepts are covered.

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced Java, which is an object-oriented program-
ming language. OOP languages evolved out of the need to better develop
complex programs. In addition to being object-oriented, Java applications
are platform independent and can run on any computer, regardless of the
operating system or hardware configuration.
Object-oriented languages use classes to define objects. A class defines
the type of data and actions associated with an object, but not the actual
data for an object. A package groups related classes.
A Java application is a package with at least one class. Statements in an
application provide instructions. Methods are a named set of statements
that perform a single, well-defined task. Comments in an application
provide details about the code to the reader. Comments can be single or
multiline and can also be extracted for documentation.
The code typed by a programmer is called source code. The source code
is translated to bytecode with a compiler. Program execution occurs when
the bytecode is interpreted with a Java Virtual Machine (Java VM). The
Java VM can reside on any computer. A just-in-time (JIT) compiler converts
bytecode to machine code before execution by the Java VM. Although
less portable, machine code is faster. If a program contains errors, it will
not compile. One type of error is the syntax error, which results when a
statement violates the rules of Java.
Program output is through the output stream. The standard output
stream is typically the computer screen and requires the System.out meth-
ods print() and println(). These methods require a string argument.
Escape sequences are used to display special characters. Output can be
formatted with the format() method.
Code conventions are a set of guidelines for writing an application. The
code conventions introduced in this chapter are:
• An introductory comment should begin a program. This comment
should include information such as your name, class name, the
date, and a brief statement about the program.
• Package names should begin with a lowercase letter and then an
uppercase letter should begin each word within the name. Package
names may not contain spaces.
• Class names should be nouns and begin with an uppercase letter
and then an uppercase letter should begin each word within the
name. Class names may not contain spaces.
• A comment block should be included before each class and
method. A comment block is not typically placed before the main()
method.

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 67

 • Comments should not reiterate what is clear from the code.
• Statements in a method should be indented.
• An open curly brace ({) should be placed on the same line as
the class or method declaration, and the closing curly brace (})
should be on a separate line and aligned with the class or method
declaration.

Programs are created to solve problems. However, problems of any

complexity require outlining, or designing, a solution before typing any
source code. One method of design is called an algorithm. An algorithm
can be implemented through steps written in plain English, steps written
in a mixture of code and English called pseudocode, or steps presented
visually with a flowchart.

68 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

Vocabulary

Algorithm A set of steps that outline how to solve Method A named set of statements that perform
a problem. a single, well-defined task. A method is always a
member of a class.
A r g u ment Dat a passed to a met hod for
processing. Object A named entity that consists of related
data and instructions for performing actions on
Bytecode Compiled Java source code.
that data.
Class The description of an object.
Objec t- or iented pr og ra m m i ng ( OOP ) A
Code conventions A set of guidelines for writing systematic, modular approach to developing complex
an application. programs.

Comment Text that provides information to the OOP see Object-oriented programming.
reader of program code.
Output Stream Sends data to an output device,
Comment block Multiline comments that describe typically the computer screen.
a program, class, or method.
Package A group of related classes. Also called a
Compiling The process where source code is con- library.
verted to code the computer understands.
Platform-independent application A program that
Controlling class The class in an application that can be run on any computer regardless of operating
contains the main() method. system or hardware configuration.

Encapsulation An object-oriented language Polymorphism An object-oriented language

feature. feature.

Escape Sequence A backslash followed by a symbol Pseudocode An algorithm written in a mix of

that together represent a character. English and program code.

Execute To run a program. Run see Execute.

F lowcha r t A visual representat ion of a n Source code The code typed by a programmer.
algorithm.
Statement An instruction in a program.
Importable Package code that can be used by an
String A set of characters.
application.
Syntax error A statement that violates the rules
Inheritance An object-oriented language feature.
of Java.
Interpreter Software that runs each bytecode
instruction of a compiled Java program.
Java application A package with a controlling class
and possibly other classes.
Java Virtual Machine (Java VM) The Java bytecode
interpreter.
Just-in-time compiler (JIT) Software that converts
bytecode to specific machine code.
Library see Package.
Machine code The most basic computer language,
which is comprised of just 1s and 0s.

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 69

Java

/* */ Used to enclose single or multiline

comments.
/** */ Used to enclose documentation
comments.
// Used to begin a single line comment.

{ } Used to begin and end a set of related

statements.
; Required at the end of each program statement.

\\ Escape sequence for displaying a backslash.

\" Escape sequence for displaying a double quota-

tion mark.
\n Escape sequence for displaying a newline.

\t Escape sequence for displaying a tab.

class Used to declare a class.

format() Method that displays more precisely for-

matted output to the screen.
java.lang.System The class that contains the out
member.
main() The method in the controlling class that
is automatically executed when a Java application
is run.
out The java.lang.System member that represents
the standard output stream.
package Statement used to declare a package.

print () Method that displays output to the

screen.
println() Method that displays output to the
screen and then moves the insertion point to the
next line.
public An access modifier that declares a class or
method as available to any code.
static A declaration used for class methods.

void Indicates a method will not return a value.

70 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

 Critical Thinking

1. a) List three features of every object-oriented 12. Explain the difference between the print() and
programming language. println() methods.
b) Explain, in your own words, what you think
the meaning is of each of the three features 13. Explain the advantages of using the format()
listed in part (a). method in place of the print()and println()
methods.
2. Draw a sketch that shows the relationship, and/
or hierarchy, of object, class, and package for the 14. There are five places in which the application
package File, class FileReader, and the object below does not follow the code conventions
fileInput. outlined in this chapter. Where are they?
/*
3. Write an appropriate comment block for the * getGreeting.java
beginning of a program to describe an applica- * What's wrong application.
tion that is intended to calculate test averages. * Student Name
*/
4. Write an appropriate comment for describ-
package notSoGood;
ing a class that displays the average of a set of
scores. /**
* Good Morning is displayed.
5. Write a statement that declares a package with */
the name gradeCalculator. public class getGreeting {

public static void main(String[] args) {

6. Write a statement that declares a class named //Output Good Morning to the screen
AverageScore that is available to any code. System.out.println("Good Morning");
} }
7. Explain the difference between source code and
bytecode. 15. Explain the similarities and differences between
pseudocode and a flowchart.
8. Describe machine code.
True/False
9. Explain the difference between a Java compiler
and the Java VM. 16. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
10. What is the advantage of compiling Java source a) Java applications can run only on the
code using a JIT? Windows platform.
b) Statements must end with a semicolon.
11. The following application has seven syntax c) Comments have no effect on program
errors. What are they? execution.
d) T he ma i n () met hod i s placed i n t he
// controlling class.
* Test.java
e) Related statements are enclosed with brackets
* What's wrong application.
* Student Name ([]).
*/ f) A file containing only source code can be
executed on a computer.
package testMyKnowledge; g) Compiled source code is called machine
code.
/**
h) A program containing syntax errors will
* The Test class should display a string,
*/ compile.
public class Test { i) An algorithm is a set of steps that outline
how to solve a problem.
private static int main(string[] args) { j) Pseudocode cannot be used to implement an
System.out.println("Testing...) algorithm.
}

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 71

Exercises

Exercise 1 ————————————————————— BingoCard

Create a BingoCard application that displays a traditional bingo card with five columns of five unique
numbers. The column labels are B, I, N, G, and O. Column B contains numbers ranging from 1 through
15, column I has numbers ranging from 16 through 30, column N has four numbers ranging from 31
through 45 and a Free Space in the middle of the column, column G has numbers ranging from 46
through 60, and column O has numbers ranging from 61 through 75. The application output should
look similar to:

Exercise 2 —————————————————————BingoRules
Create a BingoRules application that displays the rules for playing bingo. Place each rule on a separate
line and place a blank line between rules. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ————————————————————— Rectangle

Create a Rectangle application that displays a rectangle of asterisks (*). The rectangle should be 15
asterisks wide and 7 asterisks high. The application output should look similar to:

72 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

Exercise 4 —————————————— RockPaperScissorsRules
Create a RockPaperScissorsRules application that displays the rules for playing Rock Paper Scissors.
Place each rule on a separate line and place a blank line between rules. The application output should
look similar to:

Exercise 5 —————————————————— TicTacToeBoard

Create a TicTacToeBoard application that displays a tic-tac-toe board with an X in the center. The appli-
cation output should look similar to:

Exercise 6 —————————————————— TicTacToeRules

Create a TicTacToeRules application that displays the rules for playing tic-tac-toe. Place each rule on a
separate line and place a blank line between rules. The application output should look similar to:

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 73

Exercise 7 ——————————————————————— Smile
Create a Smile application that displays a smiling face made of keyboard characters. The application
output should look similar to:

Exercise 8 —————————————————— JavaTerminology

Create a JavaTerminology application that displays at least five words from the vocabulary list in this
chapter and the corresponding definition. Place each word on a separate line followed by the definition.
Place a blank line between entries. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 9 ————————————————— FlowchartSymbols

Create a FlowchartSymbols application that illustrates the two flowchart symbols that were introduced
in this chapter. The application output should look similar to:

74 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

Exercise 10 —————————————— CompilerDocumentation
Create a CompilerDocumentation application that creates compiler-specific documentation for the
compiler you will be using in your class.

a) Add the compiler name to the right of “Compiler” and then explain how to create a new
project, enter source code, compile, and run a Java application using a format similar
to:

b) Explore the compiler’s help features. Add documentation that explains how to use
the compiler’s Help features.

Exercise 11 —————————————————— BinaryNumbers

As discussed in Chapter 1, computers are digital and they recognize two states: on and off. Therefore, the
binary number system (base 2), which uses only two digits (0 and 1), was adopted for use in computers.
Our most familiar number system is the decimal, or base 10, system. It uses ten digits: 0 through 9.

a) Create a BinaryNumbers application that illustrates the binary numbers 1 through

20 and their decimal equivalents. Refer to chapter 1 for the conversion formula or if
you have the Windows operating system, use the Microsoft Calculator in the Start j
All Programs j Accessories menu to convert the numbers. In the Microsoft Calculator,
select View j Scientific and then enter the number and select Bin to convert the decimal
(Dec) number:

Chapter 3 Introducing Java 75

 The application output should look similar to:

b) The hexadecimal, or base 16, system is based on 16 digits: 0 through 9, and the letters
A through F representing 10 through 15 respectively. Modify the BinaryNumbers
application to include a Hexadecimal column that contains the corresponding
hexadecimal numbers.

Exercise 12 —————————————— ProgrammingLanguages

a) Create a ProgrammingLanguages application that displays information about object-
oriented programming languages. The application output should look similar to:

b) Use books and the Internet to research other object-oriented programming languages
and add three additional object-oriented programming languages to the list.

76 Chapter 3 Introducing Java

 Chapter 4
Variables and Constants

V ariables and constants are two important concepts explained in this

chapter. Using primitive and abstract data types to declare variables is
covered. User input, numeric expressions, and assignment operators are
also discussed.

Declaring Variables
A variable is a name for a value stored in memory. Variables are used in
programs so that values can be represented with meaningful names. For
example, when a variable named length is used in a program, it is clear
that its value is a distance. Variables should be used to represent values
because they make code easier to read, understand, and modify.

declaration A variable must be declared before it is used. A declaration takes the

form:
<type> <name>

data type The declaration includes two parts. The first is the data type, which
determines the type of data the variable will store. The second part of a
identifier declaration is the variable name, called the identifier. For example, in the
declaration
int length;

int is the data type and length is the identifier. An int stores an integer
value, which is a positive or negative whole number. When an integer
variable is declared it stores the value 0.
An identifier must begin with a letter and contain only letters, numbers,
and some special characters. Typically variable identifiers begin with a
lowercase letter. Any word after the first in a variable identifier should
begin with an uppercase letter. For example, rectangleLength. This code
convention allows variables to be easily recognized.
Multiple variables with the same data type can be declared in a single
statement, similar to:
int length, width;

Grouping variables together in a single statement is good programming

style when the variables represent related items. Declarations should not
be grouped together in the same statement just because the variables are
all the same type.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 77

 Using Variables
Applications typically contain many variables, as in RectangleArea:
/**
* Calculates and displays the area of a rectangle
*/
public class RectangleArea {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int length = 10; //longer side of rectangle
int width = 2; //shorter side of rectangle
int area; //calculated area of rectangle

area = length * width;

System.out.println("Area of rectangle: " + area);
}
}

RectangleArea produces output similar to:

Variable declarations should be grouped at the beginning of a method.

A blank line after the declarations makes it easy to determine where the
declarations end.
assignment The value of a variable is changed through assignment. An assignment
statement is formed with the variable name on the left side of an equal
equal sign sign and the value it is to receive on the right side of the equal sign. The
equal sign (=) is an operator that indicates that the variable on the left is to
literal receive the value on the right. The value on the right can be a literal, which
is any actual value. It could also be another variable or an expression. For
example, area was assigned the value of the length multiplied by the width
(length * width). Note that the * symbol indicates multiplication.
initialize An assignment statement can be part of a variable declaration. In addition
to being declared, the variable is initialized. For example, in RectangleArea,
variables length and width were assigned values when declared.
A System.out.println() statement can be used to output the value of
a variable. Variable identifiers are not enclosed by quotation marks. To
concatenation append, or concatenate, the value of a variable to a string, the + operator
is used. The + operator converts the value of the variable to a string and
then concatenates the strings before output.
It is important to realize that a variable can store only one value at any
one time. For example, after the following statements execute
int x;
x = 5;
x = 10;

the value of x is 10 because this was the last value assigned to x.

78 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Review: RectanglePerimeter
Create a RectanglePerimeter application that calculates and displays the perimeter of a rectangle with width
4 and length 13. The perimeter of a rectangle is calculated as 2w + 2l. Use variables as appropriate.

Primitive Data Types

The int data type is called a primitive data type. A variable that is
defined with a primitive data type stores a single piece of data. Java supports
several primitive data types, including:
String Data
Type Bytes Data Range
Strings are comprised of a set int 4 a positive or negative integer from –2,147,483,648
of characters and therefore
to 2,147,483,647
cannot be represented by a
primitive data type. The String
double 8 a positive or negative number that may contain
class in the java.lang package a decimal portion in the range –1.7E+308 to
is used to create string vari- 1.7E+308
ables. Strings are discussed in char 2 a single character
more detail in Chapter 6. boolean true or false

An int variable uses 4 bytes of memory to store its value and is used
for representing whole numbers.
Values that are represented by the double data type are sometimes
floating point referred to as floating point, meaning that the values contain numbers after
the decimal point. Because of the many digits that are possible in a double,
a variable of this type uses 8 bytes of memory.
A char variable requires 2 bytes of memory because Java uses the 16-
TIP Java also supports the bit Unicode character encoding. Assignment to a char variable requires
byte, short, long, and float
primitive data types.
enclosing a single character in single quotation marks, as in 'a'.
Variables that are type boolean can have only one of two values—true
or false. Boolean variables are particularly useful for representing yes/no
or on/off values.

choosing data types When choosing a data type, it is important to choose the most appropri-
ate type for the quantity being represented. If a value could possibly have
a decimal portion, then double is the best choice. If a variable will represent
TIP Primitive data types are only whole numbers, then int is the best choice even though double will
also called built-in data types. work. Using the most appropriate data types for variables has two benefits.
First, both the compiler and the reader will understand the possible values
for a variable. Second, the compiler allocates the appropriate memory for
the variable.

Review: Distance – part 1 of 2

Create a Distance application that calculates and displays the total distance of a race with three segments.
The first segment is 12.2 km, the second is 10.6 km, and the third is 5.8 km. Use variables of the appropriate
type.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 79

 Abstract Data Types
In addition to primitive data types, a variable can be declared using an
abstract data type. One kind of abstract data type is the class. Many classes
are provided in Java, and many more classes will be created throughout
this text. Each class defines not just a single piece of data like a primitive
data type, but a set of data along with methods for performing actions on
that data.

object A variable declared with a class is called an object. The variable itself
actually stores a reference to the area in memory where the object’s data
and methods are stored:

instantiation Creating a new object is called instantiation. In addition to declaring a

variable to refer to the object, the object must be created and initialized
in a statement that takes the form:
<class> <variable name> = new <class>(<arguments>);

The new operator allocates memory for the object and returns a reference
to the object. <arguments> are used to initialize the data for the object.
The code below creates a new object using a class named Circle:
Circle spot = new Circle(4); //spot with radius 4

In this statement, the variable spot refers to a Circle object that has been
initialized with a radius of 4.
To access a member of a class, such as a method, use the object name
followed by a dot (.) and then the member name. For example, the code
below executes method members getRadius() and area():
Circle spot = new Circle(4);
System.out.println("Radius of spot is " + spot.getRadius());
System.out.println("Area of spot is " + spot.area());

These statements produce output similar to:

The Circle class will be developed later in this text.

Package
Documentation
Java Packages
Package documentation
t ypically summarizes the Java SE includes numerous packages as part of the JDK. End-users will
package classes and the data
have the packages as part of the J2SE Runtime Environment (JRE). These
and methods available in those
classes. Code examples that packages contain general use classes, utility classes, or special purpose
use the classes may also be classes. The most fundamental package is java.lang with classes that
included in the documentation. define the language itself. Other packages such as java.util have classes
D o cu m e n t at i o n f o r J ava for reading input and storing data. These packages will be explained and
packages are available online used throughout this text.
at www.sun.com.

80 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 Packages follow a certain naming convention. Java packages start with
TIP Companies sometimes java followed by a dot (.) and then the package name. Companies and
use their reversed Internet
other organizations will often name a package with the organization name
domain in package names. For
example, com.mycompany.util followed by a dot and then the package name.
names a package with utility
The import statement is used to make the members of a package acces-
classes.
sible to an application. To make a single class from a package accessible,
a statement similar to the following is used:
import import java.util.Scanner;

The class name starts with an uppercase letter, following the appropriate
naming convention for class names. If several classes in a package are to
be accessible, then a statement that imports the entire package may be
used:
import java.util.*;

The asterisk (*) indicates that all members of the util package are to be
accessible. import statements must appear after a package statement and
before any class definitions. Java applications automatically import the
java.lang entire java.lang package.

Obtaining a Value from the User

An application is more flexible when values can be read from an input
input stream stream. An input stream is the sequence of characters received from an
input device, such as a keyboard. For example, as a user types data, the
data goes into the input stream. To process data in the input stream, Java
Scanner includes the Scanner class with methods for reading integers, floating
point numbers, and strings.
A program that obtains a value from the user must instantiate a Scanner
TIP The Scanner class requires object that is initialized with an input stream. For data typed from a
JDK 5 or later. keyboard, initialize the object with System.in because it represents the
standard input stream.
Scanner class methods include:
Class Scanner ( java.util.Scanner)
Methods
next() returns a string from the input stream.
nextLine() returns the string up to the end of line character
from the input stream.
nextInt() returns the int read from the input stream.
nextDouble() returns the d o u b l e read from the input
stream.
nextBoolean() returns the b o o l e a n read from the input
stream.
close() closes the input stream.

The next() method is used for reading a string that does not contain
spaces. For example, “apple”. Attempting to read the string “apple pie”
generates a run-time exception called InputMismatchException. An
exception exception is an error affecting program execution. Exceptions are discussed
later in this chapter.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 81

 reading numbers and strings When reading in a combination of numeric and string data, the next()
method should be used for reading string data after reading numeric data.
Using the nextLine() method is ineffective. It reads the end-of-line character
left by the numeric data entry, essentially reading an empty string. If a
string with multiple words is expected from the user, the nextLine() can
be used to read in the end-of-line character and then another nextLine()
used to read the string.
The RectangleArea2 class below instantiates a Scanner object and reads
values typed by the user:
import java.util.Scanner;

/**
* Calculates and displays the area of a rectangle
* based on the width and length entered by the user.
*/
public class RectangleArea2 {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int length; //longer side of rectangle
int width; //shorter side of rectangle
int area; //calculated area of rectangle
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter the length: ");

length = input.nextInt();
System.out.print("Enter the width: ");
width = input.nextInt();
input.close();

area = length * width;

System.out.println("Area of rectangle: " + area);
}
}

Note that the import statement appears above the class. RectangleArea2
produces output similar to the following when values 6 and 2 are typed
by the user:

In the RectangleArea2 code, a Scanner object is declared, instantiated,

and initialized in the statement Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in).
The calls to the nextInt() method are used to obtain the values typed by
the user. When a call to nextInt() occurs, the application waits until the
user types a value and presses enter before the next statement is executed.
prompt The application also includes prompts that tell the user what kind of input
is expected. For example, System.out.print("Enter the length: ") prompts
the user for a length value. When a Scanner object is no longer needed, it
should be closed with the close() method.

Review: Distance – part 2 of 2

Modify the Distance application to first prompt the user for the distance of each race segment and then
display the total distance to run.

82 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 Numeric Expressions
Java includes built-in arithmetic operators for addition (+), subtrac-
tion (-), multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus division (%). These
Object Operators
operators are for use with primitive data and can be used to form numeric
Objects typically cannot be expressions. A numeric expression contains at least one operand, which is
manipulated with the built-in a value or primitive variable, and may contain operators. For example,
arithmetic operators. A class
the numeric expression 6 + 5 contains two operands and one operator.
usually defines methods that
are used to perform operations Numeric expressions can be used in assignment statements, as in the
on objects. statement area = length * width.
The / division operator performs differently depending on the data
type of the operands. When both operands are type int, the / operator
Integer division performs integer division. Integer division truncates the decimal portion
of the quotient to result in an integer:

Real division returns the entire quotient, including the decimal portion,
and is performed when one or both operators are type double.

modulus division Modulus division returns the remainder resulting from division. The %
operator truncates the operands, if necessary, to return an integer:

Modulus division is useful for retrieving digits of a number.

The statements below demonstrate the division operators:
int num1 = 5;
int num2 = 3;
int result;
double doubleNum1 = 5;
double doubleNum2 = 3;
double doubleResult;

result = num1 / num2;

System.out.println("num1 / num2: " + result);

doubleResult = doubleNum1 / doubleNum2;

System.out.println("doubleNum1 / doubleNum2: "
+ doubleResult);

doubleResult = num1 / doubleNum2;

System.out.println("num1 / doubleNum2: " + doubleResult);

result = num1 % num2;

System.out.println("num1 % num2: " + result);

doubleResult = doubleNum1 % doubleNum2;

System.out.println("doubleNum1 % doubleNum2: "
+ double Result);

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 83

 Executing the statements on the previous page produces the output:

Java evaluates an expression using a specific order of operations based

operator precedence on operator precedence. Operator precedence is the level assigned to an
operator. Multiplication and division (including modulus division) have
the highest precedence, followed by addition and subtraction. Two opera-
tors of the same precedence are evaluated in order from left to right.

order of operations The order of operations can be changed by including parentheses in a

numeric expression. The operations within parentheses are evaluated first.
For example, the expression 6 + 4 * 2 – 1 evaluates to 13, and the expression
(6 + 4) * (2 – 1) evaluates to 10. It is also considered good programming
style to include parentheses when there is any possibility of ambiguity or
question about the expression.

Review: Digits
Create a Digits application that prompts the user for a two-digit number and then displays the ones-place
and tens-place digits.

Type Casting
Type casting converts a number of one type to a number of a different,
but compatible type. For example, a double can be cast as an int, as in the
statements:
int i = 2;
double d = 3.7;
int x;
x = i * (int)d //d is explicitly cast; x is assigned 2x3

Type casting is necessary in this case because one of the operands in the
expression has less precision than the variable that will store the result.
Explicit casting also makes it clear that the programmer intended for the
calculation result to be an int.

truncate Casting a double to an int truncates, or removes, the decimal portion of

the number, as in the statements above. When decreasing the precision of a
number, it is better to round the number. A number with a decimal portion
TIP Truncation is always greater than or equal to 0.5 should be rounded up to the next integer, and
toward 0.
a number with a decimal portion less than 0.5 should be rounded down.
For example, rounding 3.7 results in 4.

84 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 rounding Rounding can be simulated when casting a double to an int by adding
0.5 to the number before casting, as in the statement:
x = i * (int)(d + 0.5) //x is assigned 2x4

If casting a negative number, then 0.5 should be subtracted from the

number before casting.
real division Casting is useful when real division with integers is preferred. The fol-
lowing statements demonstrate the difference between integer division
and real division with integers:
int i = 5;
int j = 2;
double result;

result = i / j; //integer division; result=2

result = (double)i / (double)j; //real division; result=2.5

Java will implicitly type cast operands in a mixed expression to match

the precision of the variable storing the result, as in the statements:
int i = 2;
double d = 3.7;
double y;

y = i * d //i is implicitly cast; y is assigned 2.0x3.7

Although explicit type casting is not necessary in this case, it is better

programming style to include casts. Casting makes a programmer’s inten-
tions clear and may make bugs easier to find. Therefore, the statements
above should be written as:
int i = 2;
double d = 3.7;
double y;

y = (double)i * d //better code; y is assigned 2.0x3.7

Review: GradeAvg – part 1 of 2

Create a GradeAvg application that prompts the user for five grades and then displays the average of the
grades. Assume the grades are integer values (for example, 89, 97, and so on). Real division should be per-
formed when calculating the average.

Review: TempConverter
Create a TempConverter application that converts a Fahrenheit temperature to the corresponding Celsius
temperature. The formula for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius is C = 5/9(F – 32). The application should
prompt the user for the Fahrenheit temperature. Be sure to carefully form the expression. Parentheses will
be needed to specify the order of operations.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 85

 Formatting Numeric Output
java.text The NumberFormat class, which is part of the java.text package, is used to
create objects that format numbers. NumberFormat objects return a string
that contains a formatted number. The formatting of the number depends
on which NumberFormat object is used. The NumberFormatExample
The DecimalFormat application creates four different NumberFormat objects:
Class
import java.text.NumberFormat;
The DecimalFormat class
offers additional options for public class NumberFormatExample {
formatting numbers to a spec-
ified decimal place. Refer to public static void main(String[] args) {
Java online documentation for double dollars = 21.5;
more information. int num = 1234;
double numWithDecimal = 2.0 / 3.0;
double sale = .15;
NumberFormat money = NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance();
NumberFormat number = NumberFormat.getIntegerInstance();
NumberFormat decimal = NumberFormat.getNumberInstance();
NumberFormat percent = NumberFormat.getPercentInstance();
The format() Method
The format() method, discussed System.out.println(money.format(dollars));
in Chapter 3, can also be used System.out.println(number.format(num));
to format numeric values. A System.out.println(decimal.format(numWithDecimal));
specifier can take the form: System.out.println(percent.format(sale));
}
%[alignment][width][.decimal]f }
where [.decimal] indicates When executed, the application produces the following output:
the number of decimal places
and f indicates a floating point
number. For an integer, the
specifier takes the form:
%[alignment][width]d

Assignment Operators
In an assignment statement, the expression on the right side of the equal
sign (=) is evaluated first and then that value is given to the variable on
the left. Because the expression on the right is evaluated before an assign-
ment is made, it is possible to use the current value of the variable in the
expression itself. For example:
numPlayers = 12; //numPlayers is assigned 12
numPlayers = numPlayers + 2; //numPlayers is now 14

Changing the value of a variable based on its current value is often done
in programming. Therefore, in addition to the = assignment operator, Java
recognizes the +=, -=, *=, /=, and %= assignment operators. These operators
perform an operation before making an assignment. For example, the
previous assignment statement can be rewritten as:
numPlayers += 2; //numPlayers is now 14

The -=, *=, /=, and %= operators work similarly, as in the statements:
numPlayers -= 3; //same as: numPlayers = numPlayers - 3
numCopies *= 5; //same as: numCopies = numCopies * 5
total /= 2; //same as: total = total / 2
remainder %= 6; //same as: remainder = remainder % 6

86 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Review: GradeAvg – part 2 of 2
Modify the GradeAvg application to use the += operator to sum the grades as they are entered by the user.
Format the average grade to display as a percentage.

Using Named Constants

A constant is a name for a memory location that stores a value that cannot
be changed from its initial assignment. Constants, like variables, are used
When should a named in programs so that values can be represented with meaningful names. A
constant be used? constant declaration is a variable declared final and takes the form:
Named constants should be
final <type> <identifier>
used wherever they can add
clarity to code. However, there The declaration begins with final, which indicates that the value will
are some values that should not change, followed by the type of data the constant will store and the
not be replaced with named
constant identifier. For example, the following declaration represents „:
constants. For example, in an
expression that calculates the final double PI = 3.14;
area of a triangle (½bh), the
value 0.5 is best used instead double declares a numeric value possibly containing a decimal portion.
of a named constant because Constant identifiers are typically all uppercase, and may include under-
the value does not have an score (_) characters to separate words. For example, MAX _ PRICE.
obvious name.
The following class uses a constant in the main() method:
/**
* Calculates and displays the area of a circle
*/
public class CircleArea {

public static void main(String[] args) {

final double PI = 3.14;
double radius = 5; //radius of circle
double area;

area = PI * radius * radius;

System.out.println("Area of circle: " + area);
}
}

CircleArea produces output similar to:

A constant can be assigned a value only once. Trying to change the

value of a constant after the initial assignment generates an error. Constant
declarations should be grouped at the beginning of a method before any
variable declarations.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 87

 Identifiers and Keywords
Identifiers in Java must begin with a letter and may contain letters,
numbers, and some special symbols. Periods and spaces are not allowed.
case sensitivity Identifiers are also case sensitive, which means that an uppercase letter is
different from the same letter in lowercase. For example, identifiers Count
and count are viewed by Java as two different identifiers.
The Java language contains keywords, which have special meaning to
the Java compiler and therefore cannot be used for a variable or constant
identifier. The Java keywords are:
abstract double int strictfp
boolean else interface super
break extends long switch
byte final native synchronized
case finally new this
catch float package throw
char for private throws
class goto protected transient
const if public try
continue implements return void
default import short volatile
do instanceof static while

Although not keywords, true, false, and null are reserved and not for
use as identifiers.

Review: CircleCircumference – part 1 of 2

Create a CircleCircumference application that calculates and displays the circumference of a circle. The
application should prompt the user for the value of the radius. The circumference of a circle is calculated as
2„r. Use variables and constants as appropriate.

Programming Errors
There are many types of errors that can occur in a program. Some errors
are found by the compiler. Others occur at run time. A program that has
been carefully designed will have fewer errors. Code reuse can also lead to
fewer errors because packages that have been carefully tested and properly
documented produce cleaner and more robust code.

syntax error Errors that violate the rules of Java are called syntax errors. For example,
forgetting a semicolon at the end of a statement generates a syntax error.
Syntax errors are found by the compiler. An application with syntax errors
will not run because it will not compile.

88 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

logic error, semantic error A logic error, also called a semantic error, is more difficult to detect. Logic
errors occur in statements that are syntactically correct, but produce unde-
sired or unexpected results, as in the following example:
int length;
int area;

length = 3.2; //3 is actually assigned

area = length * length; //expected value is 10.24

The statements assign the value 9 to area rather than the expected 10.24.
Although, it is possible that the programmer intended for the value to be
truncated, it is more likely that variables length and area were supposed
to be declared as double.
Logic errors must be found by the programmer through testing and by
carefully examining the source code. Accurate and careful commenting,
proper indentation, and descriptive identifiers can help in finding and
preventing logic errors.
run-time error, exception Errors that are not detected by the compiler may generate a run-time
error. A run-time error, also called an exception, halts program execution
at the statement that cannot be executed. For example, although the state-
ments below are syntactically correct, they will generate a run-time error
because division by 0 is undefined:
int totalScores = 40;
int totalTests = 0;
double avgScore;
avgScores = totalScores / totalTests;

ArithmeticException This code generates an ArithmeticException exception.

Exceptions can also be generated when user input is not as expected. For
InputMismatchException example, the application run below generates an InputMismatchException
exception because the user typed a string when a numeric was
expected:

The program only had code to handle numeric user input. When a letter,
rather than a number was typed, an exception was “thrown.” Writing code
to handle exceptions is discussed in Chapter 12.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 89

Chapter 4 Case Study
This and all subsequent chapters end with a case study. Case studies are
used to learn problem-solving techniques. Each case study will include a
description, program specification, code design, program implementation,
and a discussion about testing and debugging.
In this case study, a Birthday game will be created. The BirthdayGame
guesses a player’s birthday by having the player perform mathematics
with the month and day of their birthday. The number computed by the
player is then entered and the program displays the month and day of the
player’s birthday.
BirthdayGame Specification
BirthdayGame is played with one player. The player is given directions
for computing a number that uses the player’s birth month and birth day
in the calculations:
1. Determine your birth month (January=1, February=2, and so
on).
2. Multiply that number by 5.
3. Add 6 to that number.
4. Multiply the number by 4.
5. Add 9 to the number.
6. Multiply that number by 5.
7. Add your birth day to the number (10 if born on the 10th and so
on).
BirthdayGame prompts the player for the calculated number and then
displays the player’s birthday. To determine the player’s birthday, 165 is
subtracted from the number entered by the player. This number is then
divided by 100. The decimal portion of the quotient represents the birth
month. The remainder of the division is the birth day.
The BirthdayGame interface should consist of steps that tell the user
how to calculate the number that needs to be entered. The player should
then be prompted for their number. Finally, the application displays the
player’s birthday.
A sketch of a program run:

90 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 An algorithm in plain English for BirthdayGame:
1. Display the directions for the player to calculate the number.
2. Prompt the player for the calculated number.
3. Subtract 165 from the number.
4. Use integer division to divide the number by 100. Store the
quotient as the birth month.
5. Use modulus division to divide the number by 100. Store the
remainder as the birth day.
6. Display a message containing the player’s birthday.

The BirthdayGame flowchart:

TIP The flowchart

object represents a process.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 91

 BirthdayGame Code Design
The code design describes how to accomplish the specification. Included
in the code design are a description of the input, output, data generated,
and additional flowcharts, algorithms, and pseudocode.
The input for BirthdayGame is a number calculated by the user. An
integer variable to store the user’s input will be needed.
The output for BirthdayGame is a message with the user’s birthday.
Data generated by BirthdayGame is the birth month and the birth day.
Integer variables to store the birth month and birth day will be needed.
Based on the algorithm and flowchart, the code design for the
BirthdayGame application will include statements for input and output.
Calculations will require both integer and modulus division. A pseudo-
code algorithm for BirthdayGame follows:
Display directions (7 steps)
Prompt the user for the calculated number
playerNum -= 165
birthMonth = playerNum / 100
birthDay = playerNum % 100
Display player's birthday

BirthdayGame Implementation
Based on the code design, the BirthdayGame implementation follows:
/*
* BirthdayGame.java
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

/**
* Plays a birthday guessing game with one player.
*/
public class BirthdayGame {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int playerNum;
int birthMonth, birthDay;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* Give the player directions for calculating the number */

System.out.println("Using paper and pencil, perform the following
calculations:\n");
System.out.println("1. Determine your birth month (January=1, February=2
and so on).");
System.out.println("2. Multiply that number by 5.");
System.out.println("3. Add 6 to that number.");
System.out.println("4. Multiply the number by 4.");
System.out.println("5. Add 9 to the number.");
System.out.println("6. Multiply that number by 5.");
System.out.println("7. Add your birth day to the number (10 if the 10th
and so on).\n");

92 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 System.out.print("Enter your number: ");
playerNum = input.nextInt();
input.close();

/* Calculate birth day and month and display result. */

playerNum -= 165;
birthMonth = playerNum / 100;
birthDay = playerNum % 100;

System.out.println("Your birthday is " + birthMonth + "/" + birthDay);

}
}

A run of BirthdayGame looks similar to:

BirthdayGame Testing and Debugging

This case study performs minimal calculations and the algorithm is simple
and straight forward. Simply testing it with your birthday is one method
of verifying results.

Chapter Summary
Variables and constants are used in programs so that values can be
represented with meaningful names. Variables and constants should be
used because they make code easier to read, understand, and modify.
Both variables and constants are created with a declaration statement.
A variable declaration includes the data type and identifier. A constant
declaration also includes the keyword final. Identifiers are case sensitive
and cannot be the same as a Java keyword. The value of a variable can be
changed throughout program execution with assignment statements. The
value of a constant cannot be changed from its initial assignment.
A primitive data type stores a single piece of data and can include int,
double, char, and boolean. Abstract data types include classes. Each class
defines not just a single piece of data like a primitive data type, but a set
of data along with methods for performing actions on that data. Variables
declared with an abstract data type are called objects. An object declara-
tion is called instantiation. An object is instantiated with the keyword
new.

Data can be read from the user at run time by using the Scanner class.
This class processes data from the input stream. Objects that read data
from the keyboard are initialized with System.in. When obtaining data
from the user, a prompt should be included so that the user knows what
information is expected.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 93

 Java includes many packages. Package members are accessible with
an import statement. The Scanner class is in the java.util package. The
NumberFormat class is in the java.text class. The NumberFormat class is
used for formatting numbers.
Java includes built-in operators that are used to form numeric expres-
sions. Arithmetic operators include +, -, *, /, and %. The / operator performs
integer division when both operands are type int, and real division when
at least one operand is a double. Modulus division is performed with the
% operator. An expression is evaluated according to operator precedence.
The order of operations can be changed with parentheses. Assignment
operators include +=, -=, *=, /=, and %=. Each of these operators perform
an operation before making an assignment.
Type casting converts a number of one type to a number of a different
type. Casting is useful when real division with integers is preferred. A
double can be rounded by first adding 0.5 before casting to an int.

Programming errors occur for many reasons. A syntax error violates

the rules of Java. A logic error is also called a semantic error and is more
difficult to detect because statements are syntactically correct, but produce
unexpected results. A run-time error is also called an exception. An excep-
tion halts program execution.
Code conventions introduced in this chapter are:
• Variable identifiers begin with a lowercase letter and any word
after the first within the identifier should begin with an uppercase
letter.
• Constant identifiers are all uppercase. Multiple words in an identi-
fier can be separated with an underscore (_) character.
• Variable and constant declarations should be grouped at the begin-
ning of a method.
• Each line of a program should contain only one statement.

94 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Vocabulary

Abstract data type A class. A data type that can Keyword A word that has special meaning to the
store data and methods. Java compiler and therefore cannot be used as a
variable or constant identifier.
ArithmeticException exception An exception
thrown when division by 0 occurs. Literal An actual value.

Assignment statement A statement that gives the Logic error An error caused by a statement that is
variable or constant on the left of an assignment syntactically correct, but produces unexpected or
operator the value of the expression on the right undesired results. Also called a semantic error.
side of the assignment operator.
Modulus division Division that returns the
Case sensitive An uppercase letter is different remainder.
from the same letter in lowercase.
Numeric expression At least one operand and
Class see Abstract data type. possibly one or more operators that evaluate to a
single value.
Concatenate To join two or more strings to form
one larger string. Object A variable declared with a class.

Constant A name for a memory location that stores Operator precedence The level assigned to an
a value than cannot be changed from its initial operator so that a specific order of operations is
assignment. maintained.

Data type The kind of information a variable Primitive data type A data type that can store only
stores. a single piece of data. Primitive data types are also
called built-in data types.
Declaration A statement that creates a variable or
constant. Prompt A string that informs the user of the kind
of data expected to be typed.
Equal sign (=) An assignment operator that indicates
the variable or constant on the left is to receive the Run-time error An error affecting program execu-
value of the expression on the right. tion. Also called an exception.

Exception see Run-time error. Semantic error see Logic error.

Floating point Values that are represented by the Syntax error An error caused by a statement that
double data type. Values that contain numbers after violates the rules of Java.
the decimal point.
Truncate Removing the decimal portion of a number
Identifier A name for a variable or constant. An when casting a double to an int.
identifier must begin with a letter and can include
Type casting Converting a number from one type
any number of letters, numbers, and some special
to a different type.
characters.
Variable A name for a memory location that stores
Initialize To assign a variable a value in a declara-
a value.
tion statement.
InputMismatchException exception An exception
thrown when user input is not as expected.
Input stream The sequence of characters received
from an input device.
Instantiation To create a new object.
Integer division Division that truncates the decimal
portion.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 95

Java

+ Operator used for concatenating strings. java.lang The most fundamental Java package. It
contains classes that define the Java language.
+ The arithmetic addition operator.
java.text A Java package with the NumberFormat
- The arithmetic subtraction operator.
class for formatting numbers.
* The arithmetic multiplication operator.
java.util A Java package with the Scanner class for
/ The arithmetic division operator. reading input.

% The arithmetic modulus division operator. new An operator that allocates memory for an
object.
() Used to change the order of operations in an
expression. Also used for type casting. NumberFormat A java.text class with methods for
formatting numbers.
= An assignment operator that gives the variable
on the left the value on the right. Scanner A java.util class with methods for reading
input from the user.
+= An assignment operator that adds the value on
the right to the variable on the left and then assigns System.in The input stream for reading from the
that value to the variable on the left. keyboard.

-= An assignment operator that subtracts the value

on the right from the variable on the left and then
assigns that value to the variable on the left.
*= An assignment operator that multiplies the value
on the right by the value of the variable on the left and
then assigns that value to the variable on the left.
/= An assignment operator that divides the value of
the variable on the left by the value on the right and
then assigns that value to the variable on the left.
%= An assignment operator that divides the value
of the variable on the left by the value on the right
and then assigns the remainder of that division to
the variable on the left.
boolean A data type that represents true or false.

char A data type that represents a single

character.
dou ble A data type that represents positive or
negative floating point numbers.
final Keyword used to declare an identifier a
constant.
import Statement used to make a package or classes
from a package accessible to an application.
in The java.lang.System member that represents
the standard input stream.
int A data type that represents positive or negative
integers.

96 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

 Critical Thinking

1. a) List four legal identifier names. 7. The java.util package contains a class named
b) List four illegal identifier names and explain ArrayList. Write a statement that makes the
why each is illegal. ArrayList class accessible to an application.

2. a) In two statements, declare a variable named 8. What is the value of each of the following
numBeads and assign it the value 5. expressions?
b) In one statement, declare a variable named a) 5 + 7 – 3
numBeads and assign it the value 5. b) 10 * 2 – 3
c) 10 * (2 – 3)
3. a) What is the final value of yourNumber after d) 8 – 3 * 2
the last statement executes? e) 10 / 5 * 4
int myNumber = 5; f) 10 / 2 + 3
int yourNumber = 4; g) 6 % 3 + 4
myNumber = yourNumber * 2;
h) 12 % 5 * 3
yourNumber = myNumber + 5;
i) 12 % (5 * 3)
b) What is the final value of yourNumber after
the last statement executes? 9. What is the result of the following expression
int myNumber; when x is 2005? When x is 1776? When x is 39?
int yourNumber = 4;
myNumber = yourNumber + 7; (x/10)%10
yourNumber = myNumber;
10. Write each equation as a valid Java expression:
4. Determine the appropriate data type for each
of the following values: a) (geometry)
a) the number of basketballs in a department
store.
b) the price of a basketball. b) (business)
c) the number of players on a basketball
team.
d) the average age of the players on a basketball c) (geometry)
team.
e) whether a basketball player has received a
jersey or not. d) (geometry)
f) the first initial of a basketball player’s first
name.
e) (algebra)
5. a) What is the difference between a primitive
data type and an abstract data type?
b) What is the difference between a class and f) (physics)
an object?
g) (business)
6. Assume a class named Team defines a sports
team.
11. Using the following declarations, rewrite the
a) Methods define the actions in a class and
statements to include the appropriate type cast-
typically include action words in their name.
ing, rounding where necessary. If type casting
For example, getTeamName is a method
is not necessary, explain why:
name that returns the name of the team. List
three more possible method names for the int j = 5;
Team class. double k = 1.6;
int y;
b) List three possible object names of type
double z;
Team.
a) y = j * k;
b) z = j * k;

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 97

 c) z = k * k; d) Values typed by the user cannot be used in
d) j = k; an application.
e) k = j; e) The Scanner class is part of a Java package.
f) y = j + 3; f) The + operator has higher precedence than
the – operator.
12. Compare the way the / and % operators perform g) The – operator has lower precedence than
to the effects of type casting. the % operator.
h) byte is a keyword.
13. Rewrite the statements below using the appro- i) The identifiers apple and Apple are consid-
priate assignment operator: ered the same in Java.
a) total = total + 10; j) Errors that violate the rules of Java are called
b) numStones = numStones - 1; semantic errors.
c) days = days % 24;
d) price = price * 1.2;

14. Determine if each of the following are better

represented by a variable or a constant and then
write declarations using appropriate data types
and descriptive identifiers:
a) the number of votes received by an election
candidate
b) the percentage of votes won by a candidate
c) the first, middle, and last initials of an elec-
tion candidate
d) the year of the election

15. Determine if each of the following segments of

code contain a syntax error, logic error, or run-
time error. Explain.
a) duble salary;
b) int numHats
c) length == 12;
d) int test1 = 90;
int test2 = 85;
double avg;
avg = test1 + test2 / 2;
e) double x = 12;
double y = 0;
double z;
z = x / y;
f) double payCheck = 120.00;
NumberFormat money =
NumberFormat.getPercentInstance();
System.out.println(money.format(payCheck);

True/False
16. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
a) An identifier can contain spaces.
b) Data of type double is sometimes referred to
as floating point.
c) An abstract data type is also called a primi-
tive data type.

98 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Exercises

Exercise 1 ————————————————————ObjectHeight
The height of an object at any given time dropped from a starting height of 100 meters is given by the
equation h=100–4.9*t2 where t is the time in seconds. Create an ObjectHeight application that prompts
the user for a time less than 4.5 seconds and then displays the height of the object at that time. The
application output should look similar to:

Exercise 2 ————————————————————— PizzaCost

The cost of making a pizza at a local shop is as follows:
• Labor cost is $0.75 per pizza, regardless of size
• Rent cost is $1.00 per pizza, regardless of size
• Materials is $0.05*diameter*diameter (diameter is measured in inches)
Create a PizzaCost application that prompts the user for the size of a pizza and then displays the cost
of making the pizza. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ————————————————— CollegeCalculator

In small groups brainstorm all the expenses involved in attending a college or university (rent, tuti-
tion, books, etc) and possible offset costs (scholarships, etc). Create a CollegeCalculator application that
prompts the user for the amount of each expense and offset cost. If the cost is not applicable the user
should enter a value of 0. Add the expenses and subtract the offset costs to determine how much money
an individual will need for their school year. College Web sites can be used as a guide to determine
relevant and appropriate expenses.

Exercise 4 ö —————————————————— JavaTerminology

Modify the JavaTerminology application created in Chapter 3, Exercise 8 to include five words from
the vocabulary list in this chapter and the corresponding definition. Place each word on a separate line
followed by the definition. Place a blank line between entries.

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 99

Exercise 5 —————————————————————— Energy
Einstein’s famous formula, e=mc2, gives the amount of energy released by the complete conversion of
matter of mass m into energy e. If m represents the mass in kilograms and c represents the speed of
light in meters per second (3.0 ∗ 108 m/s), then the result is in the energy units Joules. It takes 360000
Joules to light a 100-watt light bulb for an hour. Create an Energy application that prompts the user for
a mass in kilograms and then displays the energy and the number of light bulbs that could be powered.
The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 6 —————————————————————— Change

Create a Change application that prompts the user for an amount less than $1.00 and then displays
the minimum number of coins necessary to make the change. The change can be made up of quarters,
dimes, nickels, and pennies. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 7 ö —————————————————————— Digits

Modify the Digits application created in a review earlier in this chapter to show the hundreds-place
digit of a three digit number. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 8 ———————————————————— DivAndMod

Create a DivAndMod application that prompts the user for two integers and then displays the result of
integer and modulus division in either order. The application output should look similar to:

100 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Exercise 9 —————————————————— TimeConversion
Create a TimeConversion application that prompts the user for a time in minutes and then displays
the time in hours and minutes. Be sure to consider times whether the number of minutes left over is
less than 10. For example, 184 minutes in hour:minute format is 3:04 (Hint: use the modulus operator).
The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 10 ——————————————————————— Sleep

Create a Sleep application that calculates the number of hours of your life that you have spent sleeping.
Assume that you sleep 8 hours each night. To simplify the problem, assume that there are 30 days in
each month and 365 days in each year. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 11 ——————————————————————— Order

A fast food restaurant charges $1.69 for burgers, $1.09 for fries, and $0.99 for sodas.

a) Create an Order application that prompts the employee for the number of burgers, fries,
and sodas and then displays the total, the tax (6.5%), and the final cost. The application
output should look similar to:

b) Modify Order to prompt the employee for the amount tendered and then display the
change due. Application output should look similar to:

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 101

Exercise 12 —————————————————————— Project
Create a Project application to help analyze the time taken for a Java project. The application should
prompt you for the time spent designing, coding, debugging, and testing, and then displays a table
showing the percentage of time taken for each part. The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 13 ————————————————————— Spending

Create a Spending application to help examine the spending patterns of a user. The application should
prompt the user for the amount spent last month on food, clothing, entertainment, and rent, and then
displays a table showing the percentage of expenditures in each category. The application output should
look similar to:

Exercise 14 —————————————————— GallonConverter

Create a GallonConverter application that prompts the user for the number of gallons and then displays
the equivalent number of quarts, pints, cups, and tablespoons. There are 4 quarts in a gallon, 2 pints in
a quart, 2 cups in a pint, and 16 tablespoons in a cup. The application output should look similar to:

102 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants

Exercise 15 ——————————————————— SimpleInterest
There are two kinds of interest: simple and compound. With simple interest, the amount of the deposit
remains the same, and the amount of interest is paid at the end of a time interval. For example, if $1,000
is deposited for 7 years at an interest rate of 6% per year, $60 will be deposited at the end of each year,
for a total of $1,420 after 7 years.

a) The value of the amount after the term is calculated using the formula:
Amount = Principal * (1 + years * interest rate)
Create a SimpleInterest application that prompts the user for the principal, number of
years, and the interest rate (as a fraction) and then calculates the amount of interest.
The application should display output similar to:

b) The formula in part (a) can be adjusted to calculate what principal will need to be
invested in order to have a certain amount of money after a specified term and interest
rate:
Principal = Amount / (1 + years * interest rate).
Modify SimpleInterest to prompt the user for the desired amount, number of years,
and interest rate and then calculate the principal that will need to be invested.

Exercise 16 —————————————————————— Election

The results of a primary election between two candidates in three states are:
Awbrey Martinez
New York 314159 271860
New Jersey 89008 121032
Connecticut 213451 231034

Write a program that prompts the user for the election results, and then displays output similar to:

Chapter 4 Variables and Constants 103

104 Chapter 4 Variables and Constants
 Chapter 5
Conditional Control Structures

S tatements that branch to perform one action or another depending on

a condition are used to give an application decision-making capabilities.
This chapter focuses on the if and switch conditional control structures.

The if Statement
conditional control structure The if statement is a conditional control structure, also called a decision
structure, which executes a set of statements when a condition is true.
Conditional control structures are used to change program flow. The if
statement takes the form:
TIP The condition of an
i f statement should never if (<condition>) {
make an equality comparison <statements>
between floating point num- }
bers because of the possibility
For example, in the following if statement, guess == SECRET _ NUM is the
of roundoff error.
condition, and there is one statement that will be executed when this
condition is true:
if (guess == SECRET _ NUM) {
TIP Using = instead of == in System.out.println("You guessed it!");
an if statement condition gen- }
erates an error.
The == relational operator determines if the value of guess is equal to the
value of SECRET _ NUM. If equal, the println() statement executes. If not, then
program flow continues to the next statement after the closing brace of
the if statement.

Boolean expression The condition of an if statement is a Boolean expression, which evaluates

to either true or false. Relational operators can be used to form Boolean
relational operators expressions. There are six relational operators:
Operator Meaning
== equal
Comparing Objects < less than
Because objects point to a
<= less than or equal
location in memory, rather > greater than
than directly storing a value, >= greater than or equal
they cannot be compared using != not equal
built-in relational operators. A
class defines methods that are
used to compare objects.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 105

 A boolean variable may also be used as the condition of an if statement
because its value is true or false. For example, in the following statements,
the message is displayed:
boolean gameOver = true;
if (gameOver) {
System.out.println("Thanks for playing!");
}

Review: SurfsUp – part 1 of 3

Create a SurfsUp application that prompts the user for the wave height and then displays “Great day for
surfing!” when the waves are 6 feet and over.

The if-else Statement

The if statement can include an optional else clause that is executed
when the if condition evaluates to false. The if-else statement takes the
following form:
if (<condition>) {
<statements>
} else {
<statements>
}

For example, in the following if-else statement, different messages are

displayed for correct and incorrect guesses:
if (guess == SECRET _ NUM) {
System.out.println("You guessed it!");
} else {
System.out.println("Try again.");
}

The indentation and organization of the if-else is important for read-

ability. The structure shown is a code convention that clearly indicates the
actions for a true condition and the actions for a false condition.

Review: SurfsUp – part 2 of 3

Modify the SurfsUp application to display “Great day for surfing!” when the waves are 6 feet or over and
“Go body boarding!” when the waves are less than 6 feet.

Review: CircleCircumference – part 2 of 2

Modify the CircleCircumference application from Chapter 4 so that the message “Negative radii are illegal.”
is displayed if a negative number is entered by the user for the radius value. Otherwise the application should
calculate and display the circumference of the circle.

106 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 Nested Statements
An if-else statement can contain another if-else or if statement.
Statements placed within the same type of statements are called nested.
For example, the nested if-else gives a hint when the user does not guess
the correct number:
if (guess == SECRET _ NUM) { //correct
System.out.println("You guessed it!");
} else {
if (guess < SECRET _ NUM) { //too low
System.out.println("Too low.");
} else { //too high
System.out.println("Too high.");
}
}

Carefully indenting the statements makes it clear which are nested.

Review: Stages
Create a Stages application that prompts the user for an age. For an age over 18, adult is displayed. For an age
less than or equal to 18, toddler is displayed when the age is less than or equal to 5, child when the age is less
than or equal to 10, preteen when the age is less than or equal to 12, and teen when the age is over 12.

The if-else if Statement

The if-else if statement is used to decide among three or more actions
and takes the form:
if (<condition>) {
<statements>
} else if (<condition>) {
<statements>
} else {
<statements>
}

There can be multiple else if clauses, and the last else clause is optional.
For example, there are three possible decisions in the if-else if statement
below:
Commenting Complex
Decision Structures if (guess == SECRET _ NUM) { //correct
System.out.println("You guessed it!");
Decision structures with many
} else if (guess < SECRET _ NUM) { //too low
branches can quickly become System.out.println("Too low.");
difficult to understand. Brief } else { //too high
inline comments can make System.out.println("Too high.");
code much more readable. }
This is especially important
for the last branch of a deci- The logic used in developing an if-else if statement is important. For
sion structure, which usually example, when testing a range of numbers, if conditions must be properly
does not include an explicit ordered because statements are executed for the first true condition only
condition. and then program flow continues to the next statement after the if-else
if.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 107

 When choosing between nested if-else statements and a single if-else
if statement, the if-else if allows only one branch to execute and the
conditions show a clear sequence. In general, the if-else if statement is
easier to read and understand.

Review: SurfsUp – part 3 of 3

Modify the SurfsUp application to display “Great day for surfing!” when the waves are 6 feet or over, “Go
body boarding!” when the waves are between 3 and 6 feet, ”Go for a swim.” when the waves are from 0 to
3 feet, and “Whoa! What kind of surf is that?” otherwise.

Review: Discriminant
In mathematics, the quantity b2 – 4ac is called the “discriminant.” Create a Discriminant application that
prompts the user for the values of a, b, and c an then displays “No roots” if the discriminant is negative,
“One root” is the discriminant is zero, and “Two roots” if the discriminant is positive. Application output
should look similar to:

The switch Statement

The switch statement is a conditional control structure that uses the
result of an expression to determine which statements to execute. The
switch statement is sometimes preferable to the if-else if statement
because code may be easier to read. The switch statement takes the form:
switch (<integer expression>) {
case x:
<statement>;
break;
...
default:
<statements>;
break;
}

case The expression must evaluate to an integer. There can be multiple case
break clauses. The break statement is necessary to move program control to the
next statement after the switch statement. The default code is optional and
is executed when none of the previous cases are met. For example, when
score is 5, the case 5 statement executes and then program control moves
to the next statement after the switch (skipping the case 10 statement):
switch (score) {
case 0: System.out.println("Better luck next time."); break;
case 5: System.out.println("Pretty good."); break;
case 10: System.out.println("Great!"); break;
}

108 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 If the break statement is not included in a case clause, execution continues
on to the next statement within the switch statement. This can be useful
when the same set of statements applies to more than one situation:
switch (score) {
case 0: System.out.println("Better luck next time."); break;
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: System.out.println("Pretty good."); break;
case 6:
case 7:
case 8:
case 9:
case 10: System.out.println("Great!"); break;
}

In this statement, “Pretty good.” is displayed when the score is 1, 2, 3, 4,

or 5. Scores 6 though 10 display “Great”.

Review: Hurricane
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale provides a rating (a category) depending on the current intensity of a
hurricane. Create a Hurricane application that displays the wind speed for the hurricane category entered
by the user. Display the speed in miles per hour (mph), knots (kts), and kilometers per hour (km/hr). Refer
to the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale below for wind speeds:
Category 1: 74-95 mph or 64-82 kt or 119-153 km/hr
Category 2: 96-110 mph or 83-95 kt or 154-177 km/hr
Category 3: 111-130 mph or 96-113 kt or 178-209 km/hr
Category 4: 131-155 mph or 114-135 kt or 210-249 km/hr
Category 5: greater than 155 mph or 135 kt or 249 km/hr

Generating Random Numbers

Games, simulators, screen savers, and many other types of applications
make use of random numbers. A widely used method for generating ran-
Linear Congruential Method dom numbers is called the Linear Congruential Method. This method uses
a formula to generate a sequence of numbers. Although the numbers in
the sequence vary and for most applications can be considered random,
the sequence will at some point repeat. Therefore, random numbers in a
pseudorandom computer application are referred to as pseudorandom (like random).
Math class Java includes the Math class in the java.lang package for generating
random numbers. This class includes the random() method, which uses
the Linear Congruential Method:
Class Math (java.lang.Math)
Methods
random() returns the next random double between 0
(inclusive) and 1.0.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 109

 The RandomNumberDemo class below uses the random() method to
display five numbers between 0 and 1.0:
import java.lang.Math;
public class RandomNumberDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("First number: " + Math.random());
System.out.println("Second number: " + Math.random());
System.out.println("Third number: " + Math.random());
System.out.println("Fourth number: " + Math.random());
System.out.println("Fifth number: " + Math.random());
}
}

RandomNumberDemo produces output similar to the following:

random numbers in a range To generate a random number in a range the following formula is
used:
(highNum - lowNum + 1) * Math.random() + lowNum

For example, the RandomNumberDemo2 class generates five numbers

between 5 and 10:
import java.lang.Math;
public class RandomNumberDemo2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("First number: " +
(6 * Math.random() + 5));
System.out.println("Second number: " +
(6 * Math.random() + 5));
System.out.println("Third number: " +
(6 * Math.random() + 5));
System.out.println("Fourth number: " +
(6 * Math.random() + 5));
System.out.println("Fifth number: " +
(6 * Math.random() + 5));
}

RandomNumberDemo2 produces output similar to the following:

110 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 random integers Numbers generated by random() have a decimal portion. Casting can
be used to produce random integers (whole numbers). Casting a double
to an int truncates the decimal portion of the number. For example, the
TIP Use rounding along with RandomIntDemo class generates an integer between 5 and 10:
casting to produce an inte-
ger that is either 0 or 1 in an import java.lang.Math;
expression similar to:
public class RandomIntDemo {
(int)(Math.random()+0.5)
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Number: " +
(int)(6 * Math.random() + 5));
}
}

RandomIntDemo produces output similar to the following:

Review: RandomNum
Create a RandomNum application that prompts the user for two numbers. The first number is a minimum
value and the second is a maximum value. RandomNum then displays an integer between the min and max
values entered by the user.

Compound Boolean Expressions

Conditions with complex criteria are formed using the & & and ||
&& and || operators. The && operator is called the logical And. It is used to form an
logical And expression that evaluates to true only when both operands are also true.
The || operator is called the logical Or. An expression formed with this
logical Or operator evaluates to true when either operand is true. For example, the
following statement tests for invalid guesses:
if (guess < 1 || guess > 50) { //invalid guess
TIP The | key is located above System.out.println("Invalid guess.");
the Enter key on most standard } else if (guess == SECRET _ NUM) { //correct guess
keyboards. System.out.println("You guessed it!");
}

When a guess is either less than 1 or greater than 50, “Invalid guess.” is
displayed. The condition in the if statement is called a compound Boolean
expression because more than one Boolean expression determines whether
the condition is true or false.
truth table How a compound Boolean expression evaluates with && and || operators
can be shown with truth tables. A truth table shows the possible outcomes
of compound Boolean expressions:
And Or
Exp1 Exp2 Result Exp1 Exp2 Result
True True True True True True
True False False True False True
False True False False True True
False False False False False False

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 111

 As another example, consider an application that computes a discount
depending on the item and quantity purchased:
if (itemNum == 873 && quantity > 50) { //more than 50 of 873
discount = 1; //$1 discount
}

This if statement executes the discount = 1 statement if item number is

873 and quantity is greater than 50.

! A third operator is !. The ! operator is called the logical Not. An expres-

sion including ! is evaluated according to the following truth table:
Not
Exp Result
True False
False True
For example, the following statements display a message when the item
number is not 873:
if (!itemNum == 873) { //any item EXCEPT 873
System.out.println("No discount given.");
}

short circuit evaluation Java uses short-circuit evaluation for determining the result of a com-
pound Boolean expression that includes && or ||. In short-circuit evaluation,
the left operand is evaluated first. If the result of the entire expression can
be determined by the value of the left operand, then no other operands will
be evaluated. For example, the expression x < 0 || x > 5 evaluates to true
if x is less than 0 regardless of the value of x > 5. Therefore, when x is less
then 0, the second operand will not be evaluated. As another example, the
expression x > 5 && x < 20 evaluates to false if x is less than or equal to
5 regardless of the value of x < 20. Therefore, when x is less than or equal
to 5, the second operand will not be evaluated.

order of operations In the order of operations, ! is evaluated before &&. || is evaluated last.
For example, the expression !5 < 6 || 2 > 4 && 3 < 6 evaluates to false
because !5 < 6 is performed first, then 2 > 4 && 3 < 6, and then False ||
False. Use parentheses to change operator precedence and to make code
more readable.

Review: Delivery
Create a Delivery application that prompts the user for the length, width, and height of a package, and then
displays “Reject” if any dimension is greater than 10, and “Accept” if all dimensions are less than or equal
to 10.

112 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 The Math Class
java.lang Java includes the Math class in the java.lang package for performing
math functions such as exponentiation and square root. The Math class
contains numerous methods, which include:
Class Math ( java.lang.Math)
Methods
abs(num) returns the absolute value of num, which can be
TIP The Math class also con- an int or a double value.
tains the double constant PI
pow(double num1, double num2)
that approximates π.
returns the num1 raised to the num2 power.
sqrt(double num)
returns the square root of num, where num is a
positive number.

Calling a Math method requires using the class name. For example,
Math.abs(-3) returns 3. The application on the next page demonstrates the
Math methods:
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestMathMethods {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int posNum = 12, negNum = -12;
int num1 = 2, num2 = 6;
int square = 49;

System.out.println("The absolute value of " + posNum

+ " is " + Math.abs(posNum));
System.out.println("The absolute value of " + negNum
+ " is " + Math.abs(negNum));
System.out.println(num1 + " raised to the " + num2
+ " power is " + Math.pow(num1, num2));
System.out.println("The square root of " + square
+ " is " + Math.sqrt(square));
}
}

The TestMathMethods produces the following output:

Review: PerfectSquare
Create a PerfectSquare application that prompts the user for an integer and then displays a message indicat-
ing whether or not the number is a perfect square. This can be determined by finding the square root of a
number, truncating it (by casting the double result), and then squaring that result.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 113

Chapter 5 Case Study
In this case study, a computerized version of the Rock Paper Scissors
game will be created. Rock Paper Scissors is a popular game played
between two individuals for decision making or just for competitive fun.
The rules of the game are Rock dulls Scissors (Rock wins), Scissors cuts
Paper (Scissors wins), and Paper covers Rock (Paper wins). The two players
make a “throw” at the same time. The hand signals thrown by the players
are then compared to the rules of the game to determine the winner. In
the computerized version, the user plays against the computer.

RPS Specification
RPS is played between the computer and a single player. The player is
prompted for a throw where 1 corresponds to Rock, 2 to Paper, and 3 to
Scissors. A random number between 1 and 3 is generated for the com-
puter throw. The winner is determined based on the rules of Rock Paper
Scissors.
The RPS interface should be simple. The user will be prompted to enter
an integer between 1 and 3, where 1 represents Rock, 2 represents Paper,
and 3 represents Scissors. The program then generates a random number
between 1 and 3, displays the generated number and the player’s number
and determines a winner.
The RPS output sketch:

The RPS algorithm:

1. Prompt the user for a number between 1 and 3.
2. Generate a random number between 1 and 3.
3. Compare the generated number to the number typed by the
user.
4. Determine a winner and display an appropriate message.

114 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 The RPS flowchart:

TIP The flowchart object

represents a decision.

RPS Code Design

The input for RPS is a number typed by the user. An integer variable
to store the user’s input will be needed.
The output for RPS is a message with the user’s input, the generated
number, and the winner.
Data generated by RPS is a random integer between 1 and 3, which
represents the computer’s “throw.” An int variable to store the computer-
generated number will be needed. Other data used in this application can
be represented by int constants that represent Rock (1), Paper (2), and
Scissors(3).
Based on the algorithm and flowchart, the code design for the RPS
application will include decision structures to compare the user’s input to
the number generated by the computer. This comparison can be done with
either a switch statement or if-else if statements. For this implementation,
an if-else if will be used. A pseudocode algorithm for RPS follows:

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 115

 Prompt user for a number (1=Rock, 2=Paper, 3=Scissors)
Generate a random number between 1 and 3, inclusive
Display a message with player's number and computer's number
if (playerThrow == 1 and computerThrow == 1)
Draw message
else if (playerThrow == 1 and computerThrow == 2)
Computer wins message
else if (playerThrow == 1 and computerThrow == 3)
Player wins message
if (playerThrow == 2 and computerThrow == 1)
Player wins message
else if (playerThrow == 2 and computerThrow == 2)
Draw message
else if (playerThrow == 2 and computerThrow == 3)
Computer wins message
if (playerThrow == 3 and computerThrow == 1)
Computer wins message
else if (playerThrow == 3 and computerThrow == 2)
Player wins message
else if (playerThrow == 3 and computerThrow == 3)
Draw message

RPS Implementation
Based on the code design, the RPS implementation follows:
/*
* RPS.java
*/

import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

/**
* Plays Rock Paper Scissors against one player.
*/
public class RPS {

public static void main(String[] args) {

final int ROCK = 1, PAPER = 2, SCISSORS = 3;
int playerThrow, computerThrow;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* prompt player for throw and read number typed */

System.out.print("Enter your throw (1=Rock, 2=Paper, 3=Scissors): ");
playerThrow = input.nextInt();
input.close();

/* Generate computer throw */

computerThrow = (int)(3 * Math.random() + 1); /* random int between 1 and 3 */

/* Inform player of throws */

System.out.print("Player throws ");
switch (playerThrow) {
case ROCK: System.out.println("ROCK."); break;
case PAPER: System.out.println("PAPER."); break;
case SCISSORS: System.out.println("SCISSORS."); break;
}
System.out.print("Computer throws ");
switch (computerThrow) {
case ROCK: System.out.println("ROCK."); break;
case PAPER: System.out.println("PAPER."); break;
case SCISSORS: System.out.println("SCISSORS."); break;
}

116 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 /* Determine winner */
if (playerThrow == ROCK && computerThrow == ROCK) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
} else if (playerThrow == ROCK && computerThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("Computer wins!");
} else if (playerThrow == ROCK && computerThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("Player wins!");
}

if (playerThrow == PAPER && computerThrow == ROCK) {

System.out.println("Player wins!");
} else if (playerThrow == PAPER && computerThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
} else if (playerThrow == PAPER && computerThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("Computer wins!");
}

if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && computerThrow == ROCK) {

System.out.println("Computer wins!");
} else if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && computerThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("Player wins!");
} else if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && computerThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
}
}
}

The RPS application output looks similar to:

RPS Testing and Debugging

This case study should test all possible throw combinations. For test-
ing purposes, the random integer should be replaced with a constant. By
varying only the player input from run to run, each of the combinations
can be tested. The easiest way to change computerThrow to a constant is to
set it to a value, such as 3 for Scissors, and then comment out the part of
the statement that generates a random number:
/* Generate computer throw */
computerThrow = 3; /* (int)(3 * Math.random() + 1) */

Running the application with a constant reduces the number of factors to

consider when testing. Three runs using the constant look similar to:

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 117

 Different constants can be used until all combinations are tested. Note
that this application has a small and limited number of combinations to
test. Other methods of testing will be discussed as applications become
more complex.
Testing also involves considering user input and exception handling.
What happens when the player enters 4? How should illegal input be
handled? Preventing input errors and exception handling are discussed
later in the text.

Review: RPS – part 1 of 2

Modify the RPS Chapter 5 Case Study to use nested if-else statements rather than if-else if statements
to determine the winner.

Review: RPS – part 2 of 2

Modify the RPS Chapter 5 Case Study to use a switch statement to determine the winner. (Hint: You may
need an if-else if statement within the case statements.)

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced conditional control structures, random num-
bers, and logical operators. Conditional control structures, also called
decision structures, include the if and switch statements. The if uses the
result of a Boolean expression to determine program flow, and the switch
uses the result of an integer expression to determine program flow.
In the if statement, program flow branches to a set of statements when
the condition evaluates to true. In the if-else statement, program flow
branches to one set of statements for a true condition and a different set
when the condition is false. Nested if-else statements can be used for
even more control over program flow. The if-else if is used to decide
among three or more actions.
Relational operators can be used to form a Boolean expression. They
include the ==, <, <=, >, >=, and != operators. Two or more Boolean expres-
sions can be joined with logical operators to form a compound Boolean
expression. Logical operators include && (logical And), || (logical Or), and
! (logical Not). A truth table shows how a compound Boolean expression
evaluates.
The switch statement contains multiple case clauses. A break statement
is required to move program control out of the switch statement.

118 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 Java uses the Linear Congruential Method to generate a sequence of
random numbers. Because the sequence eventually repeats, random num-
ber in a computer application are really pseudorandom. Java includes the
Math.random() method in the java.lang package for generating random
numbers.
The Math class, part of the java.lang package, contains many useful
methods for performing math functions. Calling a Math method requires
including the class name.
Code conventions introduced in this chapter are :
• The clauses of an if statement should be indented.
• nested if statements should be indented.
• The case clause of a switch statement should be indented.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 119

Vocabulary

Boolean expression An expression that evaluates Logical Or The || operator used to form a compound
to true or false. Boolean expression.

Compound Boolean expression An expression that Nested A statement placed within the same type
includes more than one Boolean expression. of statement.

Conditional control structure A statement that Pseudorandom Not truly random, but like
branches program flow depending on a condition. random.
Also called a decision structure.
Relational operator Operators (==, <, <=, >, >=, !=)
Decision structure see Conditional control that can be used to form a Boolean expression.
structure.
Short circuit evaluation A process for determin-
Linear Congruential Method A method that uses ing the result of a Boolean expression where the left
a formula to generate a sequence of pseudorandom operand is evaluated first. If the result of the entire
numbers. expression can be determined by the left operand,
no other operands are evaluated.
Logical And The && operator used to form a com-
pound Boolean expression. Truth table A table that shows the possible outcomes
of two expressions joined by a logical operator.
Logical Not The ! operator used to reverse the
value of a Boolean expression.

Java

== The equality relational operator. if-else A decision structure that executes one set
of statements when a condition is true and another
< The less than relational operator. set of statements when the condition is false.
<= The less than or equal relational operator. if-else if A decision structure used to decide
> The greater than relational operator. among three or more actions.

>= The greater than or equal relational operator. Math A java.lang class with methods for generating
random numbers and performing math functions.
!= The not equal relational operator.
switch A decision structure that uses the result of
&& The logical And operator. an expression to determine which set of statements
to execute.
|| The logical Or operator.

! The logical Not operator.

break A statement that moves program control to

the next statement after the current structure.
case A clause in the switch statement that contains
statements to be executed when the case condition
matches the result of the switch expression.
if A decision structure that executes a set of state-
ments when a condition is true.

120 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 Critical Thinking

1. Use a decision structure to write an appropriate 6. Given the following assignments, determine if
statement for each of the following: each of the following expressions evaluates to
a) Display Great job! when g r ade is 90 or true or false:
higher. size = 100 weight = 50 value = 75
b) Display Error when number is less than 20 or a) size > 50 && weight == 50
greater than 50. b) value < 100 && !(weight == 50)
c) Add 2 to the value of y when y is less than c) size >= 100 || value >= 100
100. d) weight < 50 || size > 50
e) !(value < 75)
2. Assume num1 and num2 contain integer values. f) !(size > 100 && weight >50 && value > 75)
Write an if-else if statement that displays one g) (value < 125 || weight < 76) && size ==100
of the following messages as appropriate:
First number is larger. 7. a) Write a statement that will calculate yx.
Second number is larger. b) Write a statement that will calculate the abso-
Numbers are equal. lute value of y.
c) Write a statement that will calculate the
3. a) Which is the appropriate word, odd or even square root of y.
for the blanks below?
if (num % 2 == 0) { True/False
System.out.println("___ number");
} else { 8. Determine if each of the following are true or
System.out.println("___ number"); false. If false, explain why.
} a) The condition of an if statement must be a
b) Rewrite the if-else as a switch statement. Boolean expression.
b) A nested if statement and an if-else if
4. Write statements that use Math.random() to statement are the same.
generate random numbers for each of the fol- c) The expression in a switch statement must
lowing situations: evaluate to a double.
a) Generate a random integer between 1 and d) Numbers generated by a computer program
50. are actually pseudorandom.
b) Generate a random integer between 20 and e) The (double) cast is needed to generate a
100. random integer.
c) Generate a random double between 10 and f) A compound Boolean expression can contain
20, inclusive. more than two Boolean expressions.
g) In a logical And expression, both operands
5. Identify the logic errors in the statements below, must be true for the expression to evaluate
which should display a single appropriate mes- to true.
sage for any value of age: h) In logical expressions, && is evaluated before
if (age < 18) { !.
System.out.println("child"); i) The pow() method in the Math class is used
} else if (age > 18 && age < 65) { for exponentiation.
System.out.println("adult"); j) The statement x = abs(-3); will return the
} else if (age > 65) {
value 3.
System.out.println("senior");
} l) A diamond shaped object represents a deci-
sion in a flowchart.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 121

Exercises

Exercise 1 —————————————————————— Printing

Printing prices are typically based on the number of copies to be printed. For example:
0 – 99 $0.30 per copy
100 – 499 $0.28 per copy
500 – 749 $0.27 per copy
750 – 1000 $0.26 per copy
over 1000 $0.25 per copy
Create a Printing application that prompts the user for the number of copies to print and then displays
the price per copy and the total price for the job. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 2 ——————————————————— PackageCheck

A delivery service does not accept packages heavier than 27 kilograms or larger than 0.1 cubic meters
(100,000 cubic centimeters). Create a PackageCheck application that prompts the user for the weight of
a package and its dimensions (length, width, and height), and then displays an appropriate message
if the package does not meet the requirements. Messages should include:
Too heavy.
Too large.
Too heavy and too large.

The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ——————————————————————— Eggs

A wholesale egg company bases their prices on the number of eggs purchased:
0 up to but not including 4 dozen $0.50 per dozen
4 up to but not including 6 dozen $0.45 per dozen
6 up to but not including 11 dozen $0.40 per dozen
11 or more dozen $0.35 per dozen
Extra eggs are priced at 1/12 the per dozen price.

122 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 Create an Eggs application that prompts the user for the number of eggs, and then calculates the bill.
The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 4 ————————————————————— CarRecall

An auto company produced some models of cars that may be difficult to drive because the car wheels
are not exactly round. Cars with model numbers 119, 179, 189 through 195, 221, and 780 have been found
to have this defect. Create a CarRecall application that prompts a customer for the model number of
their car to find out if it is defective and then displays “Your car is not defective.” when the user typed
a model number without a defect. Otherwise, the message “Your car is defective. It must be repaired.”
should be displayed. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 5 ——————————————————————— Grade

Create a Grade application that prompts the user for the percentage earned on a test or other graded
work and then displays the corresponding letter grade. The application should use the grading scale
at your school or the following grading scale:
90 – 100 A
80 – 89 B
70 – 79 C
60 – 69 D
below 60 F

The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 6 ————————————————————— MathTutor

Create a MathTutor application that displays math problems by randomly generating two numbers, 1
through 10 and an operator (*, +, –, /), and then prompts the user for an answer. The application should
check the answer, display a message, and the correct answer, if necessary. The application output
should look similar to:

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 123

Exercise 7 ———————————————— EquivalentFractions
Create an EquivalentFractions application that quizzes the user on equivalent fractions.

a) Display eight fractions and prompt the user to match pairs of equivalent fractions.
Application output should look similar to:

b) Modify the EquivalentFractions application to display the user’s score.

c) Modify the EquivalentFractions application so that the user selects beginner or
advanced, and the set of fractions displayed is based on this choice.

Exercise 8 ————————————————— RandomGenerator

Create a RandomGenerator application that implements the Linear Congruential Method. The formula
used by this method is:
X n-1 = (aX n + c) % m

Use constant integers for a, c, and m. Choose a seed integer value for X0. Show 10 numbers from the
sequence. Application output should look similar to:

Note the sequence shown in the output repeats after five numbers. Experiment by changing the values
for a, c, m, and X0 (the seed) to see which values create the most “random” sequence of numbers (the
largest set of nonrepeating numbers).

124 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

Exercise 9 —————————————————— GuessingGame
The GuessingGame is a number guessing game played between the computer and one player. The
GuessingGame algorithm follows:
1. Determine a secret number between 1 and 20.
2. Prompt the player for a number between 1 and 20.
3. Compare the player’s number to the secret number.
4. Display the secret number and the player’s number.
5. If the player’s number matches the secret number, then display a “You won!” message.
Otherwise display a “Better luck next time.” message.

a) Draw a GuessingGame flowchart based on the algorithm.

b) Create the GuessingGame application with output similar to:

c) Write down how the application was tested and list any debugging techniques used.

Exercise 10 —————————————————————— Volumes

The volume of objects are calculated differently depending on the shape of the object.

a) The volume of a rectangular prism is calculated using the formula:

Create a Volumes application that prompts the user for the length, width, and height
of a rectangular prism and then calculates the volume.
b) The volume of a sphere is calculated using the formula:

Modify the Volumes application to prompt the user for the radius (d = 2*r) of a sphere
after displaying the volume of the rectangular prism. The application should then
display the volume of the sphere.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 125

 c) The volume of a cube is calculated using the formula:

Modify the Volumes application to prompt the user for the length of each side of a cube
after displaying the volume of the rectangular prism and the sphere. The application
should then display the volume of the cube.
The application output should look similar to:

Exercise 11 ————————————————— QuadraticEquation

Create a QuadraticEquation application that gives the solution to any quadratic equation. The applica-
tion should prompt the user for values for a, b, and c (ax2 + bx + c = 0) and then display the roots, if
any. The quadratic equation takes the form:

Application output should look similar to:

126 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

Exercise 12 —————————————————————— MyPow
Create a MyPow application that uses the formula e (Y * log(X)) to calculate XY. The MyPow application
should prompt the user for two numbers and then display the result from the formula and, for com-
parison, show the same result using the Math pow() method. The application should display output
similar to:

The Math library provides methods for calculating base 10 and base e (natural) logarithms. The exp()
method raises e to a given power:
Class Math ( java.lang.Math)
Methods
log(double num) returns the natural logarithm of num.
log10(double num) returns the base 10 logarithm of num.
exp(double num) returns e raised to the power of num.

Exercise 13 ———————————————————— CarPayment

Create a CarPayment application that calculates a monthly car payment after prompting the user for
the principal owing (P), the interest rate (r) and the number of monthly payments (m). The monthly
car payment is calculated using the formula:

Application output should be similar to:

Exercise 14 —————————————————— BacteriaGrowth

The formula y = ne can be used for estimating growth where:
kt

y is the final amount

n is the initial amount
k is a constant
t is the time

For example, this formula could be used for estimating population growth in a region or for estimating
cell growth in a lab experiment. Create a BacteriaGrowth application that calculates how many bacte-
ria will be present based on this formula. The application should prompt the user initial bacteria, the
constant k, and the time. Refer to Exercise 12 for documentation for the Math methods for this exercise.
Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 127
 Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 15 ——————————————————————— Decay

The formula used in Exercise 14 for growth problems can also be used in decay problems. In decay prob-
lems, k is negative. Create an application that allows the user to select from the following options:
• calculate the final amount y: ne–kt
• calculate the initial amount n: y / e–kt
• calculate the constant k (called the half-life): (log (y/n)) / t

The application should prompt the user to select one of the three choices and based on the selected
option prompts the user to enter the appropriate known information. For example, a radioactive mass of
200 grams will reduce to 100 grams in 10 years. Based on this information, the half-life is calculated to
be –0.06931. Refer to Exercise 12 for documentation for the Math methods for this exercise. Application
output should look similar to:

Exercise 16 ——————————————————— TrigFunctions

Create a TrigFunctions application that prompts the user for an angle in degrees and then displays the
sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle. The application should display output similar to:

The Math library provides methods for performing trigonometric functions:

Class Math (java.lang.Math)

128 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures

 Methods
sin(double angle) returns the sine of angle, where angle is in
radians.
cos(double angle) returns the cosine of angle, where angle is
in radians.
tan(double angle) returns the sine of angle, where angle is in
radians.
toRadians(double deg)
converts degrees to radians.

Exercise 17 ———————————————— InverseTrigFunctions

Create an InverseTrigFunctions application that prompts the user for an angle in degrees and then
displays the arcsin, arccos, and arctan of the angle. The application should display output similar to:

The Math library provides methods for performing trigonometric functions:

Class Math (java.lang.Math)
Methods
asin(double s) returns the angle, in radians, that has the
sine s.
acos(double s) returns the angle, in radians, that has the
cosine s.
atan(double s) returns the angle, in radians, that has the
tangent s.
toDegrees(double rad)
converts radians to degrees.

Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures 129

130 Chapter 5 Conditional Control Structures
 Chapter 6
Loop Structures and Strings

L oop structures, counters and accumulators, and flags are explained

in this chapter. Debugging techniques and the String class are also
discussed.

The while Statement

loop structure The while statement is a loop structure, which executes a set of statements
over and over again based on a condition. Loop structures are used to
perform tasks such as summing a set of numbers as they are entered by
the user or repeatedly prompting the user for a value until valid data is
entered. The while statement takes the form:
while (<condition>) {
<statements>
}

The condition of the while loop is a Boolean expression, which is evaluated

before the statements are executed. When the condition is true the state-
ments are executed, when the condition is false program flow continues to
the next statement after the closing curly brace of the while. Each execution
iteration of the loop is called an iteration. Note that a while loop may never execute
if the condition initially evaluates to false.
The following while statement executes five times:
Nested Loops int num = 0;
while (num < 5) {
A loop structure can contain
num += 1;
another loop structure. Loops
}
placed within a loop are called
nested loops. Each time the After the fifth execution, num is equal to 5, making the condition false.
outer loop iterates, the inner
loop iterates until its condition
is met.
The do-while Statement
The do-while statement is an alternative form of the while statement. In
the do-while statement the condition is not evaluated until after the first
execution of the loop. Therefore, the do-while executes at least once.
The do-while takes the following form:
do {
<statements>
} while (<condition>);

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 131

 The following do-while example prompts the user until a valid number
is entered:
do {
System.out.print("Enter a number less than 4:");
playerNum = input.nextInt();
} while (playerNum >= 4);

Infinite Loops
The condition of a loop is used to determine when the loop should stop
executing. A while continues until its condition is false. What happens,
though, if the condition never becomes false? The result is an infinite
loop—one which continues forever. For example, the following generates
an infinite loop. Can you see why?
int num = -1;
while (num < 0) {
num = -1;
}

The code causes the application to simply stop responding or just “hang.”
When this happens, close the output window to end the application. Note
that some compilers may require a different procedure to end an infinite
loop.
Syntax errors are a common cause of infinite loops. For example, a
semicolon after the condition causes the statement to check the condition,
do nothing, check the condition, do nothing, and on and on:
while (num < 0); { //an infinite loop here--added semicolon
num += 1;
}

Another example of a syntax error that can lead to an infinite loop is

omitting the curly braces:
while (num < 0) //an infinite loop here--no braces
System.out.print("Enter a value: ");
num = input.nextInt();

In this case, only the first statement is executed and num is never assigned
the input. Although properly done, the indentation makes it difficult to
find the syntax error.
A logic error can also lead to an infinite loop condition. For example, in
the code below num is initialized to 1 and never decremented to a number
less than 0 in the loop, making the condition of the loop structure always
true:
int num = 1;
do {
num += 1;
} while (num >= 0);

In this case, the loop isn’t infinite because num is eventually assigned a
overflow number so large that an overflow results. An overflow occurs when there
are not enough bits to store a number. This may generate a run-time error
or, in the case of the code above, actually cause the condition to become
false. An overflow changes the sign of the number stored.

132 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

Review: Prompter
Create a Prompter application that prompts the user for two numbers. The first number is a min value and
the second is a max value. Prompter then prompts the user for a number between the min and max numbers
entered. The user should be continually prompted until a number within the range is entered. Be sure to
include the min and max numbers in the prompt.

Counters and Accumulators

Many algorithms require counting and summing values. For example,
an application that calculates the average of a set of numbers must sum
the numbers and then divide the total by the count. The AverageValue
application performs counting and summing. A run of the application
looks similar to:

The AverageValue application is based on the pseudocode:

Prompt user for a value
while (value != 0)
count value
add value to sum of values
prompt user for another value
Display average of values (sum/count)

A program that counts the number of values entered by the user is

actually counting the number of loop iterations. To count loop iterations,
a statement similar to the following is used within the loop:
numValues += 1;

Each time the statement executes, one is added to the current value of the
variable. This type of variable is called a counter because it is incremented
by a constant value. Counters are useful for keeping track of the number
of times a user enters a value, makes a guess, or types a password. A
counter should be initialized when it is declared and then incremented
by a fixed amount.
A similar assignment statement is used to sum values as they are
entered by the user:
sumOfValues += newValue;

Each time the statement executes, the value of newValue is added to the
current value of the variable. This type of variable is called an accumulator
because its value “accumulates.” As with a counter, an accumulator should
be initialized when it is declared.

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 133

 The AverageValue code includes both a counter (numValues) and an
accumulator (sumOfValues):
/* AverageValue application. */

import java.util.Scanner;

/**
* Displays the average of a set of numbers
*/
public class AverageValue {

public static void main(String[] args) {

final int SENTINEL = 0;
int newValue;
int numValues = 0;
int sumOfValues = 0;
double avg;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* Get a set of numbers from user */

System.out.println("Calculate Average Program");
System.out.print("Enter a value (" + SENTINEL + " to quit): ");
newValue = input.nextInt();
while (newValue != SENTINEL) {
numValues += 1;
sumOfValues += newValue;
System.out.print("Enter a value(" + SENTINEL + " to quit): ");
newValue = input.nextInt();
}
input.close();

/*Calculate average of numbers entered by user */

avg = (double)sumOfValues / (double)numValues;
System.out.println("Average is " + avg);
}
}

The AverageValue code uses a constant named SENTINEL. This constant

flag, sentinel stores a value to act as a flag, or sentinel, to signify that the loop should
stop iterating. AverageValue defines the sentinel with a constant. Another
approach is to use a variable and prompt the user for the sentinel value.

Review: Evens
Create an Evens application that displays the even numbers between 1 and 20, inclusive.

Review: NumbersSum
Create a NumbersSum application that prompts the user for a number and then displays the numbers 1
through the number entered, each on a separate line. Below the numbers, the sum is displayed.

Review: PercentPassing
Create a PercentPassing application that prompts the user for a set of scores and then calculates the percent-
age of scores above 70%. The user should have the option to enter as many scores as needed. (Hint: Use an
if statement and another counter.)

134 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 The for Statement
The for statement is a loop structure that executes a set of statements a
fixed number of times. The for statement takes the form:
for (<initialization>; <condition>; <increment>) {
<statements>
}

The initialization is performed only once when a for statement is executed.

The condition is a Boolean expression, which is evaluated before each loop
iteration. When the condition is true the statements are executed, when
false, program flow continues to the next statement after the closing curly
brace of the for. After each loop iteration, the increment is executed.

loop control variable The following statement uses a counter to control the iterations of a for
statement. The counter i is the loop control variable. When i is greater than
10, looping terminates:
TIP Counter variables in a for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
for loop are often named i, System.out.println(i);
j, or k. }

Note that the counter is declared in the initialization of the for statement
scope (int i = 1). With a declaration in this location, the scope of the counter
is from the initialization to the closing curly brace of the for statement.
The application will not recognize the variable outside of that statement.
programming style Declaring variables so that their scope is limited to where they are needed
is good programming style because it produces cleaner code and helps
eliminate the possibility of errors.
The statement above uses the ++ operator in the increment part of the
increment operator for statement (i++). The ++ operator is called the increment operator because
it increases the value of a variable by 1. The ++ operator is a good choice
in the increment of a for statement because the effect is to increase the
operand by 1. However, ++ should not be used within an expression, such
Expressions Using ++ as i++ <= 10, because the value returned by the operator is used in the
or –– expression, not the final value of the operand.
If the + + or - - operator Any combination of components can be left out of a for statement. This
appears before the operand, can be useful when a counter is declared and initialized outside the state-
it is called prefix (i.e. ++i). An
ment, as in the following code:
operator after the operand is
called postfix (i.e. i++). Either int num;
operator location has the System.out.print("Enter the starting number: ");
same effect on the final value num = input.nextInt();
of the operand. However, for (; num <= 10; num++) {
in an expression, the prefix System.out.println(num);
version uses the value of the }
operand after the operation.
For example, when x is 12, A for statement may also count down from a start value to an end value
the statement ++x returns 13. using the decrement operator, --:
In the postfix version, x + +,
for (int countDown = 10; countDown <= 0; countDown--) {
12 is returned. Therefore, a
System.out.println(countDown);
statement such as x++ >= 13 is }
false and could be ambiguous.
Using the ++ and -- operators While it is possible to modify a loop control variable from within a for
in an expre ssion is po or loop or to terminate a loop prematurely, this is considered poor program-
programming style.
ming style. Good programming style dictates that changes to the loop
control variable occur in the increment portion of the loop only and that
the loop end only when the condition is false.

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 135

Review: Factorial
Create a Factorial application that prompts the user for a number and then displays its factorial. The factorial
of a number is the product of all the positive integers from 1 to the number. For example, 5! = 5*4*3*2*1.

Review: OddSum
Create an OddSum application that prompts the user for a number and then sums the odd numbers from 1
to the number entered.

Debugging Techniques
TIP A “bug” is an error in a The source of bugs, which are often logic errors, can be hard to deter-
program. mine without tools for debugging an application. Debugging is the process
of getting an application to work correctly. One tool included with many
compilers is called a debugger.

debugger A debugger is used to select statements where execution will be sus-

breakpoints pended. These statements are called breakpoints. Application output goes
to a Debug Window and statements can be executed one at a time between
breakpoints by using a Step command. When stepping through an appli-
cation, selected variables are displayed in a Watch window along with
their value. When a watch variable is assigned a new value, the Watch
window is updated. Stepping through code and watching variables can
be an effective way to determine logic errors.
Another debugging tool is called a variable trace and is done manu-
variable trace ally. A variable trace is a table listing the values of variables at the points
of assignment. For the following code, num1 and num2 would be included
in a variable trace:
int num1 = 0;
int num2 = 0;
while (num1 < 10) {
TIP A common error with if (num1 % 3 == 0) {
loops is an off-by-one error. num2 += num1;
This occurs when a loop iter- System.out.print(num2 + " ");
ates one too many or one too }
few times due to a Boolean num1 += 1;
expression error. }

The variables are listed in the order that assignment occurs within the
loop. Output is also listed to better understand the code:

136 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 additional println() A third debugging technique involves adding additional println() state-
ments to an application. Adding println() statements just after a variable is
assigned a new value or before and after a condition is evaluated can help
detect the source of a logic error. For example, the code segment below
includes additional statements for debugging:
int num1 = 0;
int num2 = 0;
System.out.println("num1 before while: " + num1); //debug
while (num1 < 10) {
System.out.println("num1 in while: " + num1); //debug
if (num1 % 3 == 0) {
num2 += num1;
System.out.println("num2:" + num2); //debug
System.out.println(num2 + " ");
}
num1 += 1;
}

When run, the code above displays the following output, which can be
compared to the values expected. Note the similarity to a variable trace:

commenting out code Commenting out statements can be an effective way to locate a bug
through process of elimination. Typically the // characters are easiest to
type at the beginning of a statement to “comment it out.”

Review: Variable Trace

Using paper and pencil, create a variable trace for the following code, tracing the values of num1, num2, i, and
any output:
int num1 = 0;
int num2 = 0;
for (int i = 0; i <= 4; i++) {
num1 = i * i;
num2 += num1;
System.out.print(num1 + " ");
}
System.out.println(num2);

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 137

 The String Class
Primitive data types such as int and double are used for storing numeric
data. However, when data is comprised of a sequence of characters, a data
type for storing strings is needed. Java includes the String class in the
java.lang package for storing and manipulating strings. The String class
is large, with numerous methods for string manipulation. Some of the
String class methods include:
Class String ( java.lang.String)
Methods
length() returns an integer corresponding to the number
TIP The isEmpty() method
of characters in the string.
requires JDK 6.
isEmpty() returns true if the string length is 0. Returns
false otherwise.
substring(int start, int end)
returns a substring of the string, which starts
More on Concatenation at start position and ends one character before
the end position.
As introduced in Chapter 4,
substring(int start)
concatenation appends one
string to another. When the returns a substring of the string, which starts
+ operator is used to join a at start position and extends to the end of the
string and a numeric, the com- string.
piler first converts any non- toLowerCase() returns a copy of the string with all lowercase
String data to a String object letters.
before joining the strings. The
toUpperCase() returns a copy of the string with all uppercase
String class also contains the
concat() method for joining
letters.
two strings. trim() returns a copy of the string with all leading and
trailing spaces removed.
replaceFirst(String str, String str2)
returns a string with the first occurrence of str
replaced by str2.
replaceAll(String str, String str2)
returns a string with all occurrences of str
replaced by str2.

index The position of a character in a string is called its index. The first char-
acter of a string is at index 0. The last character of a string is at index
length() – 1. The MiddleThree class below displays the three letters in the
middle of a string:
public class MiddleThree {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String phrase, threeLetters;
int phraseLength;
int mid;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* get string from user */

System.out.print("Enter text that contains at least
three characters: ");
phrase = input.nextLine();
input.close();

/* determine middle of phrase */

phraseLength = phrase.length();
mid = phraseLength / 2;

138 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 /* display middle three characters */
threeLetters = phrase.substring(mid - 1, mid + 2);
System.out.println("Middle three characters are: "
+ threeLetters);
}
}

Note that the String objects (phrase, threeLetters) can be declared in the
same way primitives are declared—the data type followed by the vari-
able name. With the String class, the following two statements perform
the same task:
String alpha = new String("abc"); //these assignments are
String alpha = "abc"; //efffectively the same

The MiddleThree application produces output similar to:

immutable A string is said to be immutable because it cannot be changed. Methods

that manipulate the original string, for example toLowerCase(), create
a new string in memory because the original string cannot be changed.
Assigning a new string to a String object simply changes the object refer-
ence to point to the new string in memory. For example, the following code
generates a new string. Assigning the string to the text object changes the
object’s reference:
String text;
text = "heLlO";
text = text.toLowerCase();
System.out.println(text);

The code produces the output:

null Until a String object is assigned a value, it refers to null. Calling a method
NullPointerException from a null String object generates the exception NullPointerException.

Review: AccountSetup
Create an AccountSetup application that prompts the user for a user name and a password. The application
should prompt the user until a password with at least eight characters is entered. The user name and pass-
word should be converted to all lowercase letters and then an appropriate message displayed. Application
output should look similar to:

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 139

 Comparing Strings
Strings are compared when determining equality or alphabetical order.
In chapter 5, relational operators, including == and >, were used to compare
primitive types. When objects need to be compared, methods from their
class are used. Some of the String class methods for comparing strings
include:
Class String ( java.lang.String)

Methods
equals(String str)
returns true when the string is the same as str.
Returns false otherwise.
equalsIgnoreCase(String str)
Unicode same as equals() except that uppercase and
The Unicode Standard is a lowercase differences between the strings are
16-bit encoding system that ignored.
assigns a value for each char- compareTo(String str)
acter and symbol of every returns 0 when str is the same as the string, a
language. Java uses this stan- negative integer is returned when str comes
dard when defining strings, alphabetically after the string, and a positive
and String class methods use integer is returned when str comes alphabeti-
the character values when cally before the string. Note that uppercase and
comparing strings. lowercase letters are considered different.
compareToIgnoreCase(String str)
same as compareTo() except that uppercase and
lowercase differences between the strings are
ignored.
indexOf(String str)
returns the integer corresponding to the
location of the first occurrence of str in the
string. Otherwise –1 is returned.
lastIndexOf(String str)
returns the integer corresponding to the
location of the last occurrence of str in the
string. Otherwise –1 is returned.
startsWith(String str)
returns true when the string begins with str.
Returns false otherwise.
endsWith(String str)
returns true when the string ends with str.
Returns false otherwise.

The AlphaOrder class compares two strings and then displays them in
alphabetical order:
public class AlphaOrder {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String word1, word2;
Scanner input = new Scanner (System.in);

140 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 System.out.print("Enter a word: ");
word1 = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Enter a second word: ");
word2 = input.nextLine();
input.close();

if (word1.compareToIgnoreCase(word2) == 0) {
System.out.println("Words are equal.");
} else if (word1.compareToIgnoreCase(word2) < 0) {
System.out.println("In alphabetical order: " + word1
+ " " + word2);
} else {
System.out.println("In alphabetical order: " + word2
+ " " + word1);
}
}
}

AlphaOrder produces output similar to the following:

Review: FormalGreeting
Create a FormalGreeting application that prompts the user for his or her name, including title. The applica-
tion should display “Hello, sir.” if the string starts with Mr., “Hello, ma’am.” if the string starts with Ms., Mrs.,
or Miss, and “Hello, name.” otherwise where name is the user’s name.

Chapter 6 Case Study

In this case study, a word guessing game will be created. The word
guessing game allows the player to guess the letters of a secret word. At
the start of the game, the player is shown only how many letters the word
contains through a set of dashes. When a letter matching one in the word
is guessed, it replaces the appropriate dash. Play continues until the entire
word is guessed letter-by-letter or when the player chooses to guess the
entire word.

WordGuess Specification
WordGuess is played between the computer and a single player. The
secret word is BRAIN. At the start of the game, six dashes are displayed
(––––––), one for each letter of the word. The player is repeatedly prompted
for a letter guess. When a letter matching one in the word is guessed, the
letter replaces the corresponding dash. Letters may be entered as upper-
case or lowercase. However, only uppercase letters should be displayed. If
the player enters an exclamation point (!), the player is prompted to guess
the word. At that point the player either wins (a correct guess) or loses
(an incorrect guess). Alternatively, the player can continue to guess letters
until the entire word is revealed. The games ends by showing the player
the total number of guesses.

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 141

 The WordGuess interface should display a row of dashes, one dash for
each letter in the word. Prompts should be used to get letter guesses from
the player. As corresponding letters are guessed, the letter is displayed
instead of the dash. At the end of the game, the user should be shown the
word along with the number of guesses.
The WordGuess output sketch:

The WordGuess algorithm:

1. Display a row of dashes to represent the word.
2. Prompt the user for a letter guess.
3. If the letter guessed is part of the word, then display that letter in
place of the corresponding dash.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the letters have been guessed or an
exclamation point has been entered by the user.
5. If an exclamation point has been entered, prompt the user to guess
the entire word.
6. If the player correctly guesses the entire word or all the letters have
been guessed, then display a message indicating that the player
has won, otherwise the message should indicate that the player
has lost.
7. Display the secret word and the number of guesses.

142 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

The WordGuess flowchart:

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 143

 WordGuess Code Design
The input for WordGuess are letters typed by the user. A String vari-
able to store the player’s letter guess will be needed. The player may also
choose to guess the entire word, so another String variable to store a word
guess will be needed.
The output for WordGuess is the secret word displayed as dashes and
then redisplayed whenever a dash should be replaced by a letter, a prompt
for the user’s guess, a message indicating a win or loss, and a message
indicating the secret word and the number of guesses made.
Data generated by WordGuess is a count of the number of guesses made
by the user. A counter variable to store the number of guesses will be
needed. Other data used in this application can be represented by String
constants to represent the secret word (SECRET_WORD) and to use as a
loop sentinel (FLAG). A String variable will also be needed to “build” a
new string that contains any correctly guessed letters.
Based on the algorithm and flowchart, the code design for the WordGuess
application will include a loop structure to compare the user’s input to
the letters in the secret word. The best loop structure will be a do-while
because under any condition the loop statements should iterate at least
once. It also unknown how many times the loop statements should iter-
ate, so a type of while statement, not a for statement, should be used. This
comparison will be done with an if statement. A pseudocode algorithm
for WordGuess follows:
Generate and display a set of dashes that represent the word
do
update guesses counter
Prompt user for a letter
Convert to all uppercase
Determine if letter is in word
if letter is in word
Create new string that contains the guessed letter
while (all letters haven't been guessed and user hasn't chosen
to guess the entire word)
if (! has been entered)
get a word guess from player
convert word to all uppercase
if (word guessed equals secret word OR all the letters have
been guessed)
display message that player has won
else
display message that player has lost
Display secret word
Display number of guesses

WordGuess Implementation
Based on the code design, the WordGuess implementation follows:
/*
* WordGuess.java
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

144 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 /**
* Plays a word guessing game with one player.
*/
public class WordGuess {

public static void main(String[] args) {

final String SECRET _ WORD = "BRAIN";
final String FLAG = "!";
String wordSoFar = "", updatedWord = "";
String letterGuess, wordGuess = "";
int numGuesses = 0;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* begin game */
System.out.println("WordGuess game.\n");
for (int i = 0; i < SECRET _ WORD.length(); i++) {
wordSoFar += "-"; //word as dashes
}
System.out.println(wordSoFar + "\n"); //display dashes

/* allow player to make guesses */

do {
System.out.print("Enter a letter (" + FLAG + " to guess entire word): ");
letterGuess = input.nextLine();
letterGuess = letterGuess.toUpperCase();

/* increment number of guesses */

numGuesses += 1;

/* player correctly guessed a letter--extract string in wordSoFar

* up to the letter guessed and then append guessed letter to that
* string Next, extract rest of wordSoFar and append after the guessed
* letter
*/
if (SECRET _ WORD.indexOf(letterGuess) >= 0) {
updatedWord = wordSoFar.substring(0, SECRET _ WORD.indexOf(letterGuess));
updatedWord += letterGuess;
updatedWord += wordSoFar.substring(SECRET _ WORD.indexOf(letterGuess)+1,
wordSoFar.length());
wordSoFar = updatedWord;
}

/* display guessed letter instead of dash */

System.out.println(wordSoFar + "\n");
} while (!letterGuess.equals(FLAG) && !wordSoFar.equals(SECRET _ WORD));

/* finish game and display message and number of guesses */

if (letterGuess.equals(FLAG)) {
System.out.println("What is your guess? ");
wordGuess = input.nextLine();
wordGuess = wordGuess.toUpperCase();
}
if (wordGuess.equals(SECRET _ WORD) || wordSoFar.equals(SECRET _ WORD)) {
System.out.println("You won!");
} else {
System.out.println("Sorry. You lose.");
}
System.out.println("The secret word is " + SECRET _ WORD);
System.out.println("You made " + numGuesses + " guesses.");
}

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 145

 A run of WordGuess looks similar to:

WordGuess Testing and Debugging

This case study should test all possible guess combinations. For example,
the player may enter an exclamation point on the first guess. Testing
should also include incorrect word guesses.

Review: WordGuess
Modify the WordGuess Chapter 6 Case Study to display a score at the end of each game. The player should
start with 100 points and have 10 points taken off for each guess. The score should be updated and displayed
as the game is played. Display a player loses message if the score gets down to 0.

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced loop structures and the String class. The while
statement and do-while statement are loop structures that iterate a set of
statements repeatedly based on a condition. The difference between the
loops is when the condition is evaluated. The while statement evaluates
the condition before any iterations are performed. The do-while does not
evaluate the condition until after the first iteration.

146 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 Some syntax errors and logic errors can lead to an infinite loop, which
executes forever causing the application to just hang. A logic error can also
cause an overflow, which occurs when there are not enough bits to store
a number.
Counters are used for keeping track of loop iterations and are used
in applications that keep track of the number of guesses or the number
of values entered. An accumulator is increased by varying amounts.
Accumulators are often used to sum values. Both counters and accumula-
tors should be initialized when they are declared.
A flag, also called a sentinel, is used to signify that a loop should stop
iterating. Flags are usually a constant that is declared in the application,
but may also be determined by prompting the user for a value.
The for statement is another loop structure. This loop structure executes
a set of statements a fixed number of times. A loop control variable is used
to determine loop iterations and can be declared in the for statement itself.
When a variable is declared in a statement, its scope is limited to the open-
ing and closing curly braces of that statement. The increment operator (++)
and decrement operator (--) are used to increase or decrease the value of
a for loop control variable.
Debugging techniques include using a debugger, often included with
a compiler, and a variable trace, which is a manual technique. Debuggers
have the advantage of being able to display the actual value of a variable
as it changes. Other techniques include adding println statements before
and after variable assignment. Commenting out statements can also locate
an error through process of elimination.
The String class is used to declare string variables. It contains numerous
methods for determining the length of a string, converting a string to low-
ercase or uppercase characters, extracting substrings, and for comparing
strings. A string is immutable, which means it cannot be changed from
its original value. However, a String object can be assigned a new string
in memory. The characters of a string have an index value, with the first
character at index 0.
Code conventions introduced in this chapter are :
• The statements of an while statement should be indented.
• The statements of a do-while statement should be indented.
• The statements of a for statement should be indented.
• Declare variables so that their scope is limited to where they are
needed.
• Changes to a loop control variable should occur in the increment
portion of the loop only, and the loop should end only when the
condition is false.

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 147

Vocabulary

Accumulator A variable that is incremented by Iteration The execution of a loop.

varying amounts.
Loop control variable A counter that is used to
Breakpoint A statement selected where execution control the number of for loop iterations.
will be suspended.
Loop structure A statement that executes a set of
Counter A variable that is incremented by a fixed statements repeatedly based on a condition.
value.
NullPointerException exception An excep-
Debugger A tool included with some compilers tion thrown when operations on a null String are
for debugging. attempted.

Debugging The process of getting an application Overflow A condition that occurs when a number
to work correctly. is too large to be stored in a specified number of
bits.
Decrement operator The - - operator, which
decreases the value of a variable by 1. Sentinel A constant that stores a value that is used
to signify that a loop should stop iterating. Also
Flag see Sentinel.
called a flag.
Immutable Unable to change.
Scope The set of statements that can access a declared
Increment operator The ++ operator, which increases variable.
the value of a variable by 1.
Variable trace A table listing the values of vari-
Index The position of a character in a string. ables at the points of assignment. Used for manually
debugging an application.
Infinite loop A loop that continues forever.

Java

++ The increment operator.

-- The decrement operator.

do-while A loop structure that executes a set of

statements over and over again based on a condition,
which is evaluated after an iteration.
for A loop structure that executes a set of statements
a fixed number of times.
while A loop structure that executes a set of state-
ments over and over again based on a condition,
which is evaluated before any iterations.
String A java.lang class with methods for manipu-
lating and comparing strings.

148 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 Critical Thinking

1. What is the purpose of a loop structure? c) x.toLowerCase()

d) x.toUpperCase
2. Explain the difference between a while statement e) x.trim()
and a do-while statement.
12. Consider the following statements:
3. An input validation loop is a loop that checks String x = "lots of words.";
user input for valid data. If valid data is not String y = "Lots of Words.";
String z = "Two words.";
entered, the loop iterates until valid data is
entered. In which review of this chapter did Determine the value returned by each of the
you write code for an input validation loop? following methods:
a) x.equals(y)
4. a) What is an infinite loop? b) x.equalsIgnoreCase(y)
b) List two types of errors that can lead to an c) x.compareTo(z)
infinite loop. d) x.compareToIgnoreCase(y)
c) What is meant by overflow? e) x.compareToIgnoreCase(z)
f) x.IndexOf("or")
5. How many times will the d o - w h i l e loop g) x.lastIndexOf("o")
execute? h) z.startsWith("Tw")
int x = 0; i) x.endsWith("ds")
do {
x = x + 2; 13. a) Write an algorithm to count the number of
} while (x < 120); words in a sentence.
b) Write an algorithm to count the number of
6. What initial value of x would make the loop letters in a sentence.
infinite?
do { True/False
x = x - 3;
} while (x < 120); 14. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
7. Compare and contrast counters and accumula- a) A while statement iterates once before evalu-
tors. List two uses for each. ating the condition.
b) A counter is incremented by a constant
8. Write a for statement that sums the integers amount.
from 3 to 10, inclusive. c) An accumulator signifies that a loop should
stop iterating.
9. List two factors that should be considered when d) Sentinel values must always be the value
determining which loop structure to choose. –1.
e) A variable declared in a for statement can be
10. a) Li st t wo met hods for debugg i ng a n used again anywhere in the program code.
application. f) String variables are primitive data types.
b) Which method listed in part (a) would be g) The first character of a string has index
best for debugging an application that gen- position 1.
erates random numbers that are used for h) Strings are compared using relational opera-
determining the condition of an if state- tors such as >.
ment? Why? i) The String class includes a method for deter-
mining the location of a substring within a
11. Consider the following assignment: string.
String x = "my string.";

Determine the value returned by each of the

following methods:
a) x.length()
b) x.substring(0, 3)

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 149

Exercises

Exercise 1 ——————————————————— PrimeNumber

a) A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that is evenly divisible by only 1 and
itself. For example, 2, 3, 5, and 7 are prime numbers, but 4, 6, 8, and 9 are not. Create
a PrimeNumber application that prompts the user for a number and then displays a
message indicating whether the number is prime or not. Hint: The % operator can be
used to determine if one number is evenly divisible by another.
b) Modify the application to prompt the user for two numbers and then display the prime
numbers between those numbers.

Exercise 2 ———————————————————— PrimeFactors

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that every positive integer is the product of a set of
prime numbers. This set is called the prime factors. For example, the prime factors for 140 are 2, 2, 5,
and 7 (2*2*5*7 = 140). Create a PrimeFactors application that prompts the user for a positive integer
and then displays that integer’s prime factors. Use the following pseudocode when implementing the
PrimeFactors code:
Initialize a counter to 2
while the counter is less than or equal to the number
if the counter divides the number evenly
display the counter
divide the number by the counter to get a new number
else increment counter by 1

Exercise 3 ————————————————————— Investment

Create an Investment application that calculates how many years it will take for a $2,500 investment
to be worth at least $5,000 if compounded annually at 7.5%

Exercise 4 ö ———————————————————— CarRecall

Modify the CarRecall application created in Chapter 5 Exercise 4 to allow the user to input as many
model numbers as needed. Use 0 as a sentinel to end user input. The application output should look
similar to:

150 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

Exercise 5 ——————————————————— DigitsDisplay
Create a DigitsDisplay application that prompts the user for a non-negative integer and then displays
each digit on a separate line. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 6 ————————————————————— DigitsSum

Create a DigitsSum application that prompts the user for a non-negative integer and then displays the
sum of the digits. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 7 ————————————————————— CubesSum

a) Create a CubesSum application that prompts the user for a non-negative integer and
then displays the sum of the cubes of the digits. Application output should look similar
to:

b) Modify the application to determine what integers of two, three, and four digits are
equal to the sum of the cubes of their digits.

Exercise 8 ö ————————————————— GuessingGame

The GuessingGame application created in Chapter 5 Exercise 9 would be more fun if users could make
as many guesses as necessary to guess the secret number. Modify the GuessingGame application as
follows:

a) Modify the algorithm to allow for as many guesses as needed.

b) Modify the flowchart based on the algorithm modifications.
c) Modify the GuessingGame code. Application output should look similar to:

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 151

 d) A binary search is a divide-and-conquer technique for efficiently searching a list of
numbers that are sorted from lowest to highest. A strategy that incorporates the binary
search technique can be used by the Guessing Game player when making guesses
about the secret number:

1. Guess the number halfway between the lowest and highest numbers.
2. If the number guessed matches the secret number, then the player wins.
3. If the number guessed is too high, then take the number guessed minus one and
make this the highest number and go back to Step 1.
4. If the number guessed is too low, then take the number guessed plus one and make
this the lowest number and go back to Step 1.
For example, assuming 15 is the random number generated in the Guessing Game
application, the game would play out as follows when the player uses a divide-and-
conquer technique:

Current Low Current High Player Types Message Displayed

1 50 26 (i.e., (1+50)/2=25.5) Too high.
1 25 13 (i.e., (1+25)/2=13) Too low.
14 25 20 (i.e., (14+25)/2=19.5) Too high.
14 19 16 (i.e., (14+19)/2=16.5) Too high.
14 15 14 (i.e., (14+15)/2=14.5) Too low.
15 15 15 (i.e., (15+15)/2=15) You guessed it!

In another program run, assuming the random number generated is 20, the game
would play out as follows using the same divide-and-conquer technique:

Current Low Current High Player Types Message Displayed

1 50 26 (i.e., (1+50)/2=25.5) Too high.
1 25 13 (i.e., (1+25)/2=13) Too low.
14 25 20 (i.e., (14+25)/2=19.5) You guessed it!

When this approach is taken, it has been proven that a player will not be required
to make more than Log2n guesses, in this case Log250, or at most 6 guesses. Try this
technique yourself. Explain in your own words why this works. Would this strategy
be possible if hints were not given after each guess?

Exercise 9 ———————————————————— PowersTable

Create a PowersTable application that displays a table of of powers similar to:

152 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

Exercise 10 ——————————————————————— GCD
Create a GCD application that prompts the user for two non-negative integers and then displays the
greatest common divisor (GCD) of the two numbers. The GCD is the largest integer that divides into
both numbers evenly. An algorithm for finding the GCD is called Euclid’s Algorithm. Use the follow-
ing pseudocode when implementing the GCD code:
while (num2 > 0) {
temp = num1 % num2;
num1 = num2;
num2 = temp;
}

Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 11 ——————————————— ElapsedTimeCalculator

What comes 13 hours after 4 o’clock? Create an ElaspsedTimeCalculator application that prompts the
user for a starting hour, whether it is am or pm, and the number of elapsed hours. The application then
displays the time after that many hours have passed. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 12 ————————————————————— Necklace

An interesting problem in number theory is sometimes called the “necklace problem.” This problem
begins with two single-digit numbers. The next number is obtained by adding the first two numbers
together and saving only the ones digit. This process is repeated until the “necklace” closes by return-
ing to the original two numbers. For example, if the starting two numbers are 1 and 8, twelve steps are
required to close the necklace: 1 8 9 7 6 3 9 2 1 3 4 7 1 8

Create a Necklace application that prompts the user for two single-digit integers and then displays the
sequence and the number of steps taken. The application output should look similar to:

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 153

Exercise 13 ————————————————————— Hailstone
An interesting (yet unsolved) question in mathematics is called “hailstone numbers.” This series is
produced by taking an initial integer, and if the number is even, dividing it by 2. If the number is
odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1. This process is then repeated. For example, an initial number of 10
produces:
10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1 …
An initial value of 23 produces:
23, 70, 35, 106, 53, 160, 80, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1 …
Note that both numbers eventually reach the 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1 … cycle. Create two applications (Hailstone1
and Hailstone2) that answer the following questions for initial values of 1 to 200:

a) Do all integers from 1 to 200 eventually reach this cycle?

b) What is the maximum number of iterations to reach the cycle and which starting
number produces this maximum?

Exercise 14 ————————————————————— DiceRolls

Create a DiceRolls application that displays five rolls of two dice where each die is numbered from 1
to 6. The application should also show the total of each roll:

Exercise 15 ——————————————————————— Chaos

“Chaos theory” is a subfield of mathematics which relies heavily on the computer. A simple chaos
experiment is:

Start with any real number x between 0 and 1. Generate a new number using the
“logistic equation:”
x = 2*x(1 - x)

Display this new x and repeat the process 50 times.

a) Create a Chaos application that prompts the user for a starting value and then performs
this experiment. Make a prediction about what happens for different starting values.
b) Modify the application so that the 2 in the logistic equation can be replaced with a
value specified by the user in the range 2 to 4, but the starting value of x is always 0.5.
Note any interesting behavior.

154 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

Exercise 16 ———————————————————— RandomWalk
In the “random walk” problem, a person is placed at the center of a 7 meter long bridge. Each step the
person moves 1 meter either forward or backward at random.

Create a RandomWalk application that determines how many steps the person will walk before taking
a step off the bridge. Have the application average 50 trials, and display the average and the greatest
number of steps. (Hint: Generate a random number between 0 and 1, with 0 meaning to go forward
and 1 meaning to go backward.)

Exercise 17 ————————————————————— Password

Create a Password application that stores a secret password of your choice. The Password application
should prompt the user for the password and then display “Welcome” if the correct password is typed.
If after three tries the correct password has not been entered, the message “Access denied.” should be
displayed. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 18 ————————————————————— Monogram

Create a Monogram application that prompts the user for his or her first name, middle name, and last
name and then displays a monogram with the first and middle initials in lowercase and the last initial
in uppercase. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 19 ——————————————————— RemoveString

Create a RemoveString application that prompts the user for a sentence and a string. The application
should then remove every occurrence of the string from the sentence. The application should look
similar to:

Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings 155

Exercise 20 ———————————————————— CountVowels
Create a CountVowels application that prompts the user for a string and then displays a count of the
number of vowels in the string. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 21 ————————————————— GroupAssignment

Create a GroupAssignment application that prompts the user for his or her name and then displays a
group assignment. The group assignment depends on the first letter of the student’s last name. Last
names beginning with A through I are assigned to Group 1, J through S are assigned to Group 2, T
through Z are assigned to Group 3. Application output should look similar to:

156 Chapter 6 Loop Structures and Strings

 Chapter 7
Methods

O bject-oriented programs use classes with methods to perform

tasks. A program often performs several tasks, each with its own level of
complexity. To manage these tasks, they are broken down into methods.
This chapter discusses top-down program development and writing and
documenting methods.

Program Development Using Methods

The solution to a task can be developed by breaking the task down into
TIP Top-down development smaller subtasks. These subtasks can then be reduced to yet simpler tasks.
is also called top-down design
or step-wise refinement. This process can be continued until the original task is broken down into
units that each describe a specific goal. As the task is broken down into
smaller subtasks and then further into units, more detail for achieving the
specific goal is added. This problem-solving approach describes a software
top-down development development process called top-down development.
In top-down development, the first level of subtasks translates into the
main() method. Levels of tasks below main() are developed into a series
procedural abstraction of additional methods. Using methods to define tasks is called procedural
abstraction. For example, consider the following program specification:
TempConverter allows the user to convert a temperature from
either Fahrenheit to Celsius or Celsius to Fahrenheit.
The algorithm for this application breaks the program specification down
into the first level of subtasks:
1. Determine the type of conversion to be done.
2. Convert the temperature using the appropriate formula.

Step 2 can then be broken down into another level of subtasks:

2a. Prompt the user for a Celsius temperature.
Convert the temperature to Fahrenheit using the formula:
F=9/5C + 32.
Display the temperature.
2b. Prompt the user for a Fahrenheit temperature.
Convert the temperature to Celsius using the formula:
C=5/9(F – 32).
Display the temperature.

Chapter 7 Methods 157

 Top-down development and procedural abstraction were used to break
the program specification down into levels of subtasks, as shown on the
previous page. Outlining the levels of subtasks in pseudocode defines a
main() method and two other methods:
main()
Prompt the user for the conversion type.
Execute the appropriate method to convert the temperature.

fahrenheitToCelsius()
Prompt the user for a temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Convert the temperature to degrees Celsius
Display the temperature

celsiusToFahrenheit()
Prompt the user for a temperature in degrees Celsius
Convert the temperature to degrees Fahrenheit
Display the temperature

The TempConverter application implements the pseudocode above:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class TempConverter {

public static void fahrenheitToCelsius() {

double fTemp, cTemp;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter a Fahrenheit temperature: ");
fTemp = input.nextDouble();
input.close();
cTemp = (double)5/(double)9*(fTemp - 32);
System.out.println("The Celsius temperature is " + cTemp);
}

public static void celsiusToFahrenheit() {

double cTemp, fTemp;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
TIP Methods must be part of System.out.print("Enter a Celsius temperature: ");
a class. cTemp = input.nextDouble();
input.close();
fTemp = (double)9/(double)5*cTemp + 32;
Sys te m.out.pr i ntl n("T he Fa h re n heit te m p er atu re is "
+ fTemp);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int choice;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* Prompt user for type of conversion */

System.out.println("1. Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion.");
System.out.println("2. Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion.");
System.out.print("Enter your choice: ");
choice = input.nextInt();
if (choice == 1) {
fahrenheitToCelsius();
} else {
celsiusToFahrenheit();
}
input.close();
}
}

158 Chapter 7 Methods

 call The TempConverter controlling class contains two methods as well
as a main() method. The methods are executed when they are called. A
method call consists of the method name followed by parentheses. The if
statement in the main() method on the previous page contains two method
calls, fahrenheitToCelsius() and celsiusToFahrenheit().
TempConverter produces output similar to:

In this run of the application, the user entered 1 and therefore the
fahrenheitToCelsius() method was called.

Writing Methods
method declaration A method consists of a declaration and a body. The method declaration
includes access level, return type, name, and parameters, if any. The method
method body body contains the statements that implement the method. A method takes
the form:
<access _ level> <return _ type> <name>(<parameters>) {
<statements>
}

For example, consider the fahrenheitToCelsius() method from the

TempConverter application:
public static void fahrenheitToCelsius() {
double fTemp, cTemp;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter a Fahrenheit temperature: ");

fTemp = input.nextDouble();
input.close();

cTemp = (double)5/(double)9*(fTemp - 32);

System.out.println("The Celsius temperature is " + cTemp);
}

The method above is a class method with access level public, return
access level type void, name fahrenheitToCelsius, and no parameters. The access level
of a method determines if other classes can call the method. The keyword
access modifier public is an access modifier. A public method can be called by any other
visibility method. The access level of a method can also be thought of as its visibility.
Access levels are discussed further in Chapter 8.

class method The keyword static declares the method a class method. A class method
can be called from the class itself. Methods that are not class methods must
be called from an instantiated object of that class.

void The return type void means that the method will not return a value,
and parameters are specified when a method needs values to perform its
task. The body of the method starts with the first opening brace ({) and
ends with the closing brace (}).

Chapter 7 Methods 159

 naming conventions Method names should indicate an action. Verbs make good method
names. A method name should also begin with a lowercase letter and
then an uppercase letter should begin each word within the name. Method
names may not contain spaces.

local scope Methods can also have their own set of variables, constants, and objects.
Variable, constant, and object declarations in the body of a method have
a scope that extends from the declaration to the end of the method
body. These variables, constants, and objects are said to be local to the
method because their scope is limited to that method. For example, the
fahrenheitToCelsius() method contains local variables fTemp and cTemp and
a local object named input.

Review: TimeConverter
Create a TimeConverter application that allows the user to choose among converting hours to minutes, days
to hours, minutes to hours, or hours to days. Use methods as appropriate.

Method Parameters
A method declaration can include method parameters, which accept values
from the method call. The data passed to the method can then be used
TIP The terms “parameter” inside the method to perform its task. For example, the drawBar() method
and “argument” are often used
includes an int parameter named length:
synonymously.
public static void drawBar(int length) {

for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {

System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}

passing data Data is given, or passed, to a method by enclosing the data in parentheses
in the method call. The value or variable passed to a method is called the
argument argument. For example, the RightTriangle application makes six calls to
drawBar(). Each call passes a different variable argument:
public class RightTriangle {

TIP The term “formal parame- public static void drawBar(int length) {
ter” is sometimes used to refer
to a parameter in the method for (int i = 1; i <= length; i++) {
declaration, and the term System.out.print("*");
“actual parameter” is used to }
refer to the argument being System.out.println();
passed to the method. }

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* draw a right triangle with base size 6 */

for (int i = 1; i <= 6; i++) {
drawBar(i);
}
}
}

160 Chapter 7 Methods

 The RightTriangle application produces the output:

pass by value In Java, arguments are passed by value, which means that the data stored
in an argument is passed. An argument that is a primitive data type gives
the method a copy of its value. An argument that is an object gives the
method a copy of its reference that points to methods for changing object
data. Therefore, a method can change the data stored in an object because
it has access to the object’s methods, but it cannot change the data stored
in a primitive variable because the method does not have access to the
actual location of the primitive data.

multiple parameters When a method declaration includes more than one parameter, the
parameters are separated by commas. For example, a modified drawBar()
has an int parameter for the length of the bar and a String parameter for
the character to use to draw the bar:

TIP Passing an argument of a public static void drawBar(int length, String mark) {
type that is not expected by a
method generates the exception for (int i = 1; i <= length; i++) {
IllegalArgumentException. System.out.print(mark);
}
System.out.println();
}

A call to the modified drawBar() method includes two arguments sepa-

rated by commas:
drawBar(6, "$");

This call produces the following output:

The order of the arguments in a method call is important because the

first argument corresponds to the first parameter in the method declara-
tion, the second argument corresponds to the second parameter, and so
on. Note that argument names do not necessarily match parameter names.
Descriptive variable names should be used throughout a program without
regard to matching parameter names in a method declaration.

Review: SpanishNumbers
Create a SpanishNumbers application that displays numbers 1 through 10 in Spanish. A method with an int
parameter should display the Spanish word for the number passed. A loop structure in the main() method
should be used to call the method ten times. The Spanish word equivalents for numbers 1 through 10 are:
1 uno 6 seis
2 dos 7 siete
3 tres 8 ocho
4 cuatro 9 nueve
5 cinco 10 diez

Chapter 7 Methods 161

Review: DisplayBox – part 1 of 2
Create a DisplayBox application that prompts the user for a height and width and then displays a box of that
size. The DisplayBox application should include a method named drawBox() that has two parameters and
makes calls to the drawBar() method.

Method Overloading
The method declaration is used by the compiler to determine which
method to execute. Therefore, method names do not have to be unique
as long as the parameters are different for methods with the same name.
Method overloading is when more than one method of the same name is
included in a class. For example, the following application contains two
drawBar() methods:
public class MethodOverloadingExample {

public static void drawBar(int length) {

for (int i = 1; i <= length; i++) {

System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}

public static void drawBar(int length, String mark) {

for (int i = 1; i <= length; i++) {

System.out.print(mark);
}
System.out.println();
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

drawBar(10);
drawBar(5, "@");
}
}

The MethodOverloading application produces the output:

Note that the first call in main() executes the drawBar() method containing
only one parameter. The second call executes the drawBar() method that
contains two parameters. The compiler uses the types, order, and number
of parameters to determine which method to execute.

162 Chapter 7 Methods

Review: DisplayBox – part 2 of 2
Modify the DrawBox application to ask the user if a specific character should be used for the display. For
example, the prompt could be “Do you want to enter a character to use to display the box? (enter y for yes):”
If the user types y, then prompt the user for the character. Otherwise, the default character should be used.
The modified application should contain overloaded drawBox() and drawBar() methods.

The return Statement

A method can return a value. For example, the cubeOf() method returns
the cube of its parameter:
public static double cubeOf(double x) {
TIP The return t ypes of double xCubed;
methods cannot be used to
distinguish one method from xCubed = x * x * x;
another for overloading. return(xCubed);
}

The return statement is used to send a value back to the calling statement.
A return statement can return only one value.
A method that returns a value must include the return type in the
method declaration. For example, the cubeOf() method declaration
declares a return type double. Return types can be primitive types, such
as int, double, and boolean, or abstract types, such as the String class. The
return type void is used when there will be no return value. A method
declared as void does not contain a return statement.
A method that returns a value is called from a statement that will
make use of the returned value, such as an expression or an assignment
statement. For example, the following application calls cubeOf() from an
assignment statement:
public class CubeCalculator {

public static double cubeOf(double x) {

double xCubed;

xCubed = x * x * x;
return(xCubed);

public static void main(String[] args) {

double num = 2.0;
double cube;

cube = cubeOf(num);
System.out.println(cube);
}
}

The CubeCalculator application produces the following output:

Chapter 7 Methods 163

Review: Exponentiation
Create an Exponentiation application that prompts the user for two numbers and then displays the first num-
ber raised to the power of the second number. The application should include a method named powerOf()
that returns its first parameter raised to the power of its second parameter.

Documenting Methods
Methods should be carefully commented so that a reader of the program
understands what task the method is performing and what data, if any,
will be returned by the method. Method documentation is in the form of
documentation comments (/** */) that appear just above the method
declaration. For example, the drawBar() method with documentation:
/**
* Print a bar of asterisks across the screen.
* pre: length > 0
* post: Bar drawn of length characters, insertion
* point moved to next line.
*/
public static void drawBar(int length) {

for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {

System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}

The assumptions, or initial requirements, of a method are stated in the

precondition documentation in a section called the precondition, or just pre. Note that
the pre for drawBar() states that length must be greater than 0, but not that
length must be an int. Information that the compiler will verify, such as
data types, should not be stated in method documentation.
postcondition The postcondition section of the documentation, or post, states what must
be true after the method has been executed. However, the post should not
state how the method accomplished its task.
A method may not have a precondition, but every method must
have a postcondition. For example, below is the cubeOf() method with
documentation:
/**
* Calculates the cube of a number.
* pre: none
* post: x cubed returned
*/
public static double cubeOf(double x) {
double xCubed;

xCubed = x * x * x;
return(xCubed);
}

164 Chapter 7 Methods

 To summarize, the guidelines for writing pre and post conditions are:
• The precondition states what must be true at the beginning of a
method for the method to work properly.
• The postcondition states what must be true after the method has
executed if the method has worked properly.
• Preconditions and postconditions should not state facts that the
compiler will verify. They should also not refer to variables or
information outside the method.
• The postcondition should not state how the method accomplished
its task.

Review
Modify each of the Reviews in this chapter so that the methods are properly documented.

Chapter 7 Case Study

This case study will focus on top-down development and procedural
abstraction. Testing and debugging methods in isolation will also be
demonstrated.
An application for generating a letter grade based on a numeric grade
will be created. The GradeConverter application allows the user to enter
a numeric grade and then a letter grade is displayed. The user may then
choose to enter another grade or quit.

GradeConverter Specification
The GradeConverter application prompts the user for a numeric grade in
the range 0 to 100 or a –1 to end the application. When a valid numeric
grade is entered, the corresponding letter grade is then displayed. Grades
from 90 to 100 are an A, grades from 80 to 89 are a B, grades from 70 to 79
are a C, grades from 60 to 69 are a D, and grades below 60 are an F. After
displaying the corresponding letter grade, the user is prompted to enter
another letter grade or can choose to quit the application.
The GradeConverter interface should include a prompt asking for the
numeric grade. The prompt should give the option of quitting the appli-
cation. After displaying the letter grade, the user should be prompted to
enter another numeric grade or quit the application.
The GradeConverter output sketch:

Chapter 7 Methods 165

 The GradeConverter algorithm:
1. Prompt the user for a number.
2. Determine the letter grade that corresponds to the entered
numeric grade and display the result.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the user chooses to quit.

The GradeConverter flowchart:

GradeConverter Code Design

Using the top-down development approach, the algorithm is further
refined:
Step 1 of the algorithm can be broken down further:
1a. Display a prompt that gives the user the option to quit.
Check that the number entered is valid. It should correspond to
either a sentinel value that indicates the user wants to quit or a
number in the range 0 through 100.

Step 2 of the algorithm can be broken down further:

2a. Determine if the numeric grade is between 90 to 100, 80 to 89, 70
to 79, 60 to 69, or 0 to 59.
Assign the letter A to a grade from 90 to 100, a letter B to a grade
from 80 to 89, the letter C to a grade from 70 to 79, the letter D to
a grade from 60 to 69, and the letter F to a grade from 0 to 59.

166 Chapter 7 Methods

 Using the flowchart, algorithm, and procedural abstraction, the pseudo-
code for the GradeConverter application can be created. The code will
include a loop structure to get the user’s input and two additional methods.
One method will determine if the input is valid and another determines
which letter corresponds to the numeric grade:
main()
Prompt the user for a number
while (number != -1) {
if (isValidNumber(number)) {
getLetterGrade(number)
Display message with letter grade
}
Prompt the user for a number
}

isValidNumber(userNum, maxNum, minNum)

if (minNum <= userNum <= maxNum) {
return (true);
} else {
return(false);
}

getLetterGrade(numericGrade)
if (numericGrade < 60) {
return ("F");
} else if (numericGrade < 70) {
return ("D");
} else if (numericGrade < 80) {
return ("C");
} else if (numericGrade < 90) {
return ("B");
} else {
return ("A");
}

GradeConverter Implementation
Testing methods in isolation is important to ensure that the program
as a whole will run without error. When testing a method, statements in
main() should call the method using test data. The main() method should
not call any other method or perform any other task except test the current
method.
Rather than writing code for the entire application at once, one method
at a time will be added and then tested. When testing the methods is com-
plete, the main() method will be rewritten to implement the GradeConverter
pseudocode.

Chapter 7 Methods 167

 The isValidNumber() method is the first method written and tested:
public class GradeConverter {

/**
* Determines if a numeric entry is valid.
* pre: none
* post: true return if minNum <= userNum <= maxNum;
* false returned otherwise
*/
public static boolean isValidNumber(int userNum, int minNum, int maxNum) {
if (minNum <= userNum && userNum <= maxNum) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

final int minValue = 0;
final int maxValue = 100;
int numericGrade;

numericGrade = 0;
if (isValidNumber(numericGrade, minValue, maxValue)) {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is valid.");
} else {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is NOT valid.");
}

numericGrade = 100;
if (isValidNumber(numericGrade, minValue, maxValue)) {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is valid.");
} else {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is NOT valid.");
}

numericGrade = -1;
if (isValidNumber(numericGrade, minValue, maxValue)) {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is valid.");
} else {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is NOT valid.");
}

numericGrade = 101;
if (isValidNumber(numericGrade, minValue, maxValue)) {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is valid.");
} else {
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is NOT valid.");
}
}
}

The statements in main() test the isValidNumber() method with data

boundary value that includes boundary values. A boundary value is data that is just inside
or just outside the range of valid values. For example, the value 100 lies just
inside the high end of the range of valid grades. Testing the method with
this data verifies that the <= operator was used rather than the < operator.
The GradeConverter application produces the following output:

168 Chapter 7 Methods

 Next, the getLetterGrade() method is added and the main() statements
are changed to test that method:
public class GradeConverter {

/**
* Determines if a numeric entry is valid.
* pre: none
* post: true has been returned if minNum <= userNum <= maxNum;
* false has been returned otherwise
*/
public static boolean isValidNumber(int userNum, int minNum, int maxNum) {
if (minNum <= userNum && userNum <= maxNum) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Determines the letter grade that corresponds to the numeric grade.
* pre: 0 <= numGrade <= 100
* post: The letter grade A, B, C, D, or F has been returned.
*/
public static String getLetterGrade(int numGrade) {
if (numGrade < 60) {
return("F");
} else if (numGrade < 70){
return("D");
} else if (numGrade < 80) {
return("C");
} else if (numGrade < 90) {
return("B");
} else {
return("A");
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int numericGrade;

numericGrade = 90;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 89;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 80;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 79;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 70;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 69;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 60;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
numericGrade = 59;
System.out.println(numericGrade + " is " + getLetterGrade(numericGrade));
}

Chapter 7 Methods 169

 Boundary values for getLetterGrade() are tested with statements in
main(). Running GradeConverter displays the output:

After verifying that the methods are working as expected, the final
GradeConverter application can be completed:
/*
* GradeConverter.java
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

/**
* Display the letter grade that corresponds to the numeric
* grade entered by the user.
*/
public class GradeConverter {

/**
* Determines if a numeric entry is valid.
* pre: none
* post: true has been returned if minNum <= userNum <= maxNum;
* false has been returned otherwise
*/
public static boolean isValidNumber(int userNum, int minNum, int maxNum) {
if (minNum <= userNum && userNum <= maxNum) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}
/**
* Determines the letter grade that corresponds to the numeric grade.
* pre: 0 <= numGrade <= 100
* post: The letter grade A, B, C, D, or F has been returned.
*/
public static String getLetterGrade(int numGrade) {
if (numGrade < 60) {
return("F");
} else if (numGrade < 70){
return("D");
} else if (numGrade < 80) {
return("C");
} else if (numGrade < 90) {
return("B");
} else {
return("A");
}
}

170 Chapter 7 Methods

 public static void main(String[] args) {
final int FLAG = -1;
final int minValue = 0;
final int maxValue = 100;
int numericGrade;
String letterGrade;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter a numeric grade (-1 to quit): ");

numericGrade = input.nextInt();
while (numericGrade != FLAG) {
if (isValidNumber(numericGrade, minValue, maxValue)) {
letterGrade = getLetterGrade(numericGrade);
System.out.println("The grade " + numericGrade + " is a(n) " +
letterGrade + ".");
} else {
System.out.println("Grade entered is not valid.");
}
System.out.print("Enter a numeric grade (-1 to quit): ");
numericGrade = input.nextInt();
}
}

}
The GradeConverter application produces output similar to:

GradeConverter Testing and Debugging

Testing done at this point should test the logic in main() because the
other methods have already been verified. The logic in main() is simple.
Therefore, testing need only include verifying that the loop control vari-
able is working as expected, the user is able to enter grades as expected,
and that letter grades are returned for values entered by the user in the
range 0 though 100.

Review: GradeConverter
Modify the GradeConverter Case Study to display an A+ for a grade of 100, a B+ for a grade of 89, a C+ for
a grade of 79, and a D+ for a grade of 69.

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced a new level of software development that
included writing methods to perform tasks. In the software development
process, top-down development is a problem-solving approach that breaks a
task down into smaller subtasks and then further into units. Implementing
these tasks with methods is called procedural abstraction.

Chapter 7 Methods 171

 Methods are executed in a statement by including the method name
followed by parentheses. A statement that executes a method is said to
call the method. When a method requires data to perform its tasks, the
data is included inside the parentheses in the method call. A method that
returns data must be called from an assignment statement or from inside
an expression.
A method includes a declaration and a body. The method declaration
includes the access level, return type, if any, method name, and param-
eters for receiving data, if necessary. The access level of a method can
be declared public, which means that the method can be called from a
statement in any other method. The keyword public is called an access
modifier. A method declaration that includes the keyword static is a class
method, which can be called from the class itself.
The return type of a method declares what type of value will be given
back to the calling statement. The return type void indicates that the
method will not return a value at all. Return types can be primitive types,
such as int and double, or abstract data types, such as String. Methods that
return a value must include a return statement in the method body.
A method can have multiple parameters. Arguments in a method call
must be passed to a method in the same order as the parameter declara-
tions. Methods with the same name, but with different parameters are
said to be overloaded. The compiler determines which method to call by
the types, order, and number of parameters in overloaded methods.
Primitive arguments are passed by value, which means that the data
stored in the argument is passed, not a reference to the argument loca-
tion. A method can only use the argument values in the task it performs.
A method cannot change the data stored in an argument.
The body of a method can include variable, constant, and object decla-
rations. These declarations are said to be local because they have a scope
that extends just from the declaration to the end of the method body.
Careful documentation is important for the reader of a program to
understand a method. Method documentation is enclosed by /** */ and
includes a brief description of the method, a precondition, and a postcon-
dition. Every method must have a postcondition, but not every method
requires a precondition.
Code conventions introduced in this chapter are:
• Method names should indicate an action and begin with a lower-
case letter and then an uppercase letter should begin each word
within the name.
• Method documentation should be enclosed in /** */ comment
blocks.
• Method documentation should include a brief description of the
task the method performs, a precondition, and a postcondition.

172 Chapter 7 Methods

Vocabulary

Access level The part of a method declaration that Method overloading Writing more than one method
determines if the method can be called by other of the same name in a class.
classes.
Method parameters The part of a method declara-
Access modifier A keyword in the declaration tion that accepts values from the method call.
of a method that determines the access level of a
Pass Giving data to a method by enclosing the data
method.
in parentheses in the method call.
Argument The value or variable passed to a
Pass by value Passing the value of an argument to a
method.
method. The type of data passed depends on whether
Call A statement that contains a method name the argument is a primitive or an object.
followed by parentheses.
Precondition The part of a method’s documentation
Boundary value A value that lies just inside or just that states the assumptions, or initial requirements,
outside the range of valid values. of the method. Also called pre.

Class method A method that can be called from Procedural abstraction Breaking a task down into
the class itself. methods.

Local Variables, constants, and objects that are Postcondition The part of a method’s documenta-
declared within a method and therefore have a scope tion that states what must be true after the method
limited to that method. has been executed. Also called post.

Method body The statements that implement a Top-down development A problem-solving

method. approach where a task is broken down into subtasks
and then the subtasks are reduced to yet simpler
Method declaration The first line of a method,
tasks.
which contains the method name, access level, return
type, and parameters, if any. Visibility The access level of a method.

Java

/** */ Used to enclose documentation comments

for a method.
public An access modifier used in the declaration
of a method to indicate that the method is visible
to any other class.
static A keyword used in the declaration of a method
to indicate that the method is a class method.
void A keyword used in the declaration of a method to
indicate that the method will not return a value.
return Statement used to send a value from a method
back to the calling statement.

Chapter 7 Methods 173

 Critical Thinking

1. Use top-down development and procedural 8. a) What is the return statement used for?
abstraction to write pseudocode for the follow- b) How many values can a return statement
ing specification: send back to the calling statement?
The Pizza application allows the user to c) How is the declaration of a method return-
choose to display the instructions for mak- ing a value different from the declaration of
ing a pizza in either English or Spanish. a method that does not return a value?

2. Explain the difference between method declara- 9. Find and explain the error in the code below:
tion and method body. public class MethodCallExample {

3. What type of keyword is used to change the public static int doSomething() {
return(5);
access level of a method? }
}
4. What is another word used for describing the
access level of a method? public static void main(String[] args) {
int num;
5. Explain the scope of each of the variables in the doSomething();
num = doSomething();
code below: }
public class ScopeExample {
public static void method1() { 10. a) What type of comments should be used for
int var3; describing a method?
for (int var4 = 0; var4 < 2; var4++) { b) What three things should the comments for
var3 += 1; a method describe?
}
}
True/False
}
11. Determine if each of the following are true or
public static void main(String[] args) {
int var1;
false. If false, explain why.
for (int var2 = 0; var2 < 5; var2++) { a) Breaking a task down into methods is called
method1(); procedural abstraction.
} b) A method call consists of the method decla-
} ration in an assignment statement.
c) A void method must return a value.
6. Write a method declaration for each of the fol- d) An access modifier declares the return type
lowing descriptions: of a method.
a) A class method named getVowels that can be e) The keyword static declares a method is a
called by any other method, requires a String class method.
parameter, and returns an integer value. f) Method parameters are enclosed by braces
b) A class method named extractDigit that can ({}).
be called by any other method, requires an g) Local variables can be used by any method
integer parameter, and returns an integer in a class.
value. h) The value of an argument passed to a method
c) A class method named insertString that can can be changed in an assignment statement
be called by any other method, requires a in the method.
String parameter and an integer parameter, i) Method overloading means that an applica-
and returns a String parameter. tion contains more than 10 methods.
j) The return statement is used to send a value
7. a) How does the compiler distinguish one back to the calling statement.
method from another? k) The precondition of a method states the data
b) Can two methods in the same class have the types of the method’s parameters.
same name? Explain. l) The postcondition of a method describes the
way the method accomplishes its task.

174 Chapter 7 Methods

Exercises

Exercise 1 ——————————————————————— House

Create a House application that calls methods addRoof(), addBase(), and addWalk() to display the
following:

Exercise 2 ————————————————— MetricConversion

The following formulas can be used to convert English units of measurements to metric units:
inches * 2.54 = centimeters
feet * 30 = centimeters
yards * 0.91 = meters
miles * 1.6 = kilometers
Create a MetricConversion application that displays a menu of conversion choices and then prompts
the user to choose a conversion. Conversion choices should include inches to centimeters, feet to cen-
timeters, yards to meters, miles to kilometers, and vice versa. The application should include separate
methods for doing each of the conversions. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ö —————————————————— PrimeNumber

Modify the PrimeNumber application created in Chapter 6 Exercise 1 to include a method named
isPrime(). The isPrime() method should require one parameter and return a Boolean value.

Chapter 7 Methods 175

Exercise 4 ———————————————————— IsoTriangle
Create an IsoTriangle application that prompts the user for the size of an isosceles triangle and then
displays the triangle with that many lines. The IsoTriangle application code should include:
• the drawBar() method from the chapter.
• An addSpaces() method which “prints” spaces.
Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 5 ————————————————————— AddCoins

Create an AddCoins application that prompts the user for the number of pennies, nickels, dimes,
and quarters, and then displays their total dollar amount. The AddCoins application should include
a getDollarAmount() method that has four int parameters corresponding to the number of pennies,
nickels, dimes, and quarters, and returns a String that corresponds to the dollar value of the coins.
Note that the String returned should include the currency sign ($). Application output should look
similar to:

Exercise 6 ————————————————— PythagoreanTriple

Create a PythagoreanTriple application that displays all pythagorean triples with values of A and B
less than 100. A pythagorean triple is a set of three integers that make the equation a2 + b2 = c2 true.
The application should include a PerfectSquare() method that uses the solution from the PerfectSquare
review in Chapter 5. (Hint: You will need to generate all possible combinations of A and B and display
just those that work.)

176 Chapter 7 Methods

Exercise 7 ———————————————————PerfectIntegers
Create a PerfectIntegers application that displays all perfect integers up to 100. A perfect integer is a
number which is equal to the sum of all its factors except itself. For example, 6 is a perfect number
because 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. The application should include a boolean method isPerfect().

Exercise 8 ———————————————————————— HiLo

a) In the Hi-Lo game, the player begins with a score of 1000. The player is prompted for the
number of points to risk and a second prompt asks the player to choose either High or
Low. The player’s choice of either High or Low is compared to random number between
1 and 13, inclusive. If the number is between 1 and 6 inclusive, then it is considered
“low”. A number between 8 and 13 inclusive is “high”. The number 7 is neither high
nor low, and the player loses the points at risk. If the player had guessed correctly,
the points at risk are doubled and added to the total points. For a wrong choice, the
player loses the points at risk. Create a HiLo application based on this specification.
Application output should look similar to:

b) Modify the application to allow the player to continue until there are 0 points left. At
the end of the game, display the number of guesses the user took before running out
of points.

Chapter 7 Methods 177

Exercise 9 ———————————————————————— Nim
The game of Nim starts with a random number of stones between 15 and 30. Two players alternate
turns and on each turn may take either 1, 2, or 3 stones from the pile. The player forced to take the last
stone loses. Create a Nim application that allows the user to play against the computer. In this version
of the game, the application generates the number of stones to begin with, the number of stones the
computer takes, and the user goes first. The Nim application code should:
• prevent the user and the computer from taking an illegal number of stones. For
example, neither should be allowed to take three stones when there are only 1 or 2
left.
• include an isValidEntry() method to check user input.
• include a drawStones() method that generates a random number from 1 to 3 for the
number of stones the computer draws.
• include separate methods to handle the user’s turn and the computer’s turn.
Application output should look similar to that shown on the next page:

Exercise 10 ö ————————————————— GuessingGame

The GuessingGame application modified in Chapter 6 Exercise 8 should include a separate method for
displaying a hint to the user. Modify the GuessingGame application as follows:

a) Modify the algorithm to include a call to a method named giveHint(), which displays
a hint, but does not return a value.
b) Modify the flowchart based on the algorithm modifications.
c) Modify the GuessingGame code. Application output should look similar to:

178 Chapter 7 Methods

 Chapter 8
Classes and Object-Oriented
Development

J ava applications use objects to perform tasks. Objects are defined

with classes. This chapter explains how to design and write a class. The
Object class and inheritance are introduced. Object-oriented development,
encapsulation, and reusability are also discussed.

What is an Object?
In object-oriented programming, an object stores data and can perform
state actions and provide communication. The state of an object refers to the
behavior data it stores. The behavior of an object is defined by the action and com-
munication it provides.
Objects often model, or simulate, real-world things. For example, con-
sider a circle shape. To create a Circle object modeled after the circle shape,
we analyze the state and behavior of the shape. A circle is defined by its
radius, so this will make up the state of the object. A circle shape doesn’t
do much in the way of actions, but a Circle object could change its radius,
calculate its area, and tell us what its radius is. These actions will make
up the behavior of a Circle object.
An object is an instance of a class. A class is a data type that defines vari-
TIP A class is an abstract data ables for the state of an object and methods for an object’s behavior. Good
type, which was discussed in
programming style dictates that the state of an object can only be changed
Chapter 4.
through its behavior. For example, to change the radius of a Circle object,
a method for changing the radius variable must be called. Protecting an
encapsulation object’s data is called encapsulation. Encapsulation is also called information
information hiding hiding because the object hides certain data from code outside the class.
For example, a Circle object declared in client code can be visualized as:

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 179

 client code Client code refers to an application that uses one or more classes. The
client can access the methods of the class, but cannot directly access the
data defined in the class. This reinforces that the state of an object can
TIP In Java, the controlling only be changed through its behavior.
class is the client code.
TestCircle is client code. It uses the Circle class:
public class TestCircle {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Circle spot = new Circle();

spot.setRadius(5);

System.out.println("Circle radius:" + spot.getRadius());

System.out.println("Circle area: " + spot.area());
}
}

In the TestCircle application, a Circle object named spot is instantiated.

The object spot uses behavior setRadius() to change the state of the object,
making the radius of the circle 5. Two other behaviors are implemented
to produce the application output:

Designing and Writing a Class

Designing a class requires choosing the data the object will store and
Functional determining the actions and communication the object will provide. The
Decomposition design should include variable names and method names along with a
description of the method and any required parameters. For example, the
The process of creating clearly
defined functions, or behavior, Circle class design appears similar to:
for a class is sometimes called
functional decomposition. A
well-written class has been
functionally decomposed into
a set of methods that cannot
be simplified further.

A class is written in a separate file and consists of a declaration and

class declaration, body a body. The class declaration includes the access level, the keyword class,
and the class name. The class body contains variables, constructors, and
constructor methods. Constructors are used to initialize variables in a class. Variables
member and methods are called the members of a class. A class takes the form:
<access _ level> class <name> {
<variables>
<constructors>
<methods>
}

180 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 The Circle class code is based on the design on the previous page:
Organizing Files /**
* Circle class.
Each class is writ ten in a
*/
separate file. The client code
public class Circle {
and the classes it uses are then
private static final double PI = 3.14;
compiled together as part of a
private double radius;
project.
/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Circle object created. Radius initialized to 1.
*/
public Circle() {
radius = 1; //default radius
}

/**
* Changes the radius of the circle.
* pre: none
* post: Radius has been changed.
*/
public void setRadius(double newRadius) {
radius = newRadius;
}
Interface
The public methods of a class
define the interface of an /**
object. The interface is how * Calculates the area of the circle.
client code can interact with * pre: none
an object. * post: The area of the circle has been returned.
*/
public double area() {
double circleArea;
circleArea = PI * radius * radius;
return(circleArea);
}

/**
* Returns the radius of the circle.
* pre: none
* post: The radius of the circle has been returned.
*/
public double getRadius() {
return(radius);
}
}

The Circle class has access level public which means that it is visible
to other classes and can be used to instantiate objects in those classes.
naming conventions The class name is Circle. A class name should be a noun, begin with an
uppercase letter, and each word within the name should also begin with
an uppercase letter. Class names may not contain spaces.
The body of a class starts with an opening brace ({) and ends with a
closing brace (}). Member variables are declared after the opening brace,
and outside of any methods. Variable declarations in the body of a class
have a local scope that extends from the opening brace of the class body
to the closing. Note that the Circle class also has a member variable that
is a constant.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 181

 The visibility of a member variable is controlled with an access modifier.
TIP Access modifiers and Declaring a variable as private makes it visible to the class, but not to
visibility were introduced in
Chapter 7.
client code. This encapsulates the data and provides information hiding.
For example, the Circle class contains a private variable radius that can be
used by any of the methods of the class, but cannot be directly accessed
by statements in the client code where the Circle object was created.
A constructor is automatically called when an object is created. The con-
structor is where variables are initialized. Variables that are not initialized
may contain data that could generate a run-time error when a method of
the class is executed.
The methods in a class are accessor methods, modifier methods, or
accessor method helper methods. Accessor methods are called to determine the value of
a variable. For example, in the Circle class, getRadius() is an accessor
modifier method method. It returns the value of the variable radius. A modifier method is
called to change the value of a variable. In the Circle class, setRadius() is a
modifier method. It assigns a value passed in a parameter to the variable
radius. Accessor and modifier methods have access level public so that
they may be called from the class where the Circle object was created.
helper method Helper methods are called from within a class by other methods. They
are used to help complete a task and have access level private. The Circle
class does not contain helper methods.
An application that includes Circle objects can include statements that
call the public methods, but statements that refer to the private members
will generate a compiler error.

Review: Circle – part 1 of 4

Modify the Circle class to include a member method named circumference. The circumference() method
should return the circumference of the circle (2πr). Test the class with the following client code:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Circle spot = new Circle();
spot.setRadius(3);
System.out.println("Circle radius: " + spot.getRadius());
System.out.println("Circle circumference: " + spot.circumference());
}

Review: Coin – part 1 of 2

Create a Coin class that includes a variable faceUp that stores either a 0 for heads up or 1 for tails up, an accessor
method named showFace that returns the value of faceUp, and a modifier method named flipCoin that assigns
a random integer between 0 and 1, inclusive, to faceUp. Test the class with the following client code:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Coin nickel = new Coin();
nickel.flipCoin();
if (nickel.showFace() == 0) {
System.out.println("Heads up!");
} else {
System.out.println("Tails up!");
}
}

182 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 Writing Constructors
The constructor of a class is automatically executed when an object
is instantiated. Once an object is instantiated, the method members of
the class can be called in any order. Unexpected results may occur if an
accessor method is called before a member variable has been set to a valid
value. To prevent this, variables should be initialized in the constructor.
A constructor takes the form:
public <class name>(<parameters>) {
<statements>
}

The constructor of a class does not have a return type and always has the
same name as the class. When a constructor contains parameters, they
are separated by commas.

overloading constructors Constructors can be overloaded to provide more options for instantiat-
ing an object. For example, if the radius of the circle object is known when
the Circle object is created, it would be more efficient to assign the value
to radius when the object is created:
Circle spot = new Circle(5);

A constructor can be added to the Circle class to handle creating an object

with a parameter that contains the circle radius:
/**
* Circle class.
*/
public class Circle {
private static final double PI = 3.14;
private double radius;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Circle object created. Radius initialized to 1.
*/
public Circle() {
radius = 1; //default radius
}

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Circle object created with radius r.
*/
public Circle(double r) {
radius = r;
}

…rest of Circle class

When a class contains more than one constructor, the compiler uses
the number and types of parameters to determine which constructor to
execute.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 183

Review: Circle – part 2 of 4
Modify the Circle class to include an overloaded constructor that accepts the radius of the Circle object, as
shown in the previous section.

Review: Rectangle – part 1 of 5

Design and then create a Rectangle class that has overloaded constructors. The first constructor requires no
parameters. The second has two parameters, one for length and a second for width. Member variables store
the length and width of the rectangle, and member methods assign and retrieve the length and width and
return the area and perimeter of the rectangle. Test the class by writing appropriate client code.

Instance and Class Members

Each object, or instance, of a class has its own copy of variables called
instance variable instance variables. For example, the Circle class contains the instance
class variable variable radius. A class may also contain class variables. A class variable is
declared with the keyword static and only one copy is maintained for all
objects to refer to. For example, the Circle class contains the class variable
PI. Note that because PI is a constant, it also includes the keyword final:
/**
* Circle class.
*/
public class Circle {
private static final double PI = 3.14; //class constant
private double radius; //instance variable

…rest of Circle class

In the statements below, two Circle objects are instantiated. Each
instance has its own copy of the instance variable radius, but both objects
refer to the same copy of the class constant PI:

Methods can be either instance methods or class methods. Accessor

instance methods and modifier methods are instance methods because they change the state
of an object. They must be called from an instance of a class. Chapter 7
class methods introduced class methods that are declared with the keyword static. Class
methods can be called from the class itself, rather than an object of the
class, to perform a task. For example, consider the Circle class with the
following class method added:
/**
* Displays the formula for the area of a circle.
* pre: none
* post: The formula for area of a circle has been displayed.
*/
public static void displayAreaFormula() {
System.out.println("The formula for the area of a
circle is a=Pi*r*r");
}

184 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 The following client code calls the displayAreaFormula() class
method:
public class TestCircle {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Circle spot = new Circle(5);

System.out.println("Circle radius:" + spot.getRadius());

System.out.println("Circle area: " + spot.area());
Circle.displayAreaFormula();
}
}

TIP Class methods cannot be The class method is called from the class itself (Circle) rather than an object
used to change the value of an of the class. The TestCircle application displays the following output:
instance variable.

To summarize the differences between instance and class members:

• Instance variables are created each time an object is declared.
• Class variables and constants are created once for the class and
then objects of the class refer to this copy.
• Instance methods can only be called from an object of the class.
• Class methods can be called from the class itself.

Review: Circle – part 3 of 4

Modify the Circle class to include a class method named displayAreaFormula, as shown in the previous sec-
tion. Modify existing client code to test the new method.

Review: Rectangle – part 2 of 5

Modify the Rectangle class to include a class method named displayAreaFormula. Modify existing client code
to test the new method.

The Object Class

superclass The Object class is the superclass of all other classes. Classes, such as
subclass Circle and String, are subclasses of Object:

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 185

 inherit Subclasses inherit, or receive, the methods of its superclass. The Object
class includes methods for comparing objects and representing an object
as a string:
Class Object ( java.lang.Object)
Method
equals(Object obj)
returns true if obj is equal to the object.
toString() returns a String that represents the object.

TIP If a subclass does not over- A subclass typically contains its own version of the equals() and toString()
ride the equals() and toString() superclass methods to better suit the object of the subclass. For example,
methods, then the Object class two Circle objects are equal when they both have the same radius, and two
methods are used. String objects are equal when they consist of the same set of characters.
When a subclass redefines a superclass method, the subclass method
override is said to override the superclass method. The Circle class should con-
tain an equals() method that compares the state of the object to another
Circle object and a toString() method that returns a String describing the
object:
/**
* Determines if the object is equal to another
* Circle object.
* pre: c is a Circle object.
equals() vs. == * post: true has been returned if the objects have
* the same radii. false has been returned otherwise.
Objects compared using the */
== operator are equal only if public boolean equals(Object c) {
they refer to the same object. Circle testObj = (Circle)c;
The == operator compares the
references of the objects, not if (testObj.getRadius() == radius) {
the data stored by the objects return(true);
as the equals() methods does. } else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the Circle object.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the Circle object has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String circleString;

circleString = "Circle has radius " + radius;

return(circleString);
}

The equals() method requires an Object parameter. In the body of the

object casting method, the obj parameter must be cast as the appropriate type, in this
case Circle, and then assigned to an object of the appropriate type. If an
Object variable is cast with an incompatible class, then the exception
ClassCastException ClassCastException will be generated. To convert an object to its superclass
Object, no class casting is required.

186 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 The code below creates two Circle objects, compares them, and displays
information about the objects. An object’s toString() method is invoked
println() when an object is passed to the println() method:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Circle spot1 = new Circle(3);
Circle spot2 = new Circle(4);

if (spot1.equals(spot2)) {
System.out.println("Objects are equal.");
} else {
System.out.println("Objects are not equal.");
}
TIP The concatenation opera- System.out.println(spot1);
tor + also invokes the toString() System.out.println(spot2);
method of an object. }

The code above displays the output:

Review: Circle – part 4 of 4

Modify the Circle class to override the equals() and toString() methods, as shown in the previous section.
Modify existing client code to test the new methods.

Review: Rectangle – part 3 of 5

Modify the Rectangle class to override the equals() and toString() methods. Two rectangles are equal when
they both have the same length and width. Modify the existing client code to test the new method.

Review: Coin – part 2 of 2

Modify the Coin class to override the toString() method so that it indicates whether the coin is face up or face
down. For example, “The coin is face up.” Modify existing client code to test the new method.

Classes Using Classes

A class may contain member variables that are class data types. Complex
data can be easily represented in this way. A class that contains class
has-a relationship member variables demonstrates a has-a relationship. The class “has a” class.
For example, a class with a String member variable demonstrates a has-a
relationship.
The Bank program specification on the next page is best implemented
with two classes. One class (Account) has a member variable (Customer)
for representing the customers that hold the accounts:
A bank maintains accounts where account holders can deposit
money and withdraw money. The account holders are customers
with a first and last name and complete address.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 187

 A model of Bank includes an Account object that stores customer data
Nested Classes and and a current balance. Account methods should return a balance, perform
Inner Classes deposits, and perform withdrawals. If an Account object is passed to the
println() method, customer data and their balance should be displayed.
A nested class is a class
defined in another class as The designs for the Bank classes are:
a member of that class. The
member class has access to
other data members, just as
other members of the class. A
nested class is also called an
inner class, unless it is declared
static.

The Bank client code uses the class designs and looks similar to:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.text.NumberFormat;

public class Bank {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Account munozAccount = new Account(250, "Maria", "Munoz", "110 Glades Road",
"Mytown", "FL", "33445");
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
double data;
NumberFormat money = NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance();

System.out.println(munozAccount);

System.out.print("Enter deposit amount: ");

data = input.nextDouble();
munozAccount.deposit(data);
System.out.println("Balance is: " + money.format(munozAccount.getBalance()));

System.out.print("Enter withdrawal amount: ");

data = input.nextDouble();
munozAccount.withdrawal(data);
System.out.println("Balance is: " + money.format(munozAccount.getBalance()));
}
}

188 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 The Account class is implemented below:
import java.text.NumberFormat;

public class Account {

private double balance;
private Customer cust;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An account created. Balance and
this * customer data initialized with parameters.
*/
The keyword t h i s can be
public Account(double bal, String fName, String lName,
used to distinguish between
String str, String city, String st, String zip) {
a parameter and a member balance = bal;
variable. For example, it can cust = new Customer(fName, lName, str, city, st, zip);
be convenient to use the }
same name for both a method
parameter and a member
variable in a class, in which /**
case, the member variable is * Returns the current balance.
preceded by this. If in the * pre: none
Account class, the constructor * post: The account balance has been returned.
used dou ble bala nce as a */
parameter, then the statement public double getBalance() {
in the body must be written as: return(balance);
this.balance = balance; }

/**
* A deposit is made to the account.
* pre: none
* post: The balance has been increased by the amount of the deposit.
*/
public void deposit(double amt) {
balance += amt;
}

/**
* A withdrawal is made from the account if there is enough money.
* pre: none
* post: The balance has been decreased by the amount withdrawn.
*/
public void withdrawal(double amt) {
if (amt <= balance) {
balance -= amt;
} else {
System.out.println("Not enough money in account.");
}
}

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 189

 /**
* Returns a String that represents the Account object.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the Account object has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String accountString;
NumberFormat money = NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance();

accountString = cust.toString();
accountString += "Current balance is " + money.format(balance);
return(accountString);
}
}

The Customer class is implemented below:

public class Customer {
private String firstName, lastName, street, city,
state, zip;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Customer object has been created.
* Customer data has been initialized with parameters.
*/
public Customer(String fName, String lName, String str,
String c, String s, String z) {
firstName = fName;
lastName = lName;
street = str;
city = c;
state = s;
zip = z;
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the Customer object.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the Account object has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String custString;

custString = firstName + " " + lastName + "\n";

custString += street + "\n";
custString += city + ", " + state + " " + zip + "\n";
return(custString);
}
}

190 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 Running the Bank application produces output similar to:

Review: Bank
Modify the Customer class to include changeStreet(), changeCity(), changeState(), and changeZip() methods.
Modify the Account class to include a changeAddress() method that has street, city, state, and zip parameters.
Modify the Bank application to test the changeAddress() method.

Object-Oriented Development
Object-oriented programming requires that the solution to a task be
implemented as a system of objects. In this system, objects communicate
with other objects to provide a solution to the task. This approach to creat-
ing software is called object-oriented development.
In object-oriented development, the programmer reads the specification
TIP The JDK was discussed in and selects objects to model the specification. Some of these objects will
Chapter 4. require new classes designed and written by the programmer. Other
objects can be created from existing classes previously written by the
programmer or by other programmers. For example, the JDK contains
reusability numerous classes for use in a Java application. Reusability is an important
feature of object-oriented programming because it reduces development
time and decreases the likelihood of bugs.
To demonstrate object-oriented development, consider the following
Carnival program specification:
A carnival has many games that are similar in nature. These games
allow the player three tries, and the player who is successful all
three times is a winner. For example, the Balloon Dart Toss game
allows the player to throw three darts at a wall of balloons. If each
dart pops a balloon, then the player is a winner. The Ring Toss and
Break A Plate games work similarly.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 191

 Every player gets a prize. There are winning prizes and consolation
prizes. The Balloon Dart Toss prizes are tiger plush and sticker. The
Ring Toss prizes are bear key chain and pencil, and the Break A
Plate prizes are pig plush and plastic dinosaur. The Balloon Dart
Toss and Ring Toss games are $2 to play. The Break A Plate game
costs $1.50.
The player comes to the carnival with some spending money and
can play games until the money runs out. The player also holds
onto all the prizes won.
The Carnival application should produce output similar to the
following when Shonda has $5 spending money and Luis has $3:

selecting objects for the In the first step of object-oriented development, objects are selected to
model model the specification. In this case, the carnival can be modeled with
game booth objects and player objects. A game booth object should store
data about the cost of playing the game, the winning prize, and the con-
solation prize. Game booth methods should start the game and give the
cost to play. A player object should store data about the spending money
of the player and the prizes won. Player methods should play the game
and show the list of prizes won.
designing objects The designs for the Carnival classes are:

192 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 client code The Carnival client code uses the class designs and looks similar to:
GameBooth balloonDartToss = new GameBooth(2,"tiger plush", "sticker");
GameBooth ringToss = new GameBooth(2,"bear keychain", "pencil");
GameBooth breakAPlate = new GameBooth(1.5, "pig plush", "plastic dinosaur");
Player shonda = new Player(5); //$5 spending money
Player luis = new Player(3); //$3 spending money

System.out.print("Shonda goes to Balloon Dart Toss. ");

System.out.println(shonda.play(balloonDartToss));

System.out.print("Luis goes to Ring Toss. ");

System.out.println(luis.play(ringToss));

System.out.print("Shonda goes to Ring Toss. ");

System.out.println(shonda.play(ringToss));

System.out.print("Luis goes to Break A Plate. ");

System.out.println(luis.play(breakAPlate));

System.out.println("Shonda won: " + shonda.showPrizes());

System.out.println("Luis won: " + luis.showPrizes());

Note how simple the application appears. All the work is being done by
the objects, rather than with individual statements in the main() method.
modular The Carnival application, like other object-oriented applications, is modular.
It uses components that are separately written and maintained.
Another aspect of object-oriented development is that objects send
information to other objects to perform a task. When information is passed
message from one object to another, the object is said to be passing a message. For
example, in the pseudocode above, the Player objects are passed a message
that includes the cost of a game and the prize the player won.

implementing the classes The GameBooth class is implemented below. Note that in the start()
method, the player’s throws are simulated with random numbers. The
player is said to win if three ones are generated:
import java.lang.Math;

public class GameBooth {

private double cost;
private String firstPrize, consolationPrize;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A GameBooth object created.
* The cost and prizes are set.
*/
public GameBooth(double charge, String p1, String p2) {
cost = charge;
firstPrize = p1;
consolationPrize = p2;
}

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 193

 /**
* Game is played and prize awarded.
* pre: none
* post: Player had three tries. Player successful all
* three times received the first prize. A consolation
* prize has been awarded otherwise.
*/
public String start() {
int toss;
int successes = 0;

/* play game */
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) { //player gets three tries
toss = (int)(Math.random() + 0.5); //0 or 1
if (toss == 1) {
successes += 1; //1 is a successful toss
}
}

/* award prize */
if (successes == 3) {
return(firstPrize);
} else {
return(consolationPrize);
}
}

/**
* Returns the cost to play the game.
* pre: none
* post: Cost of the game has been returned.
*/
public double getCost() {
return(cost);
}
}

The Player class is implemented below:

public class Player {
private double spendingMoney;
private String prizesWon;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Player object created. Spending money given to
* player. The prizes won set to none.
*/
public Player(double money) {
spendingMoney = money;
prizesWon = "";
}

/**

194 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 * Player pays for and then plays a game.
* pre: none
* post: Player's spending money decreased by cost of game.
* The player has a new prize added to existing prizes.
*/
public String play(GameBooth game) {
String newPrize;

if (game.getCost() > spendingMoney) {

return("Sorry, not enough money to play.");
} else {
spendingMoney -= game.getCost(); //pay for game
newPrize = game.start(); //play game
prizesWon = newPrize + ", " + prizesWon;
return("prize won: " + newPrize);
}
}

/**
* Returns the list of prizes won.
* pre: none
* post: The list of prizes has been returned.
*/
public String showPrizes() {
return(prizesWon);
}
}

Running the Carnival application produces output similar to:

Notice that the start() method uses both casting and rounding in the
statement toss = (int)(Math.random() + 0.5); to produce an integer that is
either a 0 or a 1.
Although the classes may look long, once written they are available for
many different implementations of a Carnival or another application that
involves games.

Review: Carnival
Modify the Player class to override the toString() method. When a Player object is passed to the println()
method, a message should display how much money the player has left and the prizes won so far.
Modify the GameBooth class to keep track of the number of prizes awarded. There should be separate
totals for the first prizes awarded and the consolation prizes awarded. Add a method to the GameBooth
class named prizesAwarded() that displays the number of first prizes and the number of consolation prizes
given away.
Modify the Carnival client code to pass the Player objects to println() in the last two statements, and in
separate statements, display how many prizes were given away by each booth.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 195

Chapter 8 Case Study
In this case study, a Rock Paper Scissors game will be created using
object-oriented development. Rock Paper Scissors is a popular game played
TIP An RPS application was between two individuals for decision making or just for competitive fun.
also developed for the Chapter The rules of the game are Rock dulls Scissors (Rock wins), Scissors cuts
5 Case Study. Paper (Scissors wins), and Paper covers Rock (Paper wins). The two players
make a “throw” at the same time. The hand signals thrown by the players
are then compared to the rules of the game to determine the winner. In
the computerized version, the user plays against the computer.

RPS2 Specification
The computerized version of the Rock Paper Scissors game is played
by one user that “throws” either rock, paper, or scissors. The game then
randomly selects either rock, paper, or scissors for the computer’s “throw”
and the winner is determined by comparing the two choices. Rock wins
over scissors, scissors wins over paper, and rock wins over scissors. The
player can initially choose to play multiple rounds. At the end of the
rounds, an overall winner is declared.
The RPS2 interface should show the result of each round and the overall
winner. The RPS2 output sketch:

The RPS2 algorithm:

1. Prompt the player for the number of rounds.
2. For each round:
Prompt for the player’s throw.
Generate the computer’s throw.
Announce the winner of the round.
3. Announce an overall winner.

196 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 RPS2 Code Design
The RPS2 application can be modeled with a player object and a game
object. The player object should store the player’s throw (either rock,
paper, or scissors) and contain methods that make and return the player’s
throw. The game object should store the computer’s throw, the number
of computer wins, and the number of player wins and contain methods
that make and return the computer’s throw, determine the winner of each
round, and determine an overall winner.
The designs for the RPS2 classes are:

Based on the algorithm and the class designs, the RPS2 code design will
include two objects and a loop. The pseudocode for the RPS2 client code
follows:
declare game object
declare player object

prompt player for number of rounds

for (i = 0; i < rounds; i++) {
prompt player for throw
player.makeThrow(playerThrow);
gameObject.makeThrow();
gameObject.announceWinner(playerObject.getThrow);
}
gameObject.bigWinner

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 197

 RPS2 Implementation
The RPS2 implementation involves creating three files. One file contains
the client code and the other two files are the classes.
The RPS2Player class is implemented below:
/**
* models the player in a game of RPS
*/
public class RPSPlayer {
private int playerThrow; //ROCK=1, PAPER=2, SCISSORS=3

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: RPSPlayer object created. The player is given a
* default throw.
*/
public RPSPlayer() {
playerThrow = 1; //default throw
}

/**
* Sets the player's throw.
* pre: newThrow is the integer 1, 2, or 3.
* post: Player's throw has been made.
*/
public void makeThrow(int newThrow){
playerThrow = newThrow;
}

/**
* Returns the player's throw.
* pre: none
* post: Player's throw has been returned.
*/
public int getThrow() {
return(playerThrow);
}

198 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 The RPSGame class is implemented below:
/**
* Models a game of RPS
*/

import java.lang.Math;

public class RPSGame {

public static final int ROCK = 1, PAPER = 2, SCISSORS = 3;
private int compThrow;
private int playerWins = 0, computerWins = 0;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: RPSGame object created. Computer throw generated.
*/
public RPSGame() {
compThrow = (int)(3 * Math.random() + 1); //1, 2, or 3
playerWins = 0;
computerWins = 0;
}

/**
* Computer's throw is generated (ROCK, PAPER, or SCISSORS)
* pre: none
* post: Computer's throw has been made.
*/
public void makeCompThrow(){
compThrow = (int)(3 * Math.random() + 1); //1, 2, or 3
}

/**
* Returns the computer's throw.
* pre: none
* post: Computer's throw has been returned.
*/
public int getCompThrow() {
return(compThrow);
}

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 199

 /**
* Determines the winner of the round.
* pre: playerThrow is the integer 1, 2, or 3.
* post: Displays a message indicating throws. Compares player's
* throw to computer's throw and displays a message indicating
* the winner.
*/
public void announceWinner(int playerThrow) {

/* Inform player of throws */

System.out.print("You throw ");
switch (playerThrow) {
case ROCK: System.out.println("ROCK."); break;
case PAPER: System.out.println("PAPER."); break;
case SCISSORS: System.out.println("SCISSORS."); break;
}
System.out.print("Computer throws ");
switch (compThrow) {
case ROCK: System.out.println("ROCK."); break;
case PAPER: System.out.println("PAPER."); break;
case SCISSORS: System.out.println("SCISSORS."); break;
}

/* Determine and annouce winner */

if (playerThrow == ROCK && compThrow == ROCK) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
} else if (playerThrow == ROCK && compThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("Computer wins!");
computerWins += 1;
} else if (playerThrow == ROCK && compThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("You win!");
playerWins += 1;
}

if (playerThrow == PAPER && compThrow == ROCK) {

System.out.println("You win!");
playerWins += 1;
} else if (playerThrow == PAPER && compThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
} else if (playerThrow == PAPER && compThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("Computer wins!");
computerWins +=1;
}

if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && compThrow == ROCK) {

System.out.println("Computer wins!");
computerWins += 1;
} else if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && compThrow == PAPER) {
System.out.println("You win!");
playerWins += 1;
} else if (playerThrow == SCISSORS && compThrow == SCISSORS) {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
}
}

200 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 /**
* Displays the overall winner.
* pre: none
* post: Computer and player wins compared and
* an overall winner announced.
*/
public void bigWinner() {
if (computerWins > playerWins){
System.out.println("Computer wins!");
} else if (playerWins > computerWins){
System.out.println("You win!");
} else {
System.out.println("It's a draw!");
}
}

The RPS2 client code follows:

/*
* RPS2.java
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

/**
* Computer plays Rock Paper Scissors against one player.
*/
public class RPS2 {

public static void main(String[] args) {

RPSGame rps = new RPSGame();
RPSPlayer rpsOpponent = new RPSPlayer();
int rounds;
int playerThrow;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

/* play RPS */
System.out.print("How many rounds? ");
rounds = input.nextInt();
for (int i = 0; i < rounds; i++) {
System.out.print("Enter your throw (ROCK=1,
PAPER=2, SCISSORS=3): ");
playerThrow = input.nextInt();
rpsOpponent.makeThrow(playerThrow);

rps.makeCompThrow();
rps.announceWinner(rpsOpponent.getThrow());
}
rps.bigWinner();
}
}

Note how concise the client code is. The RPS2 application uses objects
to perform all the work.
Although the classes may look long, once written they are available
for many different implementations of the RPS game. Client code can be
written to use the classes in many different ways. For example, multiple
players and games can be instantiated for tournaments.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 201

 RPS2 Testing and Debugging
When a new class is written, client code should be written to test the
class. For the RPSGame class, client code should test all the possible throw
combinations, similar to the testing discussed in the Chapter 5 Case
Study.

Review: RPS2 – part 1 of 2

Modify the RPSPlayer class to include a playerName variable and methods named assignName and getName. The
assignName() method has a String parameter name that is assigned to playerName. The getName() method
returns the value of playerName. Modify the announceWinner() and bigWinner() methods in the RPSGame
class to include a String parameter name that is the player’s name. Change the messages displayed in the
announceWinner() and bigWinner() methods to include the player’s name rather than the word “You”.
Modifying the two classes should produce output similar to the sketch below:

Review: RPS2 – part 2 of 2

Modify the RPS2 client code to perform error checking on the player’s input. Have the client code verify that
the user has entered a 1, 2, or 3 for a throw before passing the entered value to the makeThrow() method.

202 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced writing and designing classes. Classes are the
data types of objects. An object has a state (data) and behavior (actions and
communication in the form of methods). An important aspect of object-
oriented programming is encapsulation, also called information hiding.
In OOP, classes are written to encasulate, or hide, data from outside code.
Client code is code that uses one or more classes.
A class includes a class declaration, variables, constructors, and meth-
ods. The class declaration includes the access level, the keyword class, and
a name. Variables and methods are the members of a class. Variables are
the data members and should be declared private. Accessor and modifier
methods are declared public, while helper methods are declared private.
Constructors are used to initialize variables and can be overloaded so that
objects can be declared with vaying numbers of parameters.
The variables and methods of a class are either instance or class mem-
bers. Instance members are copied for each instance of a class. Only one
copy of a class member exists for the class. Every object of a class refers to
the same class member. The keyword static is used for a class member
declaration. Class methods can be called from the class itself. An object
of the class can call either instance or class members.
Every class is a subclass of the Object class. The Object class could also
be called the superclass of all other classes. The equals() and toString()
methods in the Object class are inherited by all other classes. In most cases,
these methods should be redefined in subclasses.
An object that contains an object is said to demonstrate a has-a relation-
ship. Any class that contains a String data member demonstrates a has-a
relationship.
Object-oriented development requires the solution to a task be imple-
mented as a system of objects. In this system, objects pass messages back
and forth to provide a solution to the task.
This chapter discussed several important aspects of the object-oriented
paradigm, including encapsulation, reusability, and modularity.
The code convention introduced in this chapter is:
• Class names should be a noun, begin with an uppercase letter, and
each word within the name should also begin with an uppercase
letter.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 203

Vocabulary

Accessor method A method of a class that is used to Instance An object of a class.

determine the value of a variable member. Accessor
Instance method A method of a class that changes
methods have access level public.
the state of a class. It must be called from an instance
Behavior The action and communication an object of the class.
provides.
Instance variable A variable of a class that is copied
Class A data type that defines variables for the state for each instance of the class.
of an object and methods for an object’s behavior.
Member A variable or method of a class.
Class body The variables, constructors, and methods
Message Information passed from one object to
that implement a class.
another.
ClassCastException An exception thrown when an
Modifier method A method of a class that is used
object variable is cast with an incompatible class.
to change the value of a variable member. Modifier
Class declaration The first line of a class, which methods have access level public.
contains the access level, the keyword class, and
Modular An application that uses components that
the class name.
are separately written and maintained.
Class method A method of a class that can be called
Object An instance of a class. An object stores
from the class itself. It cannot change the state of an
data and can perform act ions and provide
object. Class methods include the keyword static.
communication.
Class variable A variable of a class that exists as
Object casting To cast an object as the appropriate
one copy that all instances of a class refer to. Class
class.
variables include the keyword static.
Object-oriented development The solution to a task
Client code An application that uses one or more
that is implemented as a system of objects.
classes.
Override To redefine a method from a superclass
Constructor The part of a class that is used to
in a subclass.
initialize the variable members of a class.
Reusability A feature of object-oriented program-
Encapsulation Protecting an object’s data from
ming that reduces development time and decreases
code outside the class.
the likelihood of bugs.
Has-a relationship The relationship demonstrated
State The data an object stores.
by a class that contains another class.
Subclass A class below another class in a class
Helper method A method of a class that is used
hierarchy. A class that inherits another class.
by other methods in a class to help complete a task.
Helper methods have access level private. Superclass The upper-most class in a class hierarchy.
A class that has subclasses.
Information hiding Also called encapsulation.
Visibility The access level of a method.
Inherit To receive the methods of a superclass.

Java

class The keyword used to declare a class. private An access modifier used to declare class
members visible to the class but not to client code.
public An access modifier used to declare a class
that is visible to client code. Also used in the decla- static The keyword used in the declaration of a
ration of class methods to indicate that the method variable or method in a class to indicate that the
is visible to client code. member is a class method.

204 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 Critical Thinking

1. W h ich members of t he Circle class are 7. Imagine a band festival where there are many
encapsulated? bands playing—the TwoToos, the EggRolls, and
Goop. Each band can TuneUp, PlayMusic, and
2. What name must the constructor of a class TakeABow. A set list can be read or created. If
have? this was simulated in an object-oriented pro-
gram, what would appropriate names be for:
3. Explain the difference between the private and a) the class
public access modifiers. b) the objects
c) a data member
4. Consider the following code. Is the last state- d) the method members
ment valid or invalid? Explain.
Circle dot = new Circle(2); 8. Assume a class for a sports team named
dot.radius = 5; Team.
a) List three possible object names.
5. Use the following class to answer the questions b) List three possible method members.
below: c) List three possible data members.
public class Roo {
9. Use the following class data member definitions
private int x; to answer the questions below:
public Roo { public class Moo {
x = 1; private double y;
} private static int x;
private static final z;
public void setX(int z) {
x = z; …
}
a) Which data member is a constant?
public int getX() { b) Which data members are variables?
return(x); c) W h ic h dat a member (s) a re i n st a nce
} members?
d) Which data member(s) are class members?
public int calculate() {
x = x * factor();
return(x); 10. Explain the difference between calling an
} instance method member and a class method
member.
private int factor() {
return(0.12); 11. Compare and contrast overriding methods to
}
overloading methods.
}

a) What is the name of the class? 12. The Customer class in the Bank application also
b) What is the name of the data member? demonstrates a has-a relationship. Explain.
c) List the accessor method.
d) List the modifier method. 13. How can reusing code decrease the likelihood
e) List the helper method. of bugs in an application?
f) What is the name of the constructor?
g) How many method members are there? 14. Explain what is meant by passing a message.

6. What is the difference between a class and an

object?

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 205

True/False
15. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
a) The state of an object is described by its
methods.
b) The behavior of an object is described by its
variables.
c) An instance of a class is called an object.
d) Client code is an application that uses a
class.
e) Encapsulation means that all the variables
in a class are available to client code.
f) A constructor is a member of a class.
g) A variable that is visible to a class, but not
to client code is declared with the keyword
private.
h) An accessor method is called to change the
value of a data member.
i) A modifier method returns the value of a
data member.
j) A constructor of a class is automatically
called when an object of the class is instan-
tiated.
k) A class can contain multiple constructors.
l) An instance variable is copied for each
instance of a class.
m) A class variable is declared with the key-
word public.
n) A class method must be called from an object
of the class.
o) A class constant is declared with only the
keyword final.
p) The Object class is a subclass of all other
classes.
q) The toString() method can be redefined in
subclasses.
r) Object-oriented development requires that
only one object be used in an application.

206 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

Exercises

Exercise 1 ————————————————————— MySavings

Create a MySavings application that displays a menu of choices for entering pennies, nickels, dimes, and
quarters into a piggy bank and then prompts the user to make a selection. The MySavings application
should include a PiggyBank object that can add coins to the piggy bank, remove coins, and return the
total amount in the bank. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 2 ——————————————————— DigitExtractor

Create a DigitExtractor application that prompts the user for an integer and then displays the ones,
tens, and hundreds digit of the number. The DigitExtractor application should include a Num object
that can return the ones digit, tens digit, hundreds digit, and the whole number. Application output
should look similar to:

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 207

Exercise 3 ———————————————————— LunchOrder
Create a LunchOrder application that prompts the user for the number of hamburgers, salads, french
fries, and sodas and then displays the total for the order. The LunchOrder application should include
a Food object with a constructor that accepts the price, fat, carbs, and fiber for an item. Food methods
should return the price of the item and return the fat, carbohydrates, and fiber. Use the chart below for
food prices and nutrition information:
Item Price Fat(g) Carbohydrates(g) Fiber(g)
hamburger $1.85 9 33 1
salad $2.00 1 11 5
french fries $1.30 11 36 4
soda $0.95 0 38 0

Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 4 ——————————————————— DiceRollGame

In the Dice Roll game, the player begins with a score of 1000. The player is prompted for the number
of points to risk and a second prompt asks the player to choose either high or low. The player rolls
two dice and the outcome is compared to the player’s choice of high or low. If the dice total is between
2 and 6 inclusive, then it is considered “low”. A total between 8 and 12 inclusive is “high”. A total of
7 is neither high nor low, and the player loses the points at risk. If the player had called correctly, the
points at risk are doubled and added to the total points. For a wrong call, the player loses the points at
risk. Create a DiceRollGame application that uses a DRPlayer object based on this specification. The
DRPlayer object should have two Die member variables that represent the dice. The Die class should
use a random number generator to determine the outcome in a roll() method. Application output
should look similar to:

208 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

Exercise 5 ——————————————————————— Nim2
The game of Nim starts with a random number of stones between 15 and 30. Two players alternate
turns and on each turn may take either 1, 2, or 3 stones from the pile. The player forced to take the last
stone loses. Use object-oriented development to create a Nim2 application that allows the user to play
Nim against the computer. The Nim2 application and its objects should:

• Generate the number of stones to begin with.

• Allow the player to go first.
• Use a random number generator to determine the number of stones the computer
takes.
• Prevent the player and the computer from taking an illegal number of stones. For
example, neither should be allowed to take three stones when there are only 1 or 2
left.

Exercise 6 ————————————————————— GameOf21

In the Game of 21, a player is dealt two cards from a deck of playing cards and then optionally given
a third card. The player closest to 21 points without going over is the winner. Use object-oriented
development to create a Game of 21 application that allows the user to play the Game of 21 against the
computer. The Game of 21 application and its objects should:
• Deal a card from a deck of playing cards by generating a random number between 1
and 13. A 1 corresponds to an Ace, numbers 2 through 10 correspond to those cards,
and 11 through 13 correspond to Jack, Queen, and King. The Jack, Queen, and King
have a value of 10 in the Game of 21. An Ace can have a value of either 1 or 11.
• Allow the player to stay with two cards or be given a third card.
• Announce the winner.
• Play rounds until the player says to stop.

Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development 209

Exercise 7 —————————————————————— Bowling
In bowling, a ball is rolled down a lane, also called an alley, at a set of ten pins. A game consists of a
bowler bowling for ten frames, where each frame consists of two chances (throws) to knock over all ten
pins. Bowling centers often use computers to electronically keep scores for bowlers. Use object-oriented
development to create a Bowling application that simulates a simplified game of bowling. The Bowling
application and its objects should:
• Allow a bowler to bowl ten frames. Each frame consists of two throws, unless a strike
is thrown.
• Award 20 points to the bowler when all ten pins are knocked over on the first throw
of a frame.
• Award 15 points to the bowler when all ten pins are knocked over within the two
throws of a frame.
• Award one point for each pin knocked over in the two throws of a frame when all
ten pins are not knocked over.
• If there is more than one bowler in a game, then the bowlers take turns until each
has bowled ten frames.
• Use a random number generator to determine how many pins a bowler has knocked
over with each throw.
• Display an updated score after each frame.

Exercise 8 ——————————————————————— Adder

The Adder game prompts a player for the answer to an addition problem. The Adder game cre-
ates a problem from two randomly selected integers between 0 and 20. Adder allows the player
three tries to enter a correct answer. If the correct answer is entered on the first try, the player is
awarded 5 points. If the correct answer is entered on the second try, 3 points are awarded. The
correct answer on the third try earns 1 point. If after three tries, the correct answer is still not
entered, the player receives no points and the correct answer is displayed. The game continues until
999 is entered as an answer. At the end of the game, Adder displays the player’s score. Application
output should look similar to:

210 Chapter 8 Classes and Object-Oriented Development

 Chapter 9
Inheritance and Polymorphism

O bject-oriented programming is based on a paradigm in which objects

are used to model a specification. Objects are created from classes, which
provide encapsulation. Inheritance extends a class and provides a means
of polymorphism. This chapter discusses inheritance and polymorphism.
Abstract classes and interfaces are also discussed.

Extending a Class
Often times there is an existing class that provides a basis for an object
that models a specification. However, the existing class may need addi-
tional methods or different implementations of existing methods to more
closely represent the object for the model. For example, consider a disk,
which has circular shape. It is similar to a circle. However, a disk is three-
dimensional and also has a thickness. Rather than create a whole new class
to represent a disk, a class named Disk could extend the Circle class.
inheritance Making one class an extension of another involves inheritance. Inheritance
allows a class to define a specialized type of an already existing class. In
this case, a disk is a solid circle with a thickness. Classes that are derived
is-a relationship from existing classes demonstrate an is-a relationship. A class “is a” type
of another class. In this case, a disk is a circle with a thickness.
A class can have many levels of inheritance. For example, consider the
TIP The Object class is the following class hierarchy:
superclass of all other classes.

The Puck class inherits the Disk class, which inherits the Circle class. The
Circle class is the superclass of Disk. Disk is the subclass of Circle and the
superclass of Puck. Puck is the subclass of Disk.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 211

 Implementing a Subclass
extends A class that inherits another class includes the keyword extends in the
class declaration and takes the form:
public class <name> extends <class _ name> {
<class definition>
}

base class Designing a subclass requires selecting the superclass, or base class,
and then defining any additional variable and method members for the
subclass. In many cases, existing methods in the base class will also be
derived class overridden by new definitions in the subclass, also called the derived class.
For example, the Disk class design appears similar to:

The Disk class implementation, based on the design above, is:

/**
* Disk class.
*/
public class Disk extends Circle {
private double thickness;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Disk object has been created with radius r
* and thickness t.
*/
public Disk(double r, double t) {
super(r);
thickness = t;
}

/**
* Changes the thickness of the disk.
* pre: none
* post: Thickness has been changed.
*/
public void setThickness(double newThickness) {
thickness = newThickness;
}

212 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 /**
* Returns the thickness of the disk.
* pre: none
* post: The thickness of the disk has been returned.
*/
public double getThickness() {
return(thickness);
}

/**
* Returns the volume of the disk.
* pre: none
* post: The volume of the disk has been returned.
*/
public double volume() {
double v;

v = super.area() * thickness;
return(v);
}

/**
* Determines if the object is equal to another
* Disk object.
* pre: d is a Disk object.
* post: true has been returned if objects have the same
* radii and thickness. false has been returned otherwise.
*/
public boolean equals(Object d) {
Disk testObj = (Disk)d;

if (testObj.getRadius() == super.getRadius()
&& testObj.getThickness() == thickness) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the Disk object.
TIP The equals() and toString() * pre: none
methods override the methods * post: A string representing the Disk object has
by the same name in the Circle * been returned.
class. */
public String toString() {
String diskString;

diskString = "The disk has radius " + super.getRadius()

+ " and thickness " + thickness + ".";
return(diskString);
}
}

super In a subclass, the keyword super is used to access methods of the

base class. For example, the statement super(r) calls the constructor of
the superclass, Circle, and passes an argument for setting the radius
visibility value. Members that are declared private are not accessible to derived
classes. Therefore, accessor methods are used to get inherited member
variable values. For example, the equals() method in the Disk class calls
getRadius().

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 213

 Inherited methods are called directly from an object, just as any method
of the class is called. Whether a method is original to the Disk class or
inherited from the Circle class is transparent to client code, as demonstrated
in the TestDisk application:
public class TestDisk {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Disk saucer = new Disk(10, 0.02);

System.out.println("Disk radius: " + saucer.getRadius());

System.out.println("Disk surface area: " + saucer.area());
System.out.println("Disk volume: " + saucer.volume());

Disk plate1 = new Disk(12, 0.05);

Disk plate2 = new Disk(12, 0.07);
if (plate1.equals(plate2)) {
System.out.println("Objects are equal.");
} else {
System.out.println("Objects are not equal.");
}
System.out.println(plate1);
System.out.println(plate2);
}
}

The TestDisk application displays the following output:

Review: Puck – part 1 of 2

Create a Puck class that inherits the Disk class. The Puck class should include member variables weight,
standard, and youth. The standard and youth variables should be boolean variables that are set to either true
or false depending on the weight of the puck. A standard puck weighs between 5 and 5.5 ounces. A youth
puck weighs between 4 and 4.5 ounces. Official hockey pucks, regardless of weight, are one inch-thick with a
three-inch diameter. The Puck class should also contain member methods getWeight(), getDivision(), which
returns a string stating whether the puck is standard or youth, and equals() and toString(), which overrride
the same methods in the Disk class. The Puck constructor should require an argument for weight. Be sure
that the constructor initializes other variables to appropriate values as necessary.

Create a Hockey application that tests the Puck class.

214 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is an OOP property in which objects have the ability to
assume different types. In object-oriented programming, polymorphism
is based on inheritance. Because a subclass is derived from a superclass,
a superclass object can reference an object of the subclass. For example,
the following statements are valid because Disk inherits Circle:
Circle wafer;
Disk cookie = new Disk(2, 0.5);
wafer = cookie; //wafer now references cookie

The wafer object, declared a Circle, is polymorphic, as demonstrated in

the statement wafer = cookie where wafer assumes the form of cookie, a
Disk object.
Polymorphism is further demonstrated when the referenced object
determines which method to execute. This is possible when a subclass
overrides a superclass method. In this case, the Disk class has overridden
the equals() and toString() methods. Because of this, the following state-
ment executes the Disk toString() method even though wafer was declared
a Circle object:
/* displays: The disk has radius 2.0 and thickness 0.5. */
System.out.println(wafer);

To further demonstrate polymorphism, the Music application will

be developed in this section. The Music application allows the user to
assemble a small band. The user can assign a band member either vocals
(voice) or a woodwind instrument (piccolo or clarinet). The user can then
select to hear either a solo, duet, or trio performance from this band.
The Instrument class, its subclasses, and the Performance class are
used to model the objects for the Music application. The diagram below
illustrates the client code and classes for the Music application. Note the
hierarchy of the Instrument class and its subclasses:

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 215

 The Music client code is shown below:
/*
* Music.java
*/
import java.util.Scanner;

public class Music {

/* Returns a selected instrument.

* pre: none
* post: An instrument object has been returned.
*/
public static Instrument assignInstrument() {
String instrumentChoice;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Select an instrument for the

band member. ");
System.out.print("Vocals, Piccolo, or Clarinet: ");
instrumentChoice = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Enter the band member's name: ");
name = input.nextLine();
if (instrumentChoice.equalsIgnoreCase("V")) {
return(new Vocal(name));
} else if (instrumentChoice.equalsIgnoreCase("P")) {
return(new Piccolo(name));
} else { //default to clarinet
return(new Clarinet(name));
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Performance band;
Instrument bandMember1, bandMember2, bandMember3;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String performanceChoice;

/* assign instruments */
bandMember1 = assignInstrument();
bandMember2 = assignInstrument();
bandMember3 = assignInstrument();
System.out.println(bandMember1 + " " + bandMember2 + " "
+ bandMember3 + "\n");

System.out.print("Would you like to hear a Solo, a Duet,

a Trio, or Leave? ");
performanceChoice = input.nextLine();
while (!performanceChoice.equalsIgnoreCase("L")) {
if (performanceChoice.equalsIgnoreCase("S")) {
band = new Performance(bandMember1);
} else if (performanceChoice.equalsIgnoreCase("D")) {
band = new Performance(bandMember1, bandMember2);
} else { //default to trio
band = new Performance(bandMember1, bandMember2,
bandMember3);
}
band.begin();

System.out.print("\nWould you like to hear a Solo,

a Duet, a Trio, or Leave? ");;
performanceChoice = input.nextLine();
}
}
}

216 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

The assignInstrument() method declares an Instrument return type, but
the individual return statements return Vocal, Piccola, and Clarinet types.
The Instrument object returned by the method is polymorphic, changing
to whichever subclass is actually returned.
The Music application produces output similar to:

The Music application allows the user numerous combinations for select-
ing a band and hearing performances. The code for such an application
would be more complicated and less flexible without the object-oriented
principles of inheritance and polymorphism. Music is versatile because it
takes advantage of inheritance and polymorphism.
The documentation for the Instrument, Vocal, Woodwind, Piccolo,
and Clarinet classes is below. Note that the makeSound() method in the
Instrument class is a method that must be implemented (written) in a sub-
class. This is discussed further in the next section. The code for the classes
is also shown in the next section where abstract classes are discussed.
Class Instrument
Constructor/Methods
Instrument(String name)
creates an instrument object with musician
name.
getMusician() returns a string that is the musician’s name.
makeSound() an abstract method that should return a String
representing the instrument’s sound.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 217

 Class Vocal (inherits Instrument)
Constructor/Methods
Vocal(String name)
creates a singer object with singer name.
makeSound() returns the String LaLaLa.
toString() returns a String that represents the singer.

Class Woodwind (inherits Instrument)

Constructor/Method
Woodwind(String name)
creates a woodwind instrument object with
musician name.
makeSound() returns the String toot.

Class Piccolo (inherits Woodwind)

Constructor/Methods
Piccolo(String name)
creates a piccoloist object with musician name.
makeSound() returns the String peep.
toString() returns a String that represents the object.

Class Clarinet (inherits Woodwind)

Constructor/Methods
Clarinet(String name)
creates a clarinetist object with musician name.
makeSound() returns the String squawk.
toString() returns a String that represents the object.

The Performance class creates an arrangement of Instrument objects.

The constructors require Instrument arguments, but polymorphism
enables objects of Instructor subclasses to be passed:
/**
* Performance class.
*/
public class Performance {
private String arrangement;
private Instrument solo;
private Instrument duet _ 1, duet _ 2;
private Instrument trio _ 1, trio _ 2, trio _ 3;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A soloist has been selected.
*/
public Performance(Instrument s) {
solo = s;
arrangement = solo.makeSound();
}

218 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 /**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: The members of a duet have been selected.
*/
public Performance(Instrument d1, Instrument d2) {
duet _ 1 = d1;
duet _ 2 = d2;
arrangement = duet _ 1.makeSound() + duet _ 2.makeSound();
}

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: The members of a trio have been selected.
*/
public Performance(Instrument t1, Instrument t2,
Instrument t3) {
trio _ 1 = t1;
trio _ 2 = t2;
trio _ 3 = t3;
arrangement = trio _ 1.makeSound() + trio _ 2.makeSound()
+ trio _ 3.makeSound();
}

/**
* Begins the performance.
* pre: none
* post: The performance has been played.
*/
public void begin() {
System.out.println(arrangement);
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the performers.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the performers has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String program = "The performance includes ";
program += arrangement;
return(program);
}
}

Review: Music – part 1 of 2

Modify the Music application to allow the user to select a quartet (four band members) in addition to the
other performances. Changes to the Performance class will also be required to provide the option of creat-
ing a quartet.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 219

 Abstract Classes
An abstract class models an abstract concept. For example, a musical
instrument is an abstract concept. An instrument is something that can
be played, but there is no such thing an “instrument” instrument. There
are however, flutes, piccolos, drums, and cymbals.
Abstract classes cannot be instantiated because they should not repre-
sent objects. They instead describe the more general details and actions
of a type of object. For example, the Instrument class describes the very
basics of an instrument—it can make a sound. The Woodwind class is also
an abtract class because it describes a group of instruments. It includes a
general sound that woodwind instruments make.
abstract Abstract classes are declared with the keyword abstract in the class
declaraction. They are intended to be inherited. The public members of
the abstract class are visible to derived objects. However, an abstract class
abstract method can also contain an abstract method. An abstract method is declared with
the keyword abstract and contains a method declaration, but no body.
The abstract class must be implemented in its subclass.
The Instrument class is an abstract class with an abstract method. The
makeSound() method must be implemented in an Instrument subclass:
/**
* Instrument class.
*/
abstract class Instrument {
String musician;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A musician has been assigned to the instrument.
*/
public Instrument(String name) {
musician = name;
}

/**
* Returns the name of the musician
* pre: none
* post: The name of the musician playing the instrument
* has been returned.
*/
public String getMusician() {
return(musician);
}

/**
* Should return the sound of the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: The sound made by the instrument is returned.
*/
abstract String makeSound();
}

The Vocal class is a subclass of Instrument. It provides the body for the
makeSound() method:

220 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 /**
* Vocal class.
*/
public class Vocal extends Instrument {

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A singer has been created.
*/
public Vocal(String singerName) {
super(singerName);
}

/**
* Returns the sound of the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: The sound made by the singer.
*/
public String makeSound() {
return("LaLaLa");
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the singer.
*/
public String toString() {
return(super.getMusician() + " sings " + makeSound() + ".");
}
}

The Woodwind class is also an Instrument subclass. It too implements

the makeSound() method. However, Woodwind describes a group of
instruments so it has also been declared abstract:
/**
* Woodwind class.
*/
abstract class Woodwind extends Instrument {

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A woodwind instrument has been created.
*/
public Woodwind(String player) {
super(player);
}

/**
* Returns the sound of the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: The sound made by the instrument is returned.
*/
public String makeSound() {
return("toot");
}
}

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 221

 The Piccolo class is a subclass of Woodwind. It overrides the makeSound()
method:
/**
* Piccolo class.
*/
public class Piccolo extends Woodwind {

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A piccolo has been created.
*/
public Piccolo(String piccoloist) {
super(piccoloist);
}

/**
* Returns the sound of the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: The sound made by the instrument is returned.
*/
public String makeSound() {
return("peep");
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the instrument has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
return(super.getMusician() + " plays " + makeSound() + ".");
}
}

The Clarinet class is also a Woodwind subclass. It too overrides the

makeSound() method:
/**
* Clarinet class.
*/
public class Clarinet extends Woodwind {

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A clarinet has been created.
*/
public Clarinet(String clarinetist) {
super(clarinetist);
}

/**
* Returns the sound of the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: The sound made by the instrument is returned.
*/
public String makeSound() {
return("squawk");
}

222 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 /**
* Returns a String that represents the instrument.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the instrument has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
return(super.getMusician() + " plays " + makeSound() + ".");
}
}

Through inheritance and abstraction, a hierarchy of classes can be cre-

ated that begin with a general abstraction and lead to a specific object.

Review: Music – part 2 of 2

Modify the Music application to allow the user to select a cymbal or drum in addition to the other instru-
ments for the band members. The Music application changes will require that Percussion, Cymbal, and Drum
classes be created. The Percussion class should be an abstract class that inherits the Instrument class. The
Cymbal and Drum classes should inherit the Percussion class.

Interfaces
An interface is a class with method declarations that have no implemen-
tations. Although an interface may seem similar to an abstract class, it is
very different. An interface cannot be inherited. It may only be imple-
mented in a class. An interface can add behavior to a class, but it does not
provide a hierarchy for the class.
An interface takes the form:
<access _ level> interface <name> {
<return _ type> <method _ name> (<method _ param>);
…additional methods
}

The methods defined in an interface are by default public and abstract.

Therefore, the methods in an interface are only declarations followed by
a semicolon.

Comparable interface The Comparable interface is part of the java.lang package. It contains
one method:
Interface Comparable (java.lang.Comparable)
Method
compareTo(Object obj)
returns 0 when obj is the same as the object,
a negative integer is returned when obj is
less than the object, and a positive integer is
returned when obj is greater than the object.

When an interface is implemented in a class, the class must implement

each method defined in the interface. In this case, the Comparable interface
contains just one method. The Circle class shown on the next page has
been modified to implement the Comparable interface.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 223

 /**
* Circle class.
*/
public class Circle implements Comparable {
private static final double PI = 3.14;
private double radius;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Circle object created. Radius initialized to 1.
*/
public Circle() {
radius = 1; //default radius
}

…getRadius(), setRadius(), and other Circle class methods

/**
* Determines if object c is smaller, the same,
* or larger than this Circle object.
* pre: c is a Circle object
* post: -1 has been returned if c is larger than
* this Circle, 0 has been returned if they are the
* same size, and 1 has been returned if c is smaller
* then this Circle.
*/
public int compareTo(Object c) {
Circle testCircle = (Circle)c;

if (radius < testCircle.getRadius()) {

return(-1);
} else if (radius == testCircle.getRadius()) {
return(0);
} else {
return(1);
}
}

The TestCircle client code tests the compareTo() method:

/**
* The Circle class is tested.
*/
public class TestCircle {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Circle spot1 = new Circle(3);
Circle spot2 = new Circle(4);
if (spot1.compareTo(spot2) == 0) {
System.out.println("Objects are equal.");
} else if (spot1.compareTo(spot2) < 0) {
System.out.println("spot1 is smaller than spot2.");
} else {
System.out.println("spot1 is larger than spot2.");
}
System.out.println(spot1);
System.out.println(spot2);
}
}

224 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 The TestCircle application produces the output:

multiple interfaces A class can implement multiple interfaces. When more than one inter-
face is implemented, the interface names are separated by commas in the
class declaration.

Review: Disk
Modify the Disk class to implement the Comparable interface. Two disks are equal when they have the same
thickness and same radius. Modify the existing client code to test the new method.

Review: Puck – part 2 of 2

Modify the Puck class to implement the Comparable interface. Two pucks are the equal when they have the
same weight. Modify the existing client code to test the new method.

Review: Rectangle – part 4 of 5

Modify the Rectangle class to implement the Comparable interface. Two rectangles are the equal when they
have the same width and length. Modify the existing client code to test the new method.

Review: Rectangle – part 5 of 5

Create an interface named ComparableArea that contains one method named compareToArea(). This method
should return 0 when the object has the same area as another object, –1 should be returned when the object
has an area less than another object, and 1 returned otherwise.
Modify the Rectangle class to implement the ComparableArea interface as well as the Comparable interface
implemented in the previous review. Modify the existing client code to test the new method.

Chapter 9 Case Study

In this case study, a sales center application will be created. The sales
center has three employees, which include a manager and two associates.
The manager earns a salary and the associates are paid by the hour. The
owner of the sales center wants a computer application to display employee
information and calculate payroll.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 225

 SalesCenter Specification
The SalesCenter application stores information about three employees.
There is one manager (Diego Martin, salary $55,000), and two associates
(Kylie Walter earning $18.50 per hour and Michael Rose earning $16.75
per hour). SalesCenter should be able to display the name and title for
a specified employee. Additionally, the SalesCenter application should
calculate and display the pay for a specified employee based on the pay
argument entered by the user. The pay argument should correlate to hours
worked if the pay for an associate is to be calculated. The pay argument
for a manager should correlate to the number of weeks the manager is to
be paid for.
The SalesCenter interface should provide a menu of options. Depending
on the option selected, additional input may be needed. The SalesCenter
output sketch:

The SalesCenter algorithm:

1. Display a menu of options.
2. Prompt the user for a menu choice.
3. If the user has not selected to quit, prompt the user to specify
employee 1, 2, or 3.
4. Perform the action requested by the user.
5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 until the user has selected the option to
quit.

226 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 SalesCenter Code Design
The SalesCenter application can be modeled with objects for a man-
ager and two associates. The manager and associate objects are both
employee objects. Therefore, an Employee abstract class should be used
for subclasses Manager and Associate. The Employee class should define
an emplyee’s first and last name and include an abstract class for calcu-
lating pay. A manager’s pay is based on a pay period specified in weeks.
Associates are paid by the hour. The abstract pay() method in Employee
will have different implementations in Manager and Associate.
The SalesCenter class designs are:

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 227

 Based on the algorithm and the class designs, the SalesCenter code
design will include a loop. The pseudocode for the SalesCenter client code
follows:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.text.NumberFormat;

public class SalesCenter {

payEmployee(emp, payArg) {
System.out.println(emp);
pay = emp.pay(payArg);
System.out.println(pay);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Manager emp1 = new Manager("Diego","Martin", 55000);
Associate emp2 = new Associate("Kylie", "Walter", 18.50);
Associate emp3 = new Associate("Michael", "Rose", 16.75);
Employee emp = emp1; //default employee choice

/* display menu of choices */

do {
prompt user for employee/pay/quit
get user choice;

if (not quit) {
prompt user for employee number 1, 2, or 3
get empNum
switch (empNum) {
case 1: emp = emp1; break;
case 2: emp = emp2; break;
case 3: emp = emp3; break;
}
if (choice == employee) {
display employee name and title;
} else if (choice == pay) {
prompt user for hours or pay period;
payEmployee(emp, payArg);
}
}
} while (not quit);
}
}

SalesCenter Implementation
The SalesCenter implementation involves creating four files. Three files
are the classes and one file is the client code.

228 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

The Employee class is implemented below:
/**
* Employee class.
*/
abstract class Employee {
String firstName, lastName;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An employee has been created.
*/
public Employee(String fName, String lName) {
firstName = fName;
lastName = lName;
}

/**
* Returns the employee name.
* pre: none
* post: The employee name has been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
return(firstName + " " + lastName);
}

/**
* Returns the employee pay.
* pre: none
* post: The employee pay has been returned.
*/
abstract double pay(double period);
}

The Manager class is implemented below:

/**
* Manager class.
*/
class Manager extends Employee {
double yearlySalary;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A manager has been created.
*/
public Manager(String fName, String lName, double sal) {
super(fName, lName);
yearlySalary = sal;
}

/**
* Returns the manager salary.
* pre: none
* post: The manager salary has been returned.
*/
public double getSalary() {
return(yearlySalary);
}

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 229

 /**
* Returns the manager pay for a specified period.
* pre: none
* post: The manager pay for the specified period
* has been returned.
*/
public double pay(double weeks) {
double payEarned;

payEarned = (yearlySalary / 52) * weeks;

return(payEarned);
}

/**
* Returns the employee name and title.
* pre: none
* post: The employee name and title has been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
return(super.toString() + ", manager");
}
}

The Associate class is implemented below:

/**
* Associate class.
*/
class Associate extends Employee {
double hourlyPayRate;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An associate has been created.
*/
public Associate(String fName, String lName, double rate) {
super(fName, lName);
hourlyPayRate = rate;
}

/**
* Returns the associate pay rate.
* pre: none
* post: The associate pay rate has been returned.
*/
public double getRate() {
return(hourlyPayRate);
}

/**
* Returns the associate pay for the hours worked.
* pre: none
* post: The associate pay for the hours worked
* has been returned.
*/
public double pay(double hours) {
double payEarned;

payEarned = hourlyPayRate * hours;

return(payEarned);
}

230 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 /**
* Returns the employee name and title.
* pre: none
* post: The employee name and title has been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
return(super.toString() + ", associate");
}
}

The SalesCenter client code is implemented below:

import java.util.Scanner;
import java.text.NumberFormat;
public class SalesCenter {

/**
* Displays employee name and pay.
* pre: none
* post: Employee name and pay has been displayed
*/
public static void payEmployee(Employee emp, double payArg) {
NumberFormat money = NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance();
double pay;

System.out.println(emp);
pay = emp.pay(payArg);
System.out.println(money.format(pay));
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Manager emp1 = new Manager("Diego","Martin", 55000);
Associate emp2 = new Associate("Kylie", "Walter", 18.50);
Associate emp3 = new Associate("Michael", "Rose", 16.75);
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String action;
int empNum;
double payArg;
Employee emp = emp1; //set to default emp1

do {
System.out.println("\nEmployee\\Pay\\Quit");
System.out.print("Enter choice: ");
action = input.next();

if (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q")) {
System.out.print("Enter employee number (1, 2, or 3):");
empNum = input.nextInt();
switch (empNum) {
case 1: emp = emp1; break;
case 2: emp = emp2; break;
case 3: emp = emp3; break;
}
if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("E")) {
System.out.println(emp);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("P")) {
System.out.print("Enter the hours for associate or
pay period for manager: ");
payArg = input.nextDouble();
payEmployee(emp, payArg);
}
}
} while (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q"));
}
}

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 231

 The SalesCenter application generates output similar to:

SalesCenter Testing and Debugging

Client code should first be written to test each class. Testing should be
done for the client code.

Review: SalesCenter
Modify the SalesCenter application to compensate associates when they have worked more than 40 hours.
Associates should be paid their hourly wage when 40 or fewer hours are worked. However, associates earn
time and a half for hours over 40. For example, an associate paid $10 per hour will earn $300 for 30 hours of
work. However, an associate working 42 hours will earn $400 + $30, or $430. The overtime pay is calculated
as (hours over 40) * (1.5 * base hourly rate).

Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed inheritance and polymorphism, two key aspects
of object-oriented programming. Inheritance allows classes to be derived
from existing classes. By extending an existing class, there is less devel-
opment and debugging necessary. A class derived from an existing class
demonstrates an is-a relationship.
A superclass is also called a base class, and a subclass is called a derived
class. The keyword extends is used to create a derived class from a base
class. The keyword super is used to access members of a base class from
the derived class.
Polymorphism is the ability of an object to assume different types. In
OOP, polymorphism is based on inheritance. An object can assume the
type of any of its subclasses.
Abstract classes model abstract concepts. They cannot be instantiated
because they should not represent objects. An abstract class is intended
to be inherited.

232 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 Abstract classes may or may not contain abstract methods. An abstract
method is a method declaration with no implementation. If a class con-
tains one or more abstract methods, it must be declared abstract. Abstract
methods must be implemented in a class that inherits the abstract class.
An interface is a class that contains only abstract methods. An interface
can be implemented by a class, but it is not inherited. A class that imple-
ments an interface must implement each method in the interface. The
Comparable interface is part of the java.lang package and is used to add
a compareTo() method to classes that implement the interface.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 233

Vocabulary

Abstract class A class that models an abstract

concept. A class that contains one or more abstract
methods must be declared abstract.
Abstract method A method that has been declared,
but not implemented. Abstract methods appear in
abstract classes. They are implemented in a subclass
that inherits the abstract class.
Base class A superclass.
Derived class A subclass.
Inheritance The OOP property in which a class
can define a specialized type of an already exist-
ing class.
Interface A class with abstract methods. An inter-
face cannot be inherited, but it can be implemented
by any number of classes.
Is-a relationship The relationship demonstrated
by a class derived from an existing class.
Polymorphism The OOP property in which objects
have the ability to assume different types.

Java

abstract The keyword used for declaring a class

or a method as abstract.
Comparable A java.lang interface with the
compareTo() method that can be implemented in
classes to provide a means for an object to be com-
pared to another object of the same type.
extends The keyword used in a class declaration to
inherit another class.
interface The keyword used in a class declaration
to declare it an interface.
super The keyword used to call a superclass con-
structor or method.

234 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 Critical Thinking

1. Explain the difference between a has-a and is-a e) How does the implementation of doThis() in
relationship among classes. Roo affect the implementation of doThis() in
Bo?
2. If a base class has a public method go() and a f) What action does the statement super(1) in
derived class has a public method stop(), which Roo perform?
methods will be available to an object of the g) Can the doThis() method in Bo be called
derived class? from a Roo object? If so, how?
h) Can a method in Roo call the doThis()
3. Compare and contrast implementing an abstract method in Bo? If so, how?
method to overriding a method.
True/False
4. Compare and contrast an abstract class to an
interface. 7. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
5. List the method(s) contained in the Comparable a) Inheritance allows a class to define a special-
interface. ized type of an already existing class.
b) Classes that are derived from existing classes
6. Use the following classes to answer the questions demonstrate a has-a relationship.
below: c) A c l a s s c a n h ave o n ly o ne leve l of
inheritance.
interface Wo { d) A class that inherits another class includes
public int doThat();
the keyword i n h e r i t a n c e in the class
}
declaration.
public class Bo { e) When implementing a subclass, existing
private int x; methods i n the base class can be
public Bo(int z) { overridden.
x = z; f) Members of a base class that are declared
} private are accessible to derived classes.
g) Inherited methods are called directly from
public int doThis() { an object.
return(2);
h) Polymorphism is an OOP property in which
}
objects have the ability to assume different
public int doNow() { types.
return(15); i) Abstract classes can be instantiated.
} j) An abstract class must be implemented in its
} subclass.
public class Roo extends Bo implements Wo { k) An abstract method contains a method
declaration and a body.
public Roo {
super(1); l) Inheritance and abstraction allow a hierarchy
} of classes to be created.
m) An interface can be inherited.
public int doThis() { n) An interface can add behavior to a class.
return(10); o) The methods defined in an interface are pri-
}
vate by default.
private int doThat() { p) The Comparable interface contains three
return(20); methods.
}
}

a) What type of method is doThat() in Wo?

b) What is Wo?
c) Why is doThat() implemented in Roo?
d) List the methods available to a Roo object.

Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism 235

Exercises

Exercise 1 —————————————— UEmployee, Faculty, Staff

Create a UEmployee class that contains member variables for the university employee name and salary.
The UEmployee class should contain member methods for returning the employee name and salary.
Create Faculty and Staff classes that inherit the UEmployee class. The Faculty class should include
members for storing and returning the department name. The Staff class should include members for
storing and returning the job title.

Exercise 2 ———————— Account, PersonalAcct, BusinessAcct

Create PersonalAcct and BusinessAcct classes that inherit the Account class presented in Chapter 8.
A personal account requires a minimum balance of $100. If the balance falls below this amount, then
$2.00 is charged (withdrawn) to the account. A business account requires a minimum balance of $500,
otherwise the account is charged $10. Create client code to test the classes.

Exercise 3 ———————————— Vehicle, Car, Truck, Minivan

Create a Vehicle class that is an abstract class defining the general details and actions associated with
a vehicle. Create Car, Truck, and Minivan classes that inherit the Vehicle class. The Car, Truck, and
Minivan classes should include additional members specific to the type of vehicle being represented.
Create client code to test the classes.

236 Chapter 9 Inheritance and Polymorphism

 Chapter 10
Arrays

A rrays are used to implement many different kinds of algorithms.

This chapter explains how to create and use arrays. Searching arrays, two-
dimensional arrays, and the ArrayList class are also discussed. Arrays of
characters and Unicode are explained.

Declaring Arrays
An array is a structure that can store many of the same kind of data
together at once. For example, an array can store 20 integers, another
array can store 50 doubles, and a third array can store 100 objects, such as
Strings. Arrays are an important and useful programming concept because
they allow a collection of related values to be stored together with a single
descriptive name.
An array has a fixed length and can contain only as many data items
as its length allows:

array element An array element is one of the data items in an array. For example, in the
index array of Strings above, Roxy is an element. Each element has an index value,
with 0 being the index of the first item, 1 the index of the second item,
and so on. In the array above, Roxy is the fourth element in the array and
has the index value 3.
declaring and allocating An array must be declared and then space allocated for the elements of
space for an array the array. The statements for declaring an array and allocating space for
its elements take the form:
<type>[] <name>; //declare array
<name> = new <type>[<num>]; //allocate space for elements
TIP The [ ] bracke t s are
operators used for declaring The declaration includes the type followed by brackets ([]) to indicate an
and creating arrays and for array. The array name can be any valid identifier. The new operator allocates
accessing array elements. space for the number of elements indicated in brackets. The statements on
the next page declare an array and then prompt the user for the number
of elements:

Chapter 10 Arrays 237

 Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
TIP An array is an immutable int numFriends;
data structure, which cannot String[] friends; //declare array
be changed from its original
size. System.out.print("How many friends? ");
numfriends = input.nextInt();
friends = new String[numFriends]; //allocate space

If the size of the array is known when the application is written, then
the array can be created and space allocated for elements in one statement,
similar to:
String[] friends = new String[5]; //5 friends

initial array values When space has been allocated for the elements of an array, the array is
initialized to the default values for that element type. For example, each
element of an int array is automatically initialized to 0. An array of objects,
such as a String array, contains null for each element.

declaring and initializing A third way to create an array is to initialize it in the declaration.
Initializing an array means that a value is given for each element. In this
case, the length of the array is determined by the number of elements
between the curly braces:
String[] friends = {"Kermit", "Lucille", "Sammy", "Roxy", "Myah"};

Using Arrays
accessing an element An array element is accessed by including its index in brackets after
the array name. For example, the following statement displays the third
element:
System.out.println(friends[2]); //displays Sammy

changing an element An array element is changed through assignment. For example, the
assignment statement below changes the third element to “Sunshine”:
friends[2] = "Sunshine";

ArrayIndexOutOfBounds A run-time error is generated when an invalid index is used. For exam-
ple, the exception ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown when the
following statement tries to execute:
friends[5] = "Wilbur"; //ERROR! Generates an exception.

TIP length is a property, not The Array structure includes the length attribute, which can be used at
a method. Therefore, paren- run time to determine the length of an array:
theses should not follow its
name. numElements = friends.length; //5

A for statement is often used to access the elements of an array because

the loop control variable can be used as the array index. Accessing each
traversing element of an array is called traversing an array. For example, the following
statement displays each element of the friends array:
for (int i = 0; i < friends.length; i++) {
System.out.println(friends[i]);
}

Note that the loop iterates from 0 to one less than the length of the array
because length is a count of the elements, not the greatest index value.

238 Chapter 10 Arrays

 for-each statement Java also provides a type of for loop just for traversing an array.
Sometimes referred to as a for-each loop, the following statement displays
each element in the array:
TIP The for-each requires
JDK 5 or later. for (String element : friends) {
System.out.println(element);
}

The statement above is read “for each String element in friends.” It displays
the names in the array one after the other. Using a for-each loop to traverse
an array does not require a loop control variable. This type of for statement
helps prevent the exception ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
Although convenient at times, the modified for statement above cannot
be used in situations where the array index value is needed. One example
is when the elements of an array are to be accessed in reverse order.

Review: StudentRoster
Create a StudentRoster application that prompts the user for the number of students in the class and then
prompts the user for each student’s name and stores the names in an array. After all the names have been
entered, the application should display the title ”Student Roster” and then list the names in the array.

Review: Squares
Create a Squares application that stores the square of an element’s index in an integer array of 5 elements.
For example, the third element, which has index 2, should store 4. The application should then display the
value of each element in the array.

Review: Reverse
Create a Reverse application that stores the number corresponding to the element’s index in an integer array
of 10 elements. For example, the second element, which has index 1, should store 1. The application should
display the title “Countdown” and then list numbers stored in the array in reverse order.

Array Parameters
A method declaration can include array parameters. The array passed
to a method can be either an entire array or an element of the array. The
method below includes an array parameter. A second parameter, an int
parameter, corresponds to an element of the array:
public static void tryChanging(int[] numbers, int aNum) {
numbers[1] = 123;
aNum = 456;
}

Note that the data type followed by brackets indicates an array parameter,
similar to an array declaration.

Chapter 10 Arrays 239

 The statements below call the tryChanging() method shown on the
previous page:
int[] myNums = {5, 8, 3};
System.out.println(myNums[1] + " " + myNums[0]);
tryChanging(myNums, myNums[0]);
System.out.println(myNums[1] + " " + myNums[0]);

The statements produce the output:

An array is a reference data type similar to a class. Therefore, passing a

whole array to a method passes the reference to the elements, allowing the
method to access an element of the array and change its value. However,
because the elements of the array are a primitive data type, passing a single
element passes only the data stored, not a reference to the data location.

Arrays with Meaningful Indexes

Many algorithms make use of the index value of an array element for
simplifying the storage and retrievel of data. For example, a testScores
array with 101 elements indexed from 0 to 100 could store a count of all the
scores of 90 in the element with index 90, the count of scores 82 in element
82, and so on.
The DiceRolls application counts the frequency of dice roll outcomes.
A roll is simulated by generating two random numbers between 1 and
6. The outcome of each roll is then used to increment the counter in the
element at the index corresponding to the outcome. For example, if a 4 is
rolled, then the value at index 4 is incremented:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class DiceRolls {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] outcomes = new int[13];
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numRolls;
int outcome;

/* prompt user for number of rolls */

System.out.print("How many rolls? ");
numRolls = input.nextInt();

/* roll dice and add to outcomes */

for (int roll = 0; roll < numRolls; roll++) {
outcome = (int)(6 * Math.random() + 1)
+ (int)(6 * Math.random() + 1);
outcomes[outcome] += 1;
}

/* show counts of outcomes */

for (int i = 2; i <= 12; i++) {
System.out.println(i + ": " + outcomes[i]);
}
}
}

240 Chapter 10 Arrays

 The DiceRolls application displays output similar to:

In the DiceRolls application, the outcomes ranged from 2 through 12

making it possible to store counters at array indexes directly correspond-
ing to the outcomes. However, this approach for a range of years 1900
through 2000 would require an array of 2001 elements with only the last
100 elements in use. For ranges such as these, the solution is to store coun-
ters at offset array indexes. For example, for an outcome of 1900, a counter
at index 0 would be incremented. for an outcome of 1901, a counter at index
1 would be incremented, and so on.

offset array indexes To determine the array size when offset array indexes will be used,
subtract the low value from the high and add 1:
int[] counts;
counts = new int[HIGH - LOW + 1];

The following statement increments a counter stored at an offset index:

counts[value - LOW] += 1;

Review: DiceRolls – part 1 of 2

Modify the DiceRolls application to roll three dice.

Review: DiceRolls – part 2 of 2

The DiceRolls application is not written generically. The application has “hard-coded” data, including the
maximum random number in the nextInt() method and the initial and final values for i in the show counts
for loop. Modify the DiceRolls application to prompt the user for the number of sides on each die, the num-
ber of dice to be rolled, and the number of rolls to make. For example, a ten-sided die will show a number
between a 1 and a 10 on a roll. Rolling three ten-sided dice has the possible outcomes of 3 through 30.

Review: NumberCounts
Create a NumberCounts application that prompts the user for a number and then counts the occurrences of
each digit in that number.

Chapter 10 Arrays 241

 Characters and Arrays
Although strings are comprised of characters, a String object cannot
TIP The char data type was be manipulated as a set of characters. However, the string stored in a
introduced in Chapter 4. String object can be converted to a char array. Additionally, an individual
character of the String object can be converted to a char. The String class
methods for working with the characters in a string include:
Class String ( java.lang.String)
Method
charAt(int index)
returns a char value that corresponds to the
letter at position index.
toCharArray() returns the String object converted to a char
array.

charAt() The value returned by the charAt() method is a char data type. A char
data type represents a single character, such as a letter or symbol. The
toCharArray() toCharArray() method converts each character in the string to a char and
then assigns it to the appropriate element in an existing char array.
Letters of every alphabet and symbols of every culture have been given a
Unicode representation in a digital code called Unicode. Unicode uses a set of sixteen
1s and 0s to form a sixteen-bit binary code for each symbol. For example,
TIP Refer to Appendix A in the uppercase letter V is Unicode 00000000 01010110, which translates to
this text for more Unicode the base 10 number 86. Lowercase v has a separate code that translates to
symbols and their values. the base 10 number 118.
When a letter is assigned to a char variable, the variable actually stores
the Unicode representation of the letter. Uppercase letters from A to Z have
values from 65 through 90. Lowercase letters from a to z have values from
97 through 122. Because char is a primitive data type, char values can be
compared with relational operators, as the code below demonstrates:
char letter1, letter2;
letter1 = 'a';
letter2 = 'A'
if (letter1 > letter2) {
System.out.println("greater than") //greater than displayed
} else {
System.out.println("less than")
}

The CountLetters application counts the frequency of letters in a string.

Each letter in the string is first converted to uppercase and then the coun-
ter at the appropriate index is incremented. Since uppercase letters have a
range from 65 to 90 in Unicode, offset array indexes are used to determine
which element to update:
import java.util.Scanner;
public class CountLetters {
public static void main(String[] args) {
final int LOW = 'A'; //smallest possible value
TIP Assignment to a char vari- final int HIGH = 'Z'; //highest possible value
able requires single quotation int[] letterCounts = new int[HIGH - LOW + 1];
marks around the character. Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String word;
char[] wordLetters;
int offset; //array index

242 Chapter 10 Arrays

 /* prompt user for a word */
System.out.print("Enter a word: ");
word = input.nextLine();

/* convert word to char array and count letter occurrences */

word = word.toUpperCase();
wordLetters = word.toCharArray();
for (int letter = 0; letter < wordLetters.length; letter++) {
offset = wordLetters[letter] - LOW;
letterCounts[offset] += 1;
}

/* show letter occurrences */

for (int i = LOW; i <= HIGH; i++) {
System.out.println((char)i + ": " + letterCounts[i - LOW]);
}
}
}

Note the statements for creating a char array from a String object. First,
the char array wordLetters was declared. Later, wordLetters was initialized
using the toCharArray() method in the statement:
wordLetters = word.toCharArray();

The number of characters in the string determined the number of array

elements.

type casting Type casting was used in the last statement of the CountLetters applica-
tion ((char)i) to produce labels for the contents of the array. Casting the
int to a char produces the Unicode equivalent character for that number.

The CountLetters application produces output similar to:

Chapter 10 Arrays 243

Review: CountLetters
The CountLetters application is limited to counting letters in a single word. Modify the CountLetters
application to count the letters in an entire phrase, which contains spaces. Care must be taken to ignore the
spaces and any other non alphabetic character found in the phrase. Be sure to change comments and vari-
able names appropriately so that the reader of the application code understands that the letters in a phrase
are counted.

Review: NameBackwards
Create a NameBackwards application that prompts the user for his or her name and then displays the name
backwards.

Searching an Array
There are many ways to search an array for a specific value. The sim-
linear search plest searching algorithm is called linear search and works by proceeding
from one array element to the next until the specified value is found or
until the entire array has been searched. The Search class below contains
a linear() method that returns the index of a specified int element. If the
element is not found, then -1 is returned:
public class Search {

Algorithm Analysis /**

Algorithm analysis includes * Returns the index of the element numToFind.
* -1 returned if element not found.
measuring how efficiently an
* pre: none
algorithm performs its task.
* post: index of numToFind has been returned. -1 has been
A linear search sequentially
* returned if element not found.
checks each element of an array */
for a specified element. For an public static int linear(int[] array, int numToFind) {
array with n objects, finding an int index = 0;
element could take as many as
n checks. This measure can be while ((array[index] != numToFind) &&
written as O(n). This notation (index < array.length - 1)) {
is called Big Oh notation and index += 1;
is a theoretical measure of an }
algorithm’s efficiency.
if (array[index] == numToFind) {
return(index);
} else {
return(-1);
}
}
}

The condition of the while statement checks all but the last element of
the array, unless the search element is found earlier. If the while statement
completes without finding the element, the index value has been incre-
mented to the last index of the array. The if statement then checks the last
element of the array.

244 Chapter 10 Arrays

 The application below uses the linear() method to find an element in
the array:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class FindNum {

public static void main(String[] args) {

final int MAX = 20;
int[] numArray = new int[MAX];
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int num, location;

/* fill array with random numbers */

for (int i = 0; i < numArray.length; i++) {
numArray[i] = (int)((MAX + 1) * Math.random());
}

/* prompt user for a number to search for */

System.out.print("Enter a number between 0 and " + MAX
+ ": ");
num = input.nextInt();

/* Search for number and notify user of num location */

location = Search.linear(numArray, num);
if (location == -1) {
System.out.println("Sorry, number not found in array.");
} else {
System.out.println("First occurrence is element "
+ location);
}
}
}

The FindNum application output looks similar to:

Review: FindName
Add a static method to the Search class that performs a linear search on a String array. The linear() method
should overload the existing method, have parameters for accepting a String array and a String variable,
and return an int indicating the position of the String. Create a FindName application that uses the Search
class. FindName should prompt the user for names to fill an array and then prompt the user for the name
to find.

Two-Dimensional Arrays
An array with two dimensions can be used to represent data that cor-
responds to a grid. For example, a checkerboard, the streets in a city, and
seats in a theater can all be represented with a grid. A tic-tac-toe board
represented in a two-dimensional array can be visualized as shown on
the next page.

Chapter 10 Arrays 245

 A two-dimensional array with three rows (0, 1, and 2) and
three columns (0, 1, and 2) represents a tic-tac-toe board
declaration A two-dimensional array must be declared and then space allocated
for the elements of the array in statements that take the form:
<type>[][] <name>;
<name> = new <type>[<num>][<num>];

The declaration includes the type followed by two sets of brackets ([][]).
The array name can be any valid identifier. The new operator allocates space
for the number of elements indicated in brackets. For example, a tic-tac-toe
board could be created with the statement:
String[][] tttBoard = new String[3][3];

length The length property can be used to determine the number of rows and
columns in a two-dimensional array with two separate statements:
rows = tttBoard.length;
cols = tttBoard[0].length;

Note that the number of columns is determined by checking the length

of the first row.
accessing elements An element of a two-dimensional array is accessed by including the
indexes of the row and column in brackets after the array name. For
example, the following statement assigns the element in the second row,
third column the letter "X":
tttBoard[1][2] = "X";

nested for statements Nested for statements are often used to access the elements of a two-
dimensional array because one loop counter indicates the row and the
second counter indicates the column. For example, the following state-
ments display the contents of a two-dimensional array:
for(int row = 0; row < tttBoard.length; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < tttBoard[0].length; col++) {
System.out.print(tttBoard[row][col]);
}
System.out.println();
}

array parameter A method that requires a two-dimensional array parameter includes

the array data type followed by two sets of brackets ([][]).
The TicTacToe application allows two players to play a computerized
game of tic-tac-toe. The TTT class performs most of the work with private
methods. The client code simply instantiates a TTT object and then calls
the TTT object’s play() method. The client code implementation is shown
first and then the TTT class implementation:

246 Chapter 10 Arrays

 /**
* Tic-tac-toe is played.
*/

public class TicTacToe {

public static void main(String[] args) {

TTT TTTGame = new TTT();
TTTGame.play();
}
}

/**
* TTT class.
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

public class TTT {

private String[][] tttBoard;
private String player1, player2;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: tttBoard has been initialized.
* player1 is X and player2 is O.
*/
public TTT() {
player1 = "X";
player2 = "O";
tttBoard = new String[3][3];
for(int row = 0; row < tttBoard.length; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < tttBoard[0].length; col++) {
tttBoard[row][col] = " ";
}
}
}

/**
* Plays a game of tic-tac-toe with two users,
* keeping track of player (X or O) turns.
* player1 goes first.
* pre: none
* post: A game of tic-tac-toe has been played.
*/
public void play() {
String currPlayer = player1;
int movesMade = 0;

do {
displayBoard();
makeMove(currPlayer);
movesMade += 1;
if (currPlayer == player1){
currPlayer = player2;
} else {
currPlayer = player1;
}
} while (movesMade <= 9 && winner() == " ");
displayBoard();
System.out.println("Winner is " + winner());
}

Chapter 10 Arrays 247

 /**
* Displays the board.
* pre: none
* post: The tic-tac-toe board has been displayed.
*/
private void displayBoard() {
for(int row = 0; row < tttBoard.length; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < tttBoard[0].length; col++) {
System.out.print("[" + tttBoard[row][col] + "]");
}
System.out.println();
}
}

/**
* Prompt user for a move until a valid move has been made.
* pre: none
* post: A mark has been made in an empty tic-tac-toe
* board square.
*/
private void makeMove(String player) {
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
boolean validMove = false;
int row, col;

do {
System.out.print("Enter row number (0, 1, 2): ");
row = input.nextInt();
System.out.print("Enter column number (0, 1, 2): ");
col = input.nextInt();
if ((row >= 0 && row < tttBoard.length &&
col >= 0 && col < tttBoard[0].length) &&
tttBoard[row][col].equals(" ")) {
tttBoard[row][col] = player;
validMove = true;
} else {
System.out.println("Invalid move. Try again.");
}
} while (!validMove);
}

/**
* Determine winner. Return " " if no winner.
* pre: none
* post: X, O, or " " has been returned as the winner.
*/
private String winner() {

/* test rows */
for (int row = 0; row < tttBoard.length; row++) {
if (tttBoard[row][0].equals(tttBoard[row][1]) &&
tttBoard[row][1].equals(tttBoard[row][2]) &&
!(tttBoard[row][0].equals(" "))) {
return(tttBoard[row][0]);
}
}

248 Chapter 10 Arrays

 /* test columns */
for (int col = 0; col < tttBoard[0].length; col++) {
if (tttBoard[0][col].equals(tttBoard[1][col]) &&
tttBoard[1][col].equals(tttBoard[2][col]) &&
!(tttBoard[0][col].equals(" "))) {
return(tttBoard[0][col]);
}
}

/* test diagonal */
if (tttBoard[0][0].equals(tttBoard[1][1]) &&
tttBoard[1][1].equals(tttBoard[2][2]) &&
!(tttBoard[0][0].equals(" "))) {
return(tttBoard[0][0]);
}

/* test other diagonal */

if (tttBoard[0][2].equals(tttBoard[1][1]) &&
tttBoard[1][1].equals(tttBoard[2][0]) &&
!(tttBoard[0][2].equals(" "))) {
return(tttBoard[0][2]);
}
return(" ");
}
}

The TicTacToe application displays output similar to:

Chapter 10 Arrays 249

 The ArrayList Class
collection A collection is a group of related objects, or elements, that are stored
together as a single unit. An array is an example of a collection. Java also
collections framework contains a collections framework, which provides classes for implementing
collections. One such class is the ArrayList class, which includes methods
TIP The ArrayList class is a for adding and deleting elements and finding an element.
data structure. Data struc- Class ArrayList ( java.util.ArrayList)
tures are discussed further in
Chapter 14. Method
add(int index, element)
inserts element at index position of the array.
Existing elements are shifted to the next posi-
Data Structure Analysis tion up in the array.
Data structure analysis includes
add(element) adds element to the end of the array.
measuring the efficiency of a get(int index)
data structure’s operations. For returns the element at index position in the
example, adding an object to array.
the end of an ArrayList data
indexOf(obj)
structure requires a single
operation, which can be writ- returns the index of the first element matching
ten as O(1). However, adding obj using the equals() method of the object’s
an object to the beginning of class to determine equality between the ele-
the array requires all the exist- ment and the object.
ing objects first be moved up remove(int index)
one position. For an array with
removes the element at index position in the
n objects, adding an object to
array.
the front of the array requires n
operations, which can be writ- set(int index, element)
ten as O(n). This is a much less replaces the element at index position with
efficient operation. element.
size() returns the number of elements in the array.

dynamic array The ArrayList class implements a dynamic array. A dynamic array var-
ies in size during run time and is used in applications where the size
of an array may need to grow or shrink. An ArrayList object shifts ele-
ments up one position when a new element is added at a specific index.
Elements added to the end of the ArrayList do not move existing elements.
Removing an element from an ArrayList also shifts elements as necessary
to close the gap left by the removed element.
When using an ArrayList object, it is important to understand that only
objects, not primitive types, can be stored. Because the indexOf() method
compares its object parameter to each element of the array, it is important
equals() that the object’s class has an appropriately overridden equals() method.

generics Collections, such as ArrayList, make use of generics for communicating

to the compiler the type of data stored. For example, to declare an ArrayList
TIP Generics require JDK 5 of String objects, a statement using generics appears similar to:
or later.
ArrayList<String> myStrings = new ArrayList<String>();

type parameter The <String> part of the statement is a type parameter informing the com-
piler of what type of objects the ArrayList can contain. The type parameter
is read “of Type” or in this case “of String.”

250 Chapter 10 Arrays

 The following application creates an ArrayList object, adds elements,
removes an element, and then displays the remaining elements:
import java.util.ArrayList;

public class TestArrayList {

public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<String> myStrings = new ArrayList<String>();

myStrings.add("Kermit");
myStrings.add("Lucille");
myStrings.add("Sammy");
myStrings.add("Roxy");
myStrings.add("Myah");

myStrings.remove(3);
TIP The for-each statement for (String name : myStrings) {
is not a safe structure for find- System.out.println(name);
ing and removing elements }
from an ArrayList. }
}

The ArrayList declaration does not require an array size. An ArrayList

object grows and shrinks automatically as elements are added and
removed. The for-each statement traverses the ArrayList.
The TestArrayList application displays the output:

Wrapper Classes
Primitive data types cannot be directly stored in an ArrayList because
TIP Java also includes the the elements in an ArrayList must be objects. The Integer and Double
Character, Boolean, Byte, classes, provided with Java, are used to “wrap” primitive values in an
Short, Long, and Float wrap-
object. The Integer and Double wrapper classes include methods for com-
per classes.
paring objects and for returning, or “unwrapping”, the primitive value
stored by the object:
Class Integer ( java.lang.Integer)
Method
compareTo(Integer intObject)
returns 0 when the Integer object value is the
same as intObject. A negative int is returned
when the Integer object is less than intObject,
and a positive int is returned when the Integer
object is greater than intObject.
intValue() returns the int value of the Integer object.

Chapter 10 Arrays 251

 Class Double ( java.lang.Double)
Method
TIP The Integer and Double compareTo(Double doubleObject)
classes implement the
Comparable interface, intro- returns 0 when the Double object value is the
duced in Chapter 9. same as doubleObject. A negative int is returned
when the Double object is less than doubleObject,
and a positive int is returned when the Double
object is greater than doubleObject.
doubleValue() returns the double value of the Double object.

The Integer and Double wrapper classes are in the java.lang package.
Therefore applications do not require an import statement to use the
wrapper classes.
The DataArrayList application creates an ArrayList of Integer values,
compares the values, and then sums the elements:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class DataArrayList {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
Integer element, element1, element2;
int sum = 0;
numbers.add(new Integer(5));
numbers.add(new Integer(2));
/* compare values */
element1 = numbers.get(0);
element2 = numbers.get(1);
if (element1.compareTo(element2) == 0) {
System.out.println("The elements have the same value.");
} else if (element1.compareTo(element2) < 0) {
System.out.println("element1 value is less than element2.");
} else {
System.out.println("element1 value is greater than element2.");
}
/* sum values */
for (Integer num : numbers) {
element = num;
sum += element.intValue(); //use int value for sum
}
System.out.println("Sum of the elements is: " + sum);
}
}

In the first numbers.add() statement above, the new operator allocates

memory and returns a reference to the Integer object that stores the value
5. A second statement performs the same type of action to add another
Integer object to the ArrayList.
The values stored in the elements are compared using the compareTo()
method. Note that the elements are first assigned to Integer objects element1
and element2.
Finally, the for-each statement traverses the ArrayList elements and
sums their values. Each element must be “unwrapped” so that the int
value of each Integer object is used to update sum.

252 Chapter 10 Arrays

 The DataArrayList displays the output:

Review: HighestGrade
Create a HighestGrade application that prompts the user for five grades between 0 and 100 points and stores
the grades in an ArrayList. HighestGrade then traverses the grades to determine the highest grade and then
displays the grade along with an appropriate message.

Autoboxing and Auto-Unboxing

The use of primitives in an ArrayList requires additional code for
wrapping and unwrapping values. The extra code can quickly “clutter”
TIP Autoboxing and auto- an application making it harder to read. Remembering the syntax for
unboxing require JDK 5 or
later. wrapping and unwrapping could also lead to longer development times.
Autoboxing and auto-unboxing automatically wraps and unwraps primitives,
eliminating the need for the extra code. The DataArrayList2 application
creates an ArrayList of Integer values, compares the values, and then sums
the elements without the extra wrapper class code:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class DataArrayList2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
int element1, element2;
int sum = 0;
numbers.add(5); //autoboxing converts int 5 to Integer
numbers.add(2); //autoboxing converts int 2 to Integer
/* compare values */
element1 = numbers.get(0); //auto-unboxing converts to int
element2 = numbers.get(1); //auto-unboxing converts to int
if (element1 == element2) { //primitives will be compared
System.out.println("The elements have the same value.");
} else if (element1 < element2) {
System.out.println("element1 value is less than element2.");
} else {
System.out.println("element1 value is greater than element2.");
}
/* sum values */
for (Integer num : numbers) {
sum += num; //uses int value for sum
}
System.out.println("Sum of the elements is: " + sum);
}
}

The code above is cleaner and easier to understand. Autoboxing wraps,

or boxes, a number in its appropriate wrapper class. Auto-unboxing calls
the appropriate wrapper class method to unwrap, or unbox, the value
stored in a wrapper class object.

Chapter 10 Arrays 253

Chapter 10 Case Study
In this case study, a bank application will be created. A bank can open
TIP A Bank application was new accounts, modify existing accounts, and close accounts. An account
also developed in Chapter 8.
has a number associated with it, and transactions, such as deposits and
withdrawals, require the account number.

LocalBank Specification
The LocalBank application allows accounts to be opened, modified,
and closed. Each account has a unique account number, which is required
for all transactions. Transactions include deposits and withdrawals. An
account balance can also be checked.
The LocalBank interface should provide a menu of options. Depending
on the option selected, additional input may be needed. When a transac-
tion is performed, updated account information should be displayed. The
LocalBank output sketch:

The LocalBank algorithm:

1. Display a menu of options.
2. Prompt the user for a menu choice.
3. For all options except the option to add an account, prompt the
user for an account number.
4. Perform the action requested by the user on the account with the
number entered. If the user requested to create a new account, then
add an account and display the new account’s number.
5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 until the user has selected the option to
quit.

254 Chapter 10 Arrays

 LocalBank Code Design
The LocalBank application can be modeled with a Bank object, Account
objects, and Customer objects. The Bank object should store the accounts,
add and remove accounts, and perform transactions that also display
updated account information. A transaction requires finding the correct
account. The Account objects should store the current balance, make
deposits, make withdrawals, and return the current balance and account
ID. An Account object must also have an equals() method for the Bank
object to use when finding an account. The Customer objects should store
the account holder’s name. The Bank object will display account infor-
mation, therefore, the Account and Customer objects will override the
toString() methods.
The LocalBank class designs are:

Chapter 10 Arrays 255

 The Account and Customer class designs are similar to the classes devel-
oped in Chapter 8. In the real world, the existing classes would probably
be reused for the LocalBank application. The modularity of OOP makes
programming more efficient and less error-prone. For this case study,
simplified classes will be developed and used for the application.
Based on the algorithm and the class designs, the LocalBank code
design will include a loop. The pseudocode for the LocalBank client code
follows:
Bank easySave = new Bank();
do {
prompt user for transaction type

if (add account) {
easySave.addAccount();
} else if (not Quit) {
prompt user for account ID;
if (deposit) {
prompt user for deposit amount
easySave.transaction(make deposit, acctID, amt);
} else if (withdrawal) {
prompt user for withdrawal amount
easySave.transaction(make withdrawal, acctID, amt);
} else if (check balance) {
easySave.checkBalance(acctID);
} else if (remove account) {
easySave.deleteAccount(acctID);
}
}
} while (not quit);

LocalBank Implementation
The LocalBank implementation involves creating four files. Three files
are the classes and one file is the client code.
The Bank class is implemented below:
/**
* Bank class.
*/

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Scanner;

256 Chapter 10 Arrays

public class Bank {
private ArrayList<Account> accounts;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: accounts has been initialized.
*/
public Bank() {
accounts = new ArrayList<Account>();
}

/**
* Adds a new account to the bank accounts.
* pre: none
* post: An account has been added to the bank's accounts.
*/
public void addAccount() {
Account newAcct;
double bal;
String fName, lName;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("First name: ");
fName = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Last name: ");
lName = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Beginning balance: ");
bal = input.nextDouble();

newAcct = new Account(bal, fName, lName); //create acct object

accounts.add(newAcct); //add account to bank accounts

System.out.println("Account created. Account ID is: " + newAcct.getID());

}

/**
* Deletes an existing account.
* pre: none
* post: An existing account has been deleted.
*/
public void deleteAccount(String acctID) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch;
acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);
acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
accounts.remove(acctIndex); //remove account
System.out.println("Account removed.");
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}

Chapter 10 Arrays 257

 /**
* Performs a transaction on an existing account. A transCode of 1 is for deposits
* and a transCode of 2 is for withdrawals.
* pre: transCode is 1 or 2.
* post: A transaction has occurred for an existing account.
*/
public void transaction(int transCode, String acctID, double amt) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch, acct;

acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);

acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
acct = accounts.get(acctIndex); //retrieve object to modify
if (transCode == 1) {
acct.deposit(amt);
accounts.set(acctIndex, acct); //replace object with updated object
System.out.println(acct);
} else if (transCode == 2) {
acct.withdrawal(amt);
accounts.set(acctIndex, acct); //replace object with updated object
System.out.println(acct);
}
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}

/**
* Displays the account information, including the current balance,
* for an existing account.
* pre: none
* post: Account information, including balance, has been displayed.
*/
public void checkBalance(String acctID) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch, acct;

acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);

acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
acct = accounts.get(acctIndex); //retrieve object to display
System.out.println(acct);
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}
}

In the deleteAccount() and transaction() methods, a new Account object

is created for the purposes of finding the account to delete or modify. The
new Account object is instantiated with just the acctID and then this object
is passed to the indexOf() method of the ArrayList class. The indexOf()
method searches the ArrayList and automatically invokes the equals()
method of the Account class to determine equality. The Account class is
implemented below. Note that the equals() method requires only that the
account numbers of two object match to be considered equal:

258 Chapter 10 Arrays

/**
* Account class.
*/

import java.text.NumberFormat;

public class Account {

private double balance;
private Customer cust;
private String acctID;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An account has been created. Balance and
* customer data has been initialized with parameters.
*/
public Account(double bal, String fName, String lName) {
balance = bal;
cust = new Customer(fName, lName);
acctID = fName.substring(0,1) + lName;
}

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An empty account has been created with the specified account ID.
*/
public Account(String ID) {
balance = 0;
cust = new Customer("", "");
acctID = ID;
}

/**
* Returns the account ID.
* pre: none
* post: The account ID has been returned.
*/
public String getID() {
return(acctID);
}

/**
* Returns the current balance.
* pre: none
* post: The account balance has been returned.
*/
public double getBalance() {
return(balance);
}

/**
* A deposit is made to the account.
* pre: none
* post: The balance has been increased by the amount of the deposit.
*/
public void deposit(double amt) {
balance += amt;
}

Chapter 10 Arrays 259

 /**
* A withdrawal is made from the account if there is enough money.
* pre: none
* post: The balance has been decreased by the amount withdrawn.
*/
public void withdrawal(double amt) {
if (amt <= balance) {
balance -= amt;
} else {
System.out.println("Not enough money in account.");
}
}

/**
* Returns a true when objects have matching account IDs.
* pre: none
* post: true has been returned when the objects are equal,
* false returned otherwise.
*/
public boolean equals(Object acct) {
Account testAcct = (Account)acct;
if (acctID.equals(testAcct.acctID)) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the Account object.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the Account object has been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String accountString;
NumberFormat money = NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance();

accountString = acctID + "\n";

accountString += cust.toString();
accountString += "Current balance is " + money.format(balance);
return(accountString);
}
}

The Account class has two constructors. The second constructor is used
in the deleteAccount() and transaction() methods of the Bank class for the
purposes of finding the index of the account matching the given account
ID.
The Customer class is implemented on the next page:

260 Chapter 10 Arrays

/**
* Customer class.
*/

public class Customer {

private String firstName, lastName;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Customer object has been created.
* Customer data has been initialized with parameters.
*/
public Customer(String fName, String lName) {
firstName = fName;
lastName = lName;
}

/**
* Returns a String that represents the Customer object.
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the Customer object has
* been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String custString;

custString = firstName() + " " + lastName() + "\n";

return(custString);
}
}

The LocalBank client code is implemented below:

/**
* A bank where accounts can be opened or closed and customers can
* make transactions.
*/

import java.util.Scanner;

public class LocalBank {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Bank easySave = new Bank();
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String action, acctID;
Double amt;

/* display menu of choices */

do {
System.out.println("\nDeposit\\Withdrawal\\Check balance");
System.out.println("Add an account\\Remove an account");
System.out.println("Quit\n");
System.out.print("Enter choice: ");
action = input.next();

Chapter 10 Arrays 261

 if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("A")) {
easySave.addAccount();
} else if (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q")) {
System.out.print("Enter account ID: ");
acctID = input.next();
if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("D")) {
System.out.print("Enter deposit amount: ");
amt = input.nextDouble();
easySave.transaction(1, acctID, amt);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("W")) {
System.out.print("Enter withdrawal amount: ");
amt = input.nextDouble();
easySave.transaction(2, acctID, amt);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("C")) {
easySave.checkBalance(acctID);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("R")) {
easySave.deleteAccount(acctID);
}
}
} while (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q"));
}
}

Running the LocalBank application displays output similar to:

It was possible to create the LocalBank application with fewer classes.

However, by breaking the application into discrete objects, it will be
easier to later extend the classes to enhace the client code. For example,
an account can easily be extended to include an account holder’s address
by modifying, or extending, the Customer class. Then, only the first con-
structor of the Account class will need to be modified to handle additional
parameters for creating a Customer object.

262 Chapter 10 Arrays

 LocalBank Testing and Debugging
When a new class is written, client code should be written to test the
class. Each class should be tested first and then the client code.

Review: LocalBank
Modify the Bank class to prompt the user for a full address (street, city, state, and zip) when an account is
opened. Modify the Customer class to include street, city, state, and zip variable members and changeStreet(),
changeCity(), changeState(), and changeZip() method members. Modify the Customer toString() method
to display complete customer information. Modify the Account class to include a changeAddress() method
member. Modify the Bank class to include a modifyAccount() method member that requires a parameter
for the account ID. modifyAccount() should prompt the user for the new street, city, state, and zip for the
account, find the account with the matching account ID, and then overwrite the existing account object with
the object containing the updated information.

Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed arrays as a structure for storing many of the
same kind of data together at once. A data item stored by an array is called
an element. An element has an index value and is accessed by using the
index inside of [] brackets along with the array name. A for statement and
the for-each statement can be used to access all the elements of an array.
Accessing the elements of an array is called traversing the array. When
the index of an element is needed, the for statement should be used.
An array can be passed to a method as a parameter and is a reference
data type. Passing a single element passes the data stored, not a reference
to the data location.
Many algorithms make use of the array index values for simplifying the
storage and retrieval of data. Offset array indexes are used when a range
should be shifted to correlate to a lower range of index values.
A String can be converted to an array of characters so that individual
characters can be manipulated. Unicode is the standard for numeric rep-
resentation of every letter and symbol in use.
The linear search is an algorithm for searching an array where each ele-
ment is checked one after the other until the desired element is found.
Two-dimensional arrays represent data that corresponds to a grid. The
number of rows in an existing two-dimensional array corresponds to the
length of the array. The number of columns corresponds to the length of
the first row. Elements in a two-dimensional array are accessed by using
a double bracket ([][]) along with the array name.
The ArrayList class is used for storing a collection of objects. Methods
are used for accessing and retrieving elements and for determining the
number of elements in the collection. An ArrayList object is a dynamic
array, which can vary in size at run time. Because an ArrayList can store
only objects, wrapper classes are used to convert primitives to objects.
Autoboxing and auto-unboxing reduces the clutter of wrapper classes.

Chapter 10 Arrays 263

Vocabulary

Array A structure that can store many of the same Generics Used for communicating to the compiler
kind of data together at once. the type of data stored in an ArrayList.

ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException An exception Index The value associated with an element in an

thrown when an invalid array index is used. array. Index values begin at 0 and count up.

Autoboxing The process in which a primitive is Linear search An algorithm for searching an array
automatically converted to a wrapper class object. in which each element of the array is checked one
after the other.
Auto-unboxing The process in which a primitive
is automatically extracted from a wrapper class Traversing Iterating through element of an array.
object.
Type parameter The part of an ArrayList statement
Collection A group of related elements that are that informs the compiler of what type of objects the
stored together as a single unit. ArrayList can contain, for example, <String>.

Collections framework Classes for implementing Unicode The sixteen-bit digital code used to
collections. represent every letter and symbol.

Dynamic array An array that varies in size at run Wrapper class A class that wraps primitive values
time. in an object.

Element A data item in an array.

Java

[] The operators for accessing an array element.

ArrayList A java.util class with methods for imple-

menting a dynamic array.
Double A java.lang class for wrapping double values
in an object.
for A statement that can be used to traverse an array.
In one form, it is referred to as a for-each loop and
does not use a counter variable.
Integer A java.lang class for wrapping int values
in an object.
new Operator that allocates space for the elements
in an array.
String A java.lang class with methods for convert-
ing a string to a set of characters or for inspecting
individual characters of a string.

264 Chapter 10 Arrays

 Critical Thinking

1. What index value does the third element of an 13. a) Explain the process of autoboxing and give
array have? an example.
b) Explain the process of auto-unboxing and
2. Write the declaration for an array named give an example.
quantities that stores 20 integers. c) What are the advantages of autoboxing and
auto-unboxing?
3. Write a declaration for an array named heights
storing the numbers 1.65, 2.15, and 4.95. True/False

4. Write a for-each statement that displays the inte- 14. Determine if each of the following are true or
ger values stored in an array named grades. false. If false, explain why.
a) All data in an array has the same data
5. a) Write an algorithm for inserting data into an type.
array so that existing data is moved up one b) Index values always begin at 0.
position to make room for the new data. c) The statement int[] empNums = new int[10]
b) Write an algorithm for deleting data from an declares an array with 10 elements.
array so that existing data is moved to close d) In the statement int[] empNums = new int[10],
the gap made by the deleted data. the elements are automatically initialized to
1.
6. How does passing an entire array to a method e) An entire array can be passed to a method.
differ from passing a single element of the f) The method toCharArray() converts a String
array? object to a char array.
g) A linear search never searches an entire
7. Why are offset array indexes required in some array.
cases. h) The statement int[][] grid = new int[4][4]
declares a total of eight elements.
8. What output is displayed by the statements i) In Unicode, uppercase letters have higher
below? base 10 number values than lowercase
letters.
String name = "Elaine"; j) The size of an array can change during the
System.out.println(name.charAt(3));
execution of a program.
k) The ArrayList class implements a dynamic
9. Compare and contrast an array to an ArrayList
array.
by describing the differences between the two
l) Primitive data types can be stored directly
for:
in an ArrayList.
a) accessing an element.
b) adding an element.
c) deleting an element.
d) assigning a new value to an element.
e) determining the size of the collection.

10. Give an example of when a dynamic array might

be a better structure choice over an array.

11. How does the ArrayList indexOf() method

determine equality between the object passed
to the method and an element in the array?

12. How can the values of wrapper class objects be

compared?

Chapter 10 Arrays 265

Exercises

Exercise 1 —————————————————— EvensAndOdds

Create an EvensAndOdds application that generates 25 random integers between 0 and 99 and then
displays all the evens on one line and all the odds on the next line. Application output should look
similar to:

Exercise 2 —————————————————— GeneratedNums

Create a GeneratedNums application that generates the number to store in an array element by sum-
ming its index and the individual digits of the index. For example, the element with index 17 should
store 25 (17 + 1 + 7 = 25) and the element with index 2 should store 4 (2 + 0 + 2 = 4). GeneratedNums
should use an array with 101 elements and then display the value at each element. Application output
should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ———————————————————— RandomStats

Create a RandomStats application that generates 500 random numbers between 0 and 9 and then dis-
plays the number of occurrences of each number. Application output should look similar to:

266 Chapter 10 Arrays

Exercise 4 —————————————————————— Analysis
A program that analyzes a set of numbers can be very useful. Create an Analysis application that
prompts the user for numbers in the range 1 through 50, terminated by a sentinel, and then performs
the following analysis on the numbers:
• Determine the average number
• Determine the maximum number
• Determine the range (maximum – minimum)
• Determine the median (the number that occurs the most often)
• Displays a bar graph called a histogram that shows the numbers in each five-unit
range (1–5, 6–10, 11-15, etc.). The histogram may look similar to:

Exercise 5 ———————————————————— Mastermind

The game of Mastermind is played as follows: One player (the code maker) chooses a secret arrange-
ment of colored pegs and the other player (the code breaker) tries to guess it. For each guess, the code
breaker puts forth an arrangement of colored pegs, and the code maker reports two numbers:
1. The number of pegs that are the correct color and in the correct position.
2. The number of pegs that are the correct color regardless of whether they are in the
correct position.
Create a Mastermind application that plays the game of Mastermind with the computer as the code
maker and the user as the code breaker. The application should use a MastermindGame class, which has
a constructor with parameters for the number of pegs in the code (1 to 10) and the number of colors for
the pegs (1 to 9). The secret code generated by a MastermindGame object can contain duplicate colors.
For example, a 5-peg code could be 1 2 2 5 6. A guess with duplicates will require extra attention when
counting the number of pegs of the correct color. For example, if the code is 1 2 3 4 5 6 and the guess
is 2 1 1 2 2 2, then the MastermindGame object should only report two correct colors (a single 1 and a
single 2). Application output should look similar to:

Chapter 10 Arrays 267

Exercise 6 —————————————————————— Lockers
Create a Lockers application that simulates a progressive cycle of closing and opening every nth locker
in a hall of 100 lockers, with n starting at the 2nd locker and continuing through to the 100th locker. The
application should represent the locker status (opened or closed) as a boolean array with true represent-
ing opened. When the application first starts, all of the lockers should be open—the array initialized
to all true values. First, the status of every 2nd locker should be switched (if it is open then close it and
if it is closed, open it). Then, the status of every 3rd locker should be switched. Continue this process
for every 4th through the 100th locker. Display the concluding locker statuses.

Exercise 7 ———————————————————— WordGuess

Modify the WordGuess case study from Chapter 6 to keep track of the letters guessed in an array
with meaningful indexes. Have WordGuess display a message to the user if a letter has already been
guessed.

Exercise 8 ———————————————————— Palindrome

Create a Palindrome application that prompts the user for a string and then displays a message
indicating whether or not the string is a palindrome. A palindrome is a word or phrase that is spelled
the same backwards and forwards. For example, “mom” is a palindrome, as well as “kayak” and
“Never odd or even”.

268 Chapter 10 Arrays

Exercise 9 ————————————————— CountConsonants
Create a CountConsonants application that prompts the user for a string and then displays the number
of consonants in the string. Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 10 ——————————————————————— Coder

Create a Coder application that prompts the user for a string and then displays an encoded string.
The encoding should add 2 to the Unicode value of each letter to create a new letter. The application
should keep all spaces between the words in their original places and the letters y and z should
be converted to a and b, respectively. Coder application output should look similar to:

Exercise 11 ———————————————————— SortedArray

An array is said to be sorted if its elements are in either increasing or decreasing order. One way the
selection sort algorithm works is by repeatedly taking the lowest element from an array and adding it
to a new array, so that all the elements in the new array are sorted from lowest to highest.

Create a SelectionSort class with a constructor that has an int array parameter, member variables
originalArray and sortedArray, public method display() that displays the contents of the sorted array,
private methods sort() that populates a new array with the elements of the original array in order from
lowest to highest, and findLowest() that returns the index of the element containing the lowest value.
Hint: Since elements of an array cannot actually be “removed” an element can be set to a very high
value after determining its value is the lowest.

Create client code SortedArray, which tests the SelectionSort class. Use the pseudocode below when
implementing the SortedArray client code:
int[] myNums;
SelectionSort sortedArray;

prompt user for the number of values to populate array with

myNums = new int[values];
populate array with random integers between 0 and 100
display contents of original array

sortedArray = new SelectionSort(myNums);

sortedArray.display();

Exercise 12 ——————————————————— CourseGrades

Create a CourseGrades application that simulates a grade book for a class with 12 students that each have
5 test scores. The CourseGrades application should use a GradeBook class that has member variables
grades, which is a two-dimensional array or integers, and methods getGrades() for prompting the user
for the test grades for each student, showGrades() that displays the grades for the class, studentAvg()
that has a student number parameter and then returns the average grade for that student, and testAvg()
that has a test number parameter and then returns the average grade for that test.

Chapter 10 Arrays 269

Exercise 13 ————————————————————— PennyPitch
The Penny Pitch game is popular in amusement parks. Pennies are tossed onto a board that has certain
areas marked with different prizes. For example:

The prizes available on this board are puzzle, game, ball, poster, and doll. At the end of the game, if all
of the squares that say BALL are covered by a penny, the player gets the ball. This is also true for the
other prizes. The board is made up of 25 squares (5 x 5). Each prize appears on three randomly chosen
squares so that 15 squares contain prizes.

Create a PennyPitch application that displays a Penny Pitch board (use [ and ] to indicate squares) with
prizes randomly placed and then simulates ten pennies being randomly pitched onto the board. After
the pennies have been pitched, the application should display a message indicating which prizes have
been won, it any.

Exercise 14 ———————————————————————— Life

The Game of Life was devised by mathematician John Conway in 1970. It models a very simple world.
The Life world is a two-dimensional plane of cells. Each cell may be empty or contain a single creature.
Each day, creatures are born or die in each cell according to the number of neighboring creatures on
the previous day. A neighbor is a cell that adjoins the cell either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.
The rules in pseudocode style are:
if (the cell is alive on the previous day) {
if (the number of neighbors was 2 or 3) {
the cell remains alive
} else {
the cell dies
}
} else if (the cell is not alive on the previous day) {
if (the number of neighbors was exactly 3) {
the cell becomes alive
} else {
the cell remains dead
}
}

For example, the world displayed as:

0000000000
0000000000
000XXX0000
0000000000
0000000000
0000000000

where X’s indicate living cells, becomes:

0000000000
0000X00000
0000X00000
0000X00000
0000000000
0000000000

270 Chapter 10 Arrays

 Create a Life application that has a 20 x 20 grid. To initialize the grid, the application should prompt the
user for the coordinates of live cells on the first day. The application should then generate each day’s
world as long as the user wishes to continue or until there are no more live cells.

Exercise 15 —————————————————————— Mankala

The game of Mankala is played on a board like that illustrated below:

Players sit on opposite sides with the large bin to a player’s right designated her home bin. On a turn,
a player selects one of the six pits to remove the stones from and then “sows” the stones counterclock-
wise around the board, placing one stone in each pit including the player’s home bin (but excluding
the opponent’s home bin). If the last stone lands in the player’s home bin, the player gets another turn.
If the last stone lands in an empty pit on the player’s side of the board, the player takes all stones in
the corresponding pit on the opponent’s side and places them in the player’s home bin. When a player
cannot play, the game is over and all stones remaining in the opponent’s pits go to the opponent’s home
bin. The winner is the player with the most stones in the player’s home bin at the end of the game.

For example, if the bottom player plays first and chooses the fourth pit to play from, the board
looks like:

Since the last stone landed in the player’s home bin, the player takes nother turn. The player may
choose the first pit this time in order to capture the opponent’s stones:

The player’s turn is now over, and the opponent now has a turn.

Create a Mankala application. The application should use simple characters to illustrate the board,
and letters to identify the pits, similar to that shown below:
3 3 3 3 3 3
0 0
3 3 3 3 3 3
A B C D E F

Chapter 10 Arrays 271

Exercise 16 ————————————————————— Inventory
Create an Inventory application that keeps track of the inventory for a sports store. Each item has a
stock number, with the first item having a stock number of 1000. The second item has a stock number
1001, the third has stock number 1002, and so on. Along with a stock number, each item has an item
name and an amount in stock. New items can be added to the inventory at any time. When added, the
item stock number is generated and displayed to the user. Discontinued items should not be deleted
from the inventory, but rather their item name should be changed to “discontinued” and the amount
in stock should be decreased to 0. The Inventory application should use an ArrayList for maintaining
the inventory and application output should display a menu of choices, which allow for adding an item,
discontinuing an item, and displaying the amount in stock for an item.

272 Chapter 10 Arrays

 Chapter 11
GUIs and Event-Driven
Programming

S wing is a Java package that provides a set of classes for creating

graphical user interfaces (GUIs). This chapter explains how to use the
basic Swing components to create applications with a GUI. Components
covered in this chapter include frames, panels, labels, buttons, combo
boxes, and text fields.

What is a GUI?
A GUI is a graphical user interface (sometimes pronounced “gooey”). An
TIP The applications created application written for the Microsoft Windows or Mac OSX Tiger operating
prior to this chapter had a text- system typically has a GUI. The GUI below includes a frame, also called
based, or console, interface. a window, and a label:

Not only does a GUI use components such as frames, buttons, and
text fields to communicate with the user, but GUIs are event-driven. An
event-driven application event-driven application executes code in response to events. An event is an
interaction from the user, such as a button click. A GUI responds to an
event handler event by executing a method called an event handler. For example, when
the user clicks a button, the application must be able to determine which
button was clicked and then execute the code that relates to that button.

The Swing Package

The Swing API is part of the Java Foundation Classes (JFC) and contains
numerous components for creating GUIs. This chapter focuses on the
javax.swing javax.swing package. Two classes in this package are JFrame and JLabel.
frame The JFrame class is used to instantiate a frame. A frame is a window with
a border, title, and buttons for minimizing, maximizing, and closing the
container, content frame frame. A frame is a top-level container for a GUI, which holds and displays
all the other components of an interface in a content frame. One of the most
labels common components in a content frame is a label. Labels, created with the
JLabel class, are used to display text that cannot be changed by the user.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 273

 The swing package includes the JFrame class with the following
methods:
Class JFrame ( javax.swing.JFrame)
Method
setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(boolean)
sets the frames created after this class method
is called to have Java Window decorations, such
as borders and a title, when the boolean argu-
ment is true.
setDefaultCloseOperation(class _ constant)
sets the operation that occurs when the user
clicks the Close button. The class _ constant
argument is usually JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE.
getContentPane()
returns a Container object corresponding to the
content pane.
setContentPane(Container contentPane)
sets the content pane to conte nt P a ne . The
Container class is the superclass for the JPanel
class, a class for creating content panes.
pack() sizes the frame so that all of its contents are at
or above their preferred sizes.
setVisible(boolean)
displays the frame when the boolean argument
is true.

JPanel content pane A JFrame object uses a content pane to hold GUI components. A JPanel
object is one choice for a simple content pane. The JPanel class includes
the following methods for adding and removing components:
Class JPanel ( javax.swing.JPanel)
Method
add(Component GUIcomponent)
adds a GUIcomponent to the content pane. When
added, components are given an index value,
with the first component at index 0.
remove(int index)
removes the component with index value
index.

After adding components to the JPanel object, the content frame is added
to the JFrame object using the JFrame setContentPane() method described
above.
The swing package includes the JLabel class for creating labels that
can be added to a content pane. JLabels have several constructors, two of
which are described, in addition to the setText() method:

274 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Class JLabel ( javax.swing.JLabel)
Constructor/Method
JLabel(String str)
creates a JLabel object with text str.
JLabel(String str, align _ constant)
creates a JLabel object with text str and align-
ment align _ constant that can be set to JLabel
class constants LEADING or TRAILING, which are
left and right alignment, respectively.
setText(String str)
sets the text of the JLabel object to str.

The HelloWorldWithGUI1 application creates a frame and a content

pane, adds the content pane to the frame, and then displays the frame:
import javax.swing.*;

TIP The HelloWorldWithGUI1 public class HelloWorldWithGUI1 {

application output is shown on final static String LABEL _ TEXT = "Hello, world!";
the first page of this chapter. JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JLabel label;

public HelloWorldWithGUI1(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("HelloWorldWithGUI");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane */

contentPane = new JPanel();

/* Create and add label */

label = new JLabel(LABEL _ TEXT);
contentPane.add(label);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

/**
* Create and show the GUI.
*/
private static void runGUI() {
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

HelloWorldWithGUI1 greeting = new HelloWorldWithGUI1();

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* Methods that create and show a GUI should be
run from an event-dispatching thread */
javax.swing.SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
public void run() {
runGUI();
}
});
}
}

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 275

 The implementation of a Swing application is different from previous
applications presented in this text. The controlling class contains a con-
structor and members in addition to the main() method. Therefore, the
controlling class is actually used to instantiate an object, which imple-
ments the GUI.
The statement in the main() method runs the GUI from an event-
thread dispatching thread. A thread is simply a process that runs sequentially
from start to finish. GUIs should be invoked from an event-dispatching
thread to ensure that each event-handler finishes executing before the
next one executes. Thorough coverage of this topic is beyond the scope
of this text. However, the code shown is needed in every application that
implements a Swing GUI.

Review: Name – part 1 of 2

Create a Name application that displays your name in a label inside a JFrame.

The JButton Class

A button is a commonly used GUI component. A button can be clicked
by the user to communicate with the application. For example, the
HelloWorldWithGUI2 application includes a button that when clicked
either hides or displays text in the label:

The swing package includes the JButton class for creating buttons:
Class JButton ( javax.swing.JButton)
Method
JButton(String str)
creates a JButton object displaying the text
str.
setActionCommand(String cmd)
sets the name of the action performed when the
button is clicked to cmd .
getActionCommand()
returns the name of the action that has been
performed by the button.
addActionListener(Object)
adds an object that listens for the user to click
this component.

Unlike a JLabel, a JButton can respond to interaction from the user.

276 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Handling Events
Swing components use listeners to determine if an event has occurred. A
listener listener is an object that listens for action events. When an event is heard, the
listener responds by executing an event handler named actionPerformed().
The actionPerformed() method has an ActionEvent parameter passed by
the GUI when an event occurs. The ActionEvent object includes an action
action command command. An action command is a string describing an event, or action.
The HelloWorldWithGUI2 application output is shown in the previous
section. When the Hide button is clicked, the application GUI changes to
display:

The HelloWorldWithGUI2 application code is below. For this GUI, a

JButton is created, the JButton action command is set, and the current
object is the listener for JButton action events. Note the use of the keyword
this this for the listener object to indicate the HelloWorldWithGUI2 object
itself:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*

public class HelloWorldWithGUI2 implements ActionListener {

final static String LABEL _ TEXT = "Hello, world!";
JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JLabel label;
JButton button;

public HelloWorldWithGUI2(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("HelloWorldWithGUI");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane */

contentPane = new JPanel();

/* Create and add label */

label = new JLabel(LABEL _ TEXT);
contentPane.add(label);

/* Create and add button */

button = new JButton("Hide");
button.setActionCommand("Hide");
button.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(button);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 277

 /**
* Handle button click action event
* pre: Action event is Hide or Show
* post: Clicked button has different text, and label
* displays message depending on when the button was clicked.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String eventName = event.getActionCommand();

if (eventName.equals("Hide")) {
label.setText(" ");
button.setText("Show");
button.setActionCommand("Show");
} else {
label.setText(LABEL _ TEXT);
button.setText("Hide");
button.setActionCommand("Hide");
}
}

/**
* Create and show the GUI.
*/
private static void runGUI() {
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

HelloWorldWithGUI2 greeting = new HelloWorldWithGUI2();

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* Methods that create and show a GUI should be
run from an event-dispatching thread */
javax.swing.SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
public void run() {
runGUI();
}
});
}
}

A class that uses a listener must implement an ActionListener. This is

TIP awt stands for Abstract done by adding implements ActionListener to the class declaration and then
Windows Toolkit. defining an actionPerformed() method, which is the only method in the
ActionListener interface. An import java.awt.event statement is required
to import the package containing the ActionListener interface.
The GUI is implemented in the constructor. The segment of code that
creates and adds the button does four things. First, a button that displays
Hide is created. Second, because the user will see a Hide button the action
command associated with this button should be “Hide”. Third, a listener
is needed to determine when the user clicks the button. The listener is set
to the HelloWorldWithGUI2 object itself (this). Fourth, the button is added
to the content pane.
The actionPerformed() method is passed an ActionEvent argument
by the GUI when the button is clicked. ActionEvent objects have a
getActionCommand() method. This method returns the string assigned
as the object’s action command. For the Show/Hide button, the action
command, as well as the button text, is changed each time the button is
clicked.

278 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

Review: Name – part 2 of 2
Modify the Name application to display or hide your name depending on the button clicked by the user,
similar to the HelloWorldWithGUI2 application.

Review: NumClicks
Create a NumClicks application that contains a button displaying how many times the user has clicked that
button. The application interface should look similar to the following after the user has clicked the button
12 times:

For this application it is not necessary to set the action command. A call to the getActionCommand() method
in the actionPerformed() method is also not needed.

Controlling Layout
layout Layout refers to the arrangement of components. In a Swing GUI, the
layout of a content pane can be controlled by adding borders, using a layout
manager, and setting alignments.

borders A border can be added to most components, including the content pane.
An invisible, or empty, border can be used to add “padding” around a
component to give it distance from other components. Adding an empty
border to the content pane adds space between the components and the
TIP Pixel stands for picture edges of the frame. For example, the content pane in the GUI on the left
element and the number of
has no border, but the content pane on the right has an empty border of
pixels in a surface depends on
the screen resolution. 20 pixels on the top, left, bottom, and right:

An empty border in the content pane on the right provides

padding between the components and the frame

layout manager A layout manager determines the order of components on a content pane.
There are many layout managers to choose from, including FlowLayout,
FlowLayout manager BoxLayout, and GridLayout. The FlowLayout manager places components
one next to the other in a row. When a row becomes too long, a new
row is started. The FlowLayout manager is the default manager. The
HelloWorldWithGUI applications use this manager.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 279

 BoxLayout manager The BoxLayout manager places components one after the other in a col-
umn, with one component per line. For example, the GUI below uses the
BoxLayout manager:

TIP The BoxLayout manager

also includes methods for add-
ing “glue” and “rigid areas” to
a layout to control placement
of components.

The BoxLayout manager places components one after the

other in a column

GridLayout manager The GridLayout manager places components into a grid of rows and col-
umns. The intersection of a row and column is called a cell. There is one
component per cell in a GridLayout. The GUI below uses a GridLayout.
An additional button was added to illustrate the grid:

The GridLayout manager places components

into a grid of cells

alignment Another factor that affects layout is alignment. Alignment refers to the
placement of a component within a layout. For example, both GUIs below
use a BoxLayout, have an empty border of 20, 20, 20, and 20 in the content
pane, and a 20, 50, 20, 50 empty border around the label. The GUI on the
left specifies no aligment for the components, and the GUI on the right
center aligns the label and the button:

Alignment affects the placement of components

within a layout
The HelloWorldWithGUI2 application modified to use a layout manager,
borders, and alignment:

280 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class HelloWorldWithGUI2 implements ActionListener {

final static String LABEL _ TEXT = "Hello, world!";
JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JLabel label;
JButton button;

public HelloWorldWithGUI2(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("HelloWorldWithGUI");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a BoxLayout and

TIP Experiment with the empty borders */
contentPane = new JPanel();
numerous types of borders.
contentPane.setLayout(new BoxLayout(contentPane,
BoxLayout.PAGE _ AXIS));
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(20,20,20,20));

/* Create and add label that is centered and

has empty borders */
label = new JLabel(LABEL _ TEXT);
label.setAlignmentX(JLabel.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
label.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(20, 50, 20, 50));
contentPane.add(label);

/* Create and add button that is centered */

button = new JButton("Hide");
button.setAlignmentX(JButton.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
button.setActionCommand("Hide");
button.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(button);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

…rest of HelloWorldWithGUI2 code

setLayout() method The JPanel setLayout() method is used to specify a layout for the content
pane. A BoxLayout object requires arguments for the content pane and the
arrangement. To arrange components in a vertical line, the class constant
PAGE _ AXIS is specified.

setBorder() method The JPanel setBorder() method is used to specify borders for the con-
tent pane. The BorderFactory class has many different kinds of borders
to choose from. For invisible, or empty borders, the createEmptyBorder()
method is used. The arguments specify the width of the top, left, bottom,
and right of the border.
setAlignment() method The JLabel and JButton setAlignmentX() methods are used to specify
the vertical alignment of the components within the layout. Both classes
include several alignment constants, including CENTER _ ALIGNMENT.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 281

 The modified HelloWorldWithGUI2 application produces a GUI that
looks similar to:

GridLayout manager For GUIs with components that should be side by side in rows, the
GridLayout manager may be a better choice. The GridLayout manager is
specified in a statement similar to:
TIP The GridLayout manager contentPane.setLayout(new GridLayout(0, 2, 10, 5))
places components in rows
from left to right in the order The GridLayout object requires arguments for specifying the number
that they are added to the con- of rows and columns and the space between columns and rows. If 0 is
tent pane.
specified for either the rows or columns, the class creates an object with
as many rows or columns as needed. However, only one argument can be
0. In the statement above, the GridLayout object will have as many rows
as needed and 2 columns. There will be 10 pixels between columns and 5
pixels between rows. The GridLayout class is part of the java.awt package.
java.awt Code using this manager requires an import java.awt.* statement.

Review: Sunflower
Create a Sunflower application that displays the Latin name for the sunflower when Latin is clicked and the
English name when English is clicked. The application GUI should use a BoxLayout manager and look similar
to the following after Latin has been clicked:

Review: Riddle
Create a Riddle application that displays a riddle and then solves it when Answer is clicked. The application
GUI should use a GridLayout manager and look similar to the following after Answer has been clicked:

282 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Getting Input from the User
A text field allows a user to enter information at run time. Text fields
are usually placed next to a label to prompt the user for the type of data
expected in the text field. For example, the SemesterAvg application
prompts the user to enter three test grades and then displays the average
of the grades when Average is clicked:

The swing package includes the JTextField class with the following
constructors and methods:
Class JTextField ( javax.swing.JTextField)
Constructor/Methods
JTextField(int col)
creates a JTextField object with width col.
JTextField(String text, int col)
creates a JTextField object displaying default
text text in a field with width col.
getText() returns a String containing the text in the
JTextField.
addActionListener(Object)
adds an object that listens for the user to press
the Enter key in this component.

converting between text and The information typed into a text field is a string, even when numeric
numeric data data is entered. Conversly, the setText() method of a JLabel expects a string
even when the data is numeric. Class methods in the Double and Integer
classes can be used to convert data between numeric and String types:
Class Double ( java.lang.Double)
Method
parseDouble(String text)
returns the double value in the String text.

toString(double num)
returns the String representation of num.

Class Integer ( java.lang.Integer)

Method
parseInteger(String text)
returns the int value in the String text.
toString(int num)
returns the String representation of num.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 283

 The parseDouble() and parseInteger() methods are used to convert
String data to numeric. The SemesterAvg application, the GIUI shown on
the previous page, uses parseDouble():
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class SemesterAvg implements ActionListener {

JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JLabel prompt1, prompt2, prompt3, average;
JTextField grade1, grade2, grade3;
JButton avgButton;

public SemesterAvg(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("Semester Average");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a GridLayout */

contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setLayout(new GridLayout(0, 2, 10, 5));
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(10, 10, 10, 10));

/* Create and add a prompt and then a text field */

prompt1 = new JLabel("Enter the first grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt1);

grade1 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade1);

/* Create and add a second prompt and

then a text field */
prompt2 = new JLabel("Enter the second grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt2);

grade2 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade2);

/* Create and add a third prompt and then a text field */

prompt3 = new JLabel("Enter the third grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt3);

grade3 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade3);

/* Create and add button that will display the

average of the grades */
avgButton = new JButton("Average");
avgButton.setActionCommand("Average");
avgButton.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(avgButton);

/* Create and add a label that will display the

average */
average = new JLabel(" ");
contentPane.add(average);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

284 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 /* Size and then display the frame. */
frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

/**
* Handle button click action event
* pre: none
* post: The average of the grades entered has been
* calculated and displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String eventName = event.getActionCommand();

if (eventName.equals("Average")) {
double avgGrade;
String g1 = grade1.getText();
String g2 = grade2.getText();
String g3 = grade3.getText();

avgGrade = (Double.parseDouble(g1) + Double.parseDouble(g2)

+ Double.parseDouble(g3))/3;
average.setText(Double.toString(avgGrade));
}
}

/**
* Create and show the GUI.
*/
private static void runGUI() {
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

SemesterAvg myGrades = new SemesterAvg();

}

…main() method of SemesterAvg code

In the actionPerformed() method, the strings are read from the text
fields. To calculate the average grade, each string is parsed for a double
value (with parseDouble()). The avgGrade value was then converted to a
String with the Double class method toString().

Review: DivisibleBy3
Create a DivisibleBy3 application that prompts the user for an integer and then displays a message when
Check is clicked indicating whether the number is divisible by 3. The application interface should look similar
to the following after the user has typed a number and clicked Check:

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 285

 Combo Boxes
A combo box offers a user a way to select from a limited set of choices.
Combo boxes can offer choices without taking up much room on the inter-
face. The user simply clicks the combo box arrow to display additional
choices. The LatinPlantNames application allows the user to select a plant
name from a combo box:

The swing package includes the JComboBox class for creating combo
boxes:
Class JComboBox (javax.swing.JComboBox)
Methods
JComboBox(Object[] items)
creates a JComboBox object that contains the
items from the items array, which must be an
array of objects.
setSelectedIndex(int index)
makes the item at index index the selected
item.
getSelectedItem()
returns the String corresponding to the selected
JComboBox item.
setEditable(boolean)
allows text to be typed in the combo box when
true is the boolean argument.
addActionListener(Object)
adds an object that listens for the user to select
an item from this component’s list.

JComboBox event Handling an event from a JComboBox requires two lines of code that
are similar to:
JComboBox comboBox = (JComboBox)event.getSource();
String itemName = (String)comboBox.getSelectedItem();

The first statement determines the source of the action event and then the
second statement determines which item has been selected.

286 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

The LatinPlantNames application code includes a JComboBox object:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class LatinPlantNames implements ActionListener {

JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JComboBox plantNames;
JLabel plantListPrompt, latinName;

public LatinPlantNames(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("LatinPlantNames");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a BoxLayout and

empty borders */
contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setLayout(new BoxLayout(contentPane,
BoxLayout.PAGE _ AXIS));
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(10, 10, 10, 10));

/* Create a combo box and a descriptive label */

plantListPrompt = new JLabel("Select a plant name: ");
plantListPrompt.setAlignmentX(JLabel.LEFT _ ALIGNMENT);
contentPane.add(plantListPrompt);

String[] names = {"basil", "lavender", "parsley",

"peppermint", "saffron", "sage"};
plantNames = new JComboBox(names);
plantNames.setAlignmentX(JComboBox.LEFT _ ALIGNMENT);
plantNames.setSelectedIndex(0);
plantNames.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(plantNames);

/* Create and add a label that will display the

Latin names */
latinName = new JLabel("Ocimum");
latinName.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(20, 0, 0, 0));
contentPane.add(latinName);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 287

 /**
* Handle a selection from the combo box
* pre: none
* post: The Latin name for the selected plant
* has been displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
JComboBox comboBox = (JComboBox)event.getSource();
String plantName = (String)comboBox.getSelectedItem();

if (plantName == "basil") {
latinName.setText("Ocimum");
} else if (plantName == "lavender") {
latinName.setText("Lavandula spica");
} else if (plantName == "parsley") {
latinName.setText("Apium");
} else if (plantName == "perppermint") {
latinName.setText("Mentha piperita");
} else if (plantName == "saffron") {
latinName.setText("Crocus");
} else if (plantName == "sage") {
latinName.setText("Salvia");
}
}

…runGUI() and main() method of LatinPlantNames code

The LatinPlantNames application displays the following output after

sage has been selected:

Review: MetricConversion
Create a MetricConversion application that allows the user to select a type of conversion from a combo box
and then the corresponding formula is displayed in a label. To convert from the length measurement inches
to centimeters, the formula is 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters. The formula 1 foot = 0.3048 meters converts the dis-
tance measurement feet to meters. The volume measurement gallon is converted to liters with the fomula
1 gallon = 4.5461 liters. The formula 1 pound = 0.4536 kilograms converts the mass measurement pound to
kilograms. The application interface should look similar to the following after the user has selected feet to
meters:

288 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Changing Colors
Swing components have methods for changing their colors. For example,
the content pane can be green, buttons can be magenta, combo boxes can
display text in pink. When making color choices, keep the end user in
mind because colors can give an application a fun and exciting look or
completely turn users away.

Color class The java.awt package includes the Color class with numerous color
constant members. The following methods, in the Swing component
classes, can be used to change the background and foreground colors of
the components:
setBackground(Color.constant)
sets the background color of a component to
constant from the Color class.
setForeground(Color.constant)
sets the foreground color of a component to
constant from the Color class.

How the color change affects the component varies. For a JLabel, the
foreground color refers to the color of the text. For a JComboBox, the fore-
ground color refers to the color of the text in the list.
The ColorDemo application demonstrates the color possibilities for
components. The application GUI and the code, except for the runGUI()
and main() methods, follow:

import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class ColorDemo implements ActionListener {

JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JTextField name;
JButton displayMessage;
JLabel textFieldPrompt, hello;

public ColorDemo(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("ColorDemo");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a BoxLayout

and empty borders */
contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(10, 10, 10, 10));
contentPane.setBackground(Color.white);
contentPane.setLayout(new GridLayout(0, 2, 5, 10));

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 289

 /* Create a text field and a descriptive label */
textFieldPrompt = new JLabel("Type your name: ");
textFieldPrompt.setForeground(Color.red);
contentPane.add(textFieldPrompt);

name = new JTextField(10);

name.setBackground(Color.pink);
name.setForeground(Color.darkGray);
contentPane.add(name);

/* Create a Display Message button */

displayMessage = new JButton("Display Message");
displayMessage.setBackground(Color.yellow);
displayMessage.setForeground(Color.blue);
displayMessage.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(displayMessage);

/* Create a label that will display a message */

hello = new JLabel(" ");
hello.setForeground(Color.green);
contentPane.add(hello);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

/**
* Handle a the button click
* pre: none
* post: A message has been displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = name.getText();

hello.setText("Hello " + text);

}

…runGUI() and main() method of ColorDemo code

Adding Images
Images can make an application more informative, easier to to use, and
fun. Labels and buttons are often used to display an image, but many
GIF, JPG Swing components support images. Images that are GIF and JPG format
work best. Unless a different path is specified in the application code, the
image files must be in the same location as the compiled code.
The JLabel class includes a constructor and a method for displaying
images in a label:
Class JLabel ( javax.swing.JLabel)
Constructor/Method
JLabel(ImageIcon pic)
creates a JLabel object containing pic.
setIcon(ImageIcon pic)
sets the JLabel to contain pic.

290 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 The JButton class includes a constructor and a method for displaying
images in a button:
Class JButton (javax.swing.JButton)
Constructor/Method
JButton(String str, ImageIcon pic)
creates a JButton object containing the text str
and the image pic.
JButton(ImageIcon pic)
creates a JButton object containing the image
pic.
setIcon(ImageIcon pic)
sets the JButton to contain pic.

The Roll application displays a die face. The user can click Roll Die to
“roll the die” and display the outcome of the roll. The application GUI and
the code, except for the runGUI() and main() methods, follow:

import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.lang.Math;

public class Roll implements ActionListener {

JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JButton rollDie;
JLabel dieFace;

public Roll(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("Roll");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a BoxLayout and

empty borders */
contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(10, 10, 10, 10));
contentPane.setBackground(Color.white);
contentPane.setLayout(new BoxLayout(contentPane,
BoxLayout.PAGE _ AXIS));

/* Create a label that shows a die face */

dieFace = new JLabel(new ImageIcon("die3.gif"));
dieFace.setAlignmentX(JLabel.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
dieFace.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(0, 0, 10, 0));
contentPane.add(dieFace);

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 291

 /* Create a Roll Die button */
rollDie = new JButton("Roll Die");
rollDie.setAlignmentX(JButton.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
rollDie.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(rollDie);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

/**
* Handle a button click
* pre: none
* post: A die has been rolled. Matching image shown.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
int newRoll;

newRoll = (int)(6 * Math.random() + 1);

if (newRoll == 1) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die1.gif"));
} else if (newRoll == 2) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die2.gif"));
} else if (newRoll == 3) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die3.gif"));
} else if (newRoll == 4) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die4.gif"));
} else if (newRoll == 5) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die5.gif"));
} else if (newRoll == 6) {
dieFace.setIcon(new ImageIcon("die6.gif"));
}
}

An image must be an object of the ImageIcon class for use in a Swing

GUI. The ImageIcon class, from the java.swing package, has a constructor
that accepts a file name as an argument and then converts that file to an
ImageIcon object.

Review: Roll
Modify the Roll application to roll two dice. Include an image for each die. Change the colors of the com-
ponents to be more exciting, while still allowing the user to easily read the text on the button and to see the
die images. The die images are name die1.tif, die2.tif, die3.tif, die4.tif, die5.tif, and die6.tif and are supplied
as data files for this text.

292 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Using Nested Classes to Handle Events
A GUI can quickly become complex, as a combination of buttons, text
fields, and other components that must handle events are added. When a
variety of components are on a single interface, separate actionPerformed()
methods should handle their events.
Up to this point, an instance of the controlling class (this) implemented
an actionPerformed() method. This single method was used to handle
events for every component on the GUI. This was sufficient for a simple
GUI. However, a GUI with more than one type of component responding
to an event should have multiple listeners. One way to implement multiple
listeners in a single application is to create each listener from a nested
class.
A nested class is a class within a class. A nested class is a member of the
TIP A nested class is also class it is within. As a class member, it has access to all the other members
called an inner class.
of the class, including private member variables and methods. A class
outer class that contains a class member is called an outer class. The Semester Stats
application uses two nested classes to respond to events:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class SemesterStats {

JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JLabel prompt1, prompt2, prompt3, stat;
JTextField grade1, grade2, grade3;
JButton avgButton, minButton, maxButton;

public SemesterStats(){
/* Create and set up the frame */
frame = new JFrame("Semester Stats");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create content pane with a GridLayout and empty borders */

contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setLayout(new GridLayout(0, 2, 10, 5));
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder
(10, 10, 10, 10));

/* Create and add a prompt and then a text field */

prompt1 = new JLabel("Enter the first grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt1);

grade1 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade1);

/* Create and add a second prompt and then a text field */

prompt2 = new JLabel("Enter the second grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt2);

grade2 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade2);

/* Create and add a third prompt and then a text field */

prompt3 = new JLabel("Enter the third grade: ");
contentPane.add(prompt3);

grade3 = new JTextField(10);

contentPane.add(grade3);

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 293

 /* Create and add button that will display the average grade */
avgButton = new JButton("Average");
avgButton.addActionListener(new AvgListener());
contentPane.add(avgButton);

/* Create and add button that will display the min grade */
minButton = new JButton("Min");
minButton.setActionCommand("Min");
minButton.addActionListener(new MinMaxListener());
contentPane.add(minButton);

/* Create and add button that will display the max grade */
maxButton = new JButton("Max");
maxButton.setActionCommand("Max");
maxButton.addActionListener(new MinMaxListener());
contentPane.add(maxButton);

/* Create and add a label that will display stats */

stat = new JLabel(" ");
stat.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(10, 0, 10, 0));
contentPane.add(stat);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

class AvgListener implements ActionListener {

/**
* Handle Average button click event
* pre: none
* post: The grade average has been calculated and displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
double avgGrade;
String g1 = grade1.getText();
String g2 = grade2.getText();
String g3 = grade3.getText();

avgGrade = (Double.parseDouble(g1) + Double.parseDouble(g2) +

Double.parseDouble(g3))/3;
stat.setText(Double.toString(avgGrade));
}
}

294 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 class MinMaxListener implements ActionListener {

/**
* Handles the Min and Max button click events
* pre: none
* post: The minimum or maximum grade has been
* determined and displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String eventName = event.getActionCommand();
double minGrade = 999;
double maxGrade = 0;
double[] grades = new double[3];

grades[0] = Double.parseDouble(grade1.getText());
grades[1] = Double.parseDouble(grade2.getText());
grades[2] = Double.parseDouble(grade3.getText());

if (eventName.equals("Min")) {
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
if (minGrade > grades[i]) {
minGrade = grades[i];
}
}
stat.setText(Double.toString(minGrade));
} else if (eventName.equals("Max")) {
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
if (maxGrade < grades[i]) {
maxGrade = grades[i];
}
}
stat.setText(Double.toString(maxGrade));
}
}
}

/**
* Create and show the GUI.
*/
private static void runGUI() {
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

SemesterStats myGrades = new SemesterStats();

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* Methods that create and show a GUI should be
run from an event-dispatching thread */
javax.swing.SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
public void run() {
runGUI();
}
});
}
}

One class (AvgListener) was used to implement a listener for the Average
button and a second class (MinMaxListener) implements a listener for
the Min and Max buttons. These buttons were combined into one listener
because their algorithms closely match.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 295

 The SemesterStats application displays output similar to:

Chapter 11 Case Study

In this case study, a Swing GUI will be created for an application that
plays a carnival game called Break-A-Plate. The Break-A-Plate game allows
a player to try to break all three plates. If all three plates are broken, a first
prize is awarded, otherwise, a consolation prize is awarded.

BreakAPlate Specification
The BreakAPlate application displays three unbroken plates at the start.
Clicking Play plays the game, displays broken plates, and displays the prize
won. If all three plates are broken, a tiger plush first prize is awarded. If
less than three plates are broken, a sticker consolation prize is awarded.
At the end of a game the Play button changes to Play Again. Clicking Play
Again displays a set of unbroken plates and the button changes back to Play
allowing the user to play repeatedly. The application ends when the user
closes the window.
The BreakAPlate game uses random numbers to determine if a player
has broken all three plates. When three 1s are generated by the random
number generator then the application displays three broken plates. If zero,
one, or two ones are generated, then the application displays two broken
plates indicating a loss.
The BreakAPlate interface should be a GUI that includes a label for dis-
playing the image of the plates, a button for allowing the user to play or
play again, and a label for displaying the the prize won. The BreakAPlate
GUI should look similar to the following before a game is played, after
a losing game has been played, and after a winning game has been
played:

296 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 The BreakAPlate algorithm:
1. When a game is played, generate three random numbers between
0 and 1.
2. If three ones are generated, display three broken plates and the
names of the first prize. Otherwise, display two broken plates and
the name of the consolation prize.

BreakAPlate Code Design

The BreakAPlate application simulates a game booth at a carnival. The
game can therefore be modeled with a GameBooth object. The GameBooth
class was created in Chapter 8 and contains the following methods:
Class GameBooth (Lawrenceville Press)
TIP Refer to Chapter 8 for the
Constructor/Methods
GameBooth code.
GameBooth(int cost, String p1, String p2)
creates a GameBooth object that charges cost
amount to play, awards a first prize p1, and a
consolation prize p2. If there is no charge for
the game, or the charge is not a consideration,
then 0 should be the argument for cost.
start() simulates a a game that allows the player three
plays. If the player succeeds all three times,
then the name of the first prize is retuned.
Otherwise, the name of the consolation prize
is returned.
getCost() returns the cost of the game.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 297

 The cost of the game is not a factor in this application, so 0 will be the
argument for the cost parameter in the constructor, and the getCost()
method will not be needed.
Based on the algorithm and the GameBooth class, the BreakAPlate
actionPerformed() method pseudocode looks similar to:
String eventName = event.getActionCommand();
String prize;

if (Play) {
prize = breakAPlate.start();
if (prize is tiger plush) {
display all broken plates;
} else if (prize is sticker)) {
display two broken plates
}
display prize won
change button to Play Again
} else if (Play Again) {
display unbroken plates
clear prize won text
change button to Play

BreakAPlate Implementation
The BreakAPlate implementation involves creating the BreakAPlate java
file and adding the GameBooth java file to the project.
The BreakAPlate application is implemented below:
/**
* BreakAPlate.
*/
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class BreakAPlate implements ActionListener {

static final String FIRST _ PRIZE = "tiger plush";
static final String CONSOLATION _ PRIZE = "sticker";
JFrame frame;
JPanel contentPane;
JButton play;
JLabel plates, prizeWon;
GameBooth breakAPlate;

public BreakAPlate(){
/* initialize game booth and player */
breakAPlate = new GameBooth(0, FIRST _ PRIZE, CONSOLATION _ PRIZE);

/* Create and set up the frame */

frame = new JFrame("BreakAPlate");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT _ ON _ CLOSE);

/* Create a content pane with a BoxLayout and empty borders */

contentPane = new JPanel();
contentPane.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(20, 20, 20, 20));
contentPane.setBackground(Color.white);
contentPane.setLayout(new BoxLayout(contentPane, BoxLayout.PAGE _ AXIS));

298 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 /* Create a label that shows the start of the game */
plates = new JLabel(new ImageIcon("plates.gif"));
plates.setAlignmentX(JLabel.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
plates.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(10, 10, 20, 10));
contentPane.add(plates);

/* Create a Play button */

play = new JButton("Play");
play.setActionCommand("Play");
play.setAlignmentX(JButton.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
play.addActionListener(this);
contentPane.add(play);

/* Create a label that will show prizes won */

prizeWon = new JLabel(" ");
prizeWon.setAlignmentX(JLabel.CENTER _ ALIGNMENT);
prizeWon.setBorder(BorderFactory.createEmptyBorder(20, 0, 0, 0));
contentPane.add(prizeWon);

/* Add content pane to frame */

frame.setContentPane(contentPane);

/* Size and then display the frame. */

frame.pack();
frame.setVisible(true);
}

/**
* Handle the button click
* pre: none
* post: The appropriate image and message are displayed.
*/
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String eventName = event.getActionCommand();
String prize;

if (eventName == "Play") {
prize = breakAPlate.start();
if (prize.equals(FIRST _ PRIZE)) {
plates.setIcon(new ImageIcon("plates _ all _ broken.gif"));
} else if (prize.equals(CONSOLATION _ PRIZE)) {
plates.setIcon(new ImageIcon("plates _ two _ broken.gif"));
}
prizeWon.setText("You win: " + prize);
play.setText("Play Again");
play.setActionCommand("Play Again");
} else if (eventName == "Play Again") {
plates.setIcon(new ImageIcon("plates.gif"));
prizeWon.setText(" ");
play.setText("Play");
play.setActionCommand("Play");
}
}

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 299

 /**
* Create and show the GUI.
*/
private static void runGUI() {
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

BreakAPlate carnivalGame = new BreakAPlate();

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* Methods that create and show a GUI should be
run from an event-dispatching thread */
javax.swing.SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
public void run() {
runGUI();
}
});
}
}

Running the BreakAPlate application displays a GUI similar to:

When Play is clicked, the user either wins or loses. The output below
shows a losing game:

300 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 The application GUI below shows a winning game:

BreakAPlate Testing and Debugging

The application should be tested by playing several games, making sure
that the correct prize is named and that the buttons and images change
appropriately.

Review: BreakAPlate
Modify the BreakAPlate application to display a picture of the prize won rather than text naming the prize.
The tiger_plush.gif, sticker.gif, and placeholder.gif are supplied as data files for this text. The placeholder.gif
file is a white square that is the same size as the tiger_plush and sticker images. The placeholder.gif file
should be displayed in the label at the start of each game. The modified BreakAPlate interface should look
similar to the following after the user has played a winning game:

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 301

Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced graphical user interfaces that use the Swing
API. The Java swing package contains many component classes, including
JFrames, JPanels, JLabels, JButtons, JComboBoxes, and JTextFields.
Applications with a GUI are event-driven. The GUI must be run from
an event-dispatching thread. A GUI application responds to interactions
from the user called events. An event executes a method called an event
handler. A Swing event handler is also called an action event handler.
A frame is a container for content panels. A commonly used content
panel is the JPanel component. A JPanel can contain other components
such as labels and buttons. A label is a component that does not receive
events. A button is a commonly used component for accepting input from
the user.
Only components with a listener object can execute an event handler.
A listener executes the actionPerformed() event handler, passing it the
an ActionEvent object that contains the action command describing the
event.
The layout of components in a JPanel can be controlled with layout man-
ager and the use of borders and alignment. The FlowLayout, BoxLayout,
and GridLayout are the three managers covered in this chapter. The place-
ment of components within a layout can be controlled further with empty
borders for padding and using alignment.
The text field component allows a user to type information into the
interface. The information typed into a text field is a string. The Integer
and Double classes include class methods for converting information to
numeric data. The label component requires a string when setting the
text. The Integer and Double classes also provide the toString() method
for converting numeric data to a String.
Combo boxes allow the user to select from a limited set of choices. A
combo box does not take up much space and displays a list of choices when
its arrow button is clicked.
Most of the components include methods for setting the background
and foreground colors. Color can make an application easier to use and
more interesting, but should be selected with the user in mind.
GIF and JPG images can be included in an application GUI. A label or
a button is commonly used to display an image.
Nested classes are used to implement multiple event handlers. Nested
classes, like any other member of a class, have access to other members of
the class, including private variables and method members. A class that
contain a class member is called an outer class.

302 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

Vocabulary

Action command A string describing an event.

Alignment The placement of components within
a layout.
BoxLayout manager A layout manager that places
components one after the other in a column.
Button A GUI component that the user can click.
Combo box A GUI component that offers a user a
way to select from a limited set of choices.
Container A component that holds and displays
all the other components of a GUI.
Content frame A top-level container.
Event A user interaction with an application’s
GUI.
Event-driven application An application that
responds to events.
Event handler A method that executes in response
to an event.
FlowLayout manager A layout manager that places
components one next to the other in a row.
Frame A GUI window that contains a border, title,
and maximize, minimize, and close buttons.
GridLayout manager A layout manager that places
components in a grid of rows and columns.
Label A GUI component that displays text or an
image and does not interact with the user.
Layout The arrangement of components.
Layout manager Used to specify the order of com-
ponents on a content pane.
Listener An object that listens for action events.
Nested class A class that is a member of another
class. A class within a class.
Outer class A class that contains a class member.
Text field A GUI component that allows a user to
enter information at run time.
Thread A process that runs sequentially from start
to finish.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 303

 Java

ActionListener The java.awt.event interface that FlowLayout A javax.swing class for setting the
contains the actionListener() method. layout of a content pane.
actionPerformed() A method that is implemented Swing API A part of the Java Foundation Classes
to respond to events. This method is the only method that contains numerous components for creating
in the ActionListener interface. GUIs.
BorderFactory The java.lang class with class meth- this The keyword for indicating an object itself.
ods for creating a border object.
BoxLayout A javax.swing class for setting the layout
of a content pane.
Color The java.awt class that contains constants
for changing component colors.
Double A java.lang class for converting numbers
between numeric and text data.
GridLayout A java.awt class for setting the layout
of a content pane.
ImageIcon A java.swing class for converting
an image, such as a GIF or JPG, to an ImageIcon
object.
Integer A java.lang class for converting numbers
between numeric and text data.
java.awt The package containing the GridLayout
class and Color class constants.
java.awt.event The package containing the
ActionListener interface.
java.swing The package containing the Swing
API classes.
JButton A java.swing class for creating a button in
a GUI. The class includes methods for adding text
or images to the label.
JComboBox A java.swing class for creating a combo
box in a GUI.
JFrame A java.swing class for creating a window,
also called a frame, in a GUI.
JLabel The java.swing class for creating a label in
a GUI. The class includes methods for adding text
or images to the label.
JPanel The java.swing class for creating a content
panel for a frame. The class includes methods for
adding and removing components.
JTextField The java.swing class for creating a text
field.

304 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

 Critical Thinking

1. Explain the difference between an event-driven 15. An application prompts a user to select a name
application and a console-based application. from a list of six names. Which is a better
component choice: a text field or a combo box?
2. Explain how code is executed in an event-driven Explain.
application.
16. Would white text on a pink background be a
3. Can components be added directly to a frame? good color combination for a GUI? Why or why
Explain. not?

4. Can a label respond to events? Explain. 17. What image types are supported in a Swing
GUI?
5. Why do you think a GUI needs to be run from
an event-dispatching thread? 18. Which components are often used to display an
image?
6. What is the difference between a label and a
button? 19. What must an image be converted to in order
to be displayed by a Swing component?
7. a) What does this indicate when used as the
argument for the the addActionListener() True/False
method?
b) What must the object listening for an event 20. Determine if each of the following are true or
contain? false. If false, explain why.
a) JFra me is a class i n t he javax.swi ng
8. List three ways to control the layout of a content package.
pane. b) A button click is an event handler.
c) Labels can be changed by the user.
9. What type of borders are used to add padding d) A JFrame object uses a content pane to hold
around components? GUI components.
e) The index value for the first component on
10. List three layout managers and explain how a content pane is 1.
each arranges the components on a content f) The JLabel class constant LEADING indicates
pane. right alignment.
g) A thread is a sequential process that runs
11. Which class is used to return an object for the from start to finish.
setBorder() method? h) Swing components use listeners to determine
if an event has occurred.
12. Are borders for padding necessary when the i) A class that uses a listener must implement
GridLayout manager is used? Explain. an ActionListener class.
j) An empty border indicates that there is no
13. What must first be done with numeric data space around a component.
typed in a text field before it can be used in a k) The FlowLayout manager places components
calculation? one after the other in a column, with one
column per line.
14. What is the value of num1 in the last statement l) All components on a GUI must have the
below? same alignment.
m) The class content PAGE_AXIS specifies that
double num1; components should be arranged in a vertical
Double num2 = new Double(3);
line.
String num3 = "5";
num1 = num2.doubleValue() + n) The JLabel setAlignmentX() method is used
Double.valueOf(num3).doubleValue(); to specify the horizontal alignment of the
components within the layout.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 305

 o) Code using the BoxLayout manager requires
an import java.awt.* statement.
p) Information is entered into a text field at run
time.
q) A text field can only accept numeric data.
r) The JLabel foreground color refers to the text
color.
s) A Swing GUI can have only one listener.
t) A nested class has access to the private vari-
able members of the outer class.

306 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming

Exercises

Exercise 1 ——————————————————— LocalBankGUI

Create LocalBankGUI application that implements a GUI for the Local Bank case study in Chapter
10.

Exercise 2 ——————————————————— TicTacToeGUI

Create a TicTacToeGUI application that allows two players to play a computerized tic-tac-toe game.
Refer to the TicTacToe application presented in Chapter 9. The TTT class code will need to be modified
for the GUI version of the application. Use a button for each “box” in the tic-tac-toe board.

Exercise 3 ———————————————————— PhotoAlbum

Create a PhotoAlbum application that displays a new picture each time Next is clicked. Use the
grayangel.jpg, scorpionfish.jpg, sponges.jpg, and starfish.jpg files supplied as data files for this text.
The application should allow the user to continously cycle through the images.

Exercise 4 —————————————————————— Clacker

In the game Clacker, the numbers 1 through 12 are initially displayed. The player throws two dice and
may cover the number representing the total or the two numbers on the dice. For example, for a throw
of 3 and 5, the player may cover the 3 and the 5 or just the 8. Play continues until all the numbers are
covered. The goal is to cover all the numbers in the fewest rolls.

Create a Clacker application that displays 12 buttons numbered 1 through 12. Each of these buttons
can be clicked to ”cover” it. A covered button displays nothing. Another button labeled Roll can be
clicked to roll the dice. Include labels to display the appropriate die images for each roll. Another label
displays the number of rolls taken. A New Game button can be clicked to clear the labels and uncover
the buttons for a new game.

Exercise 5 ö ————————————————————— LifeGUI

Create a LifeGUI application that is based on the Life application created in Chapter 10, Exercise 14.
The 20 x 20 grid should be buttons that initially display all 0s. To select the live cells for the first day,
the user clicks the buttons in the positions of live cells. When clicked, a button changes from display-
ing a 0 to displaying a X. A Next button below the grid can be clicked repeatedly to display the next
generations until the user quits or there are no more live cells.

Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming 307

308 Chapter 11 GUIs and Event-Driven Programming
 Chapter 12
Files and Exception Handling

F iles are used by many applications for storing and retrieving data. In
this chapter, sequential file access, including object serialization will be
discussed. Exception handling will also be explained.

What is a File?
Up to this point, the applications created in this text have stored data
in the computer’s memory. However, storage in memory is available only
when the computer is on and an application is running. A file is a collec-
tion of related data stored on a persistent medium such as a hard disk or
persistent a CD. Persistent simply means lasting.
Files often store data used by an application. Files are also used to store
the data generated by an application. In either case, a file is separate from
the application accessing it and can be read from and written to by more
than one application. Most applications require access to one or more files
on disk.

The File Class

java.io The File class, part of the java.io package, is used for creating an object
that represents a file. A File object can be used to create a new file, test
for the existence of a file, and delete a file. Some of the File class methods
include:
Class File (java.io)
Constructor/Methods
File(String f) creates a File object that refers to the file f.
createNewFile()
creates a new file using the file name specified
in the constructor if the file does not already
exist. Returns true if the file is created, false
otherwise. This method throws an IOException
exception if the file cannot be created.
delete() permanently deletes the file represented by the
File object. Returns true if the file is deleted,
false otherwise.
exists() Returns true if the file represented by the File
object exists, false otherwise.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 309

 The application below checks for the existence of a file:
import java.io.*;

public class TestFiles {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File textFile = new File("c:\\temp\\supplies.txt");
if (textFile.exists()) {
System.out.println("File already exists.");
} else {
System.out.println("File does not exist.");
}
}
}

The name of a file is specified as a String. If a path is included in the

file name, escape sequences (\\) must be used to separate the drive, folder,
and file names.

Review: MyFile – part 1 of 2

Create a MyFile application that prompts the user for the name of a file and then displays a message that
indicates whether the file exists or not.

Handling Exceptions
exception An exception is an error affecting program execution. If an exception is
not taken care of, or handled, the application abruptly terminates. Although
many types of exceptions may still require program termination, an excep-
tion handler can allow an application to terminate gracefully by providing
the user with an informative error message.

exception handler An exception handler is a block of code that performs an action when an
try-catch-finally exception occurs. The try-catch-finally statement can be used to write
an exception handler. It takes the form:
try {
<statements>
} catch (exception err _ code) {
<statements>
} …additional catch clauses
} finally (exception err _ code) {
<statements>

The try statements are the statements that could possibly generate an
exception. The catch clause waits for the exception matching the exception
parameter and then executes its code. If more than one type of exception is
possible from the statements in the try clause, then a separate catch should
be written for each type of exception. The finally clause is optional and
executes its statements regardless of what happens in the try-catch por-
tion of the error handler.

310 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 An exception handler is required when calling certain methods.
For example, the createNewFile() method in the File class generates an
IOException IOException exception when the specified file name cannot be used to cre-
throw ate a file. The createNewFile() method includes code to throw, or generate,
an exception object if it cannot complete its task.
The modified TestFiles application checks for the existence of a file
before creating a new one:
import java.io.*;

public class TestFiles {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File textFile = new File("c:\\supplies.txt");
if (textFile.exists()) {
System.out.println("File already exists.");
} else {
The Exception Stack try {
textFile.createNewFile();
When an exception is thrown, System.out.println("New file created.");
the current block of code is } catch (IOException e) {
first checked for an exception System.out.println("File could not be created.");
handler. Next, the calling System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
method is checked for a }
handler, and so on until the }
Java interpreter is reached. }
}

An exception, such as IOException, is an object of the Throwable class.

Throwable objects have a getMessage() member that returns a String
err stream containing information about the exception. The err stream is used for
displaying error messages on the screen.

Review: MyFile – part 2 of 2

Create a MyFile application that creates a file named zzz.txt and then displays a message indicating that the
file has been created. The application should prompt the user to either keep or delete the file. If the file is
deleted, a message should notify the user when the file has been successfully deleted.

The File Streams

TIP The Scanner class requires A file must be associated with a stream in order to perform operations
an input stream. such as reading the contents, writing over existing contents, and adding to
the existing contents. A stream processes characters, and in Java, streams
are implemented with classes.

file position The file stream keeps track of the file position, which is the point where
reading or writing last occurred. File streams are used to perform sequential
sequential file access file access, with all the reading and writing performed one character after
another or one line after another.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 311

 A stream can be thought of as a sequence of characters. For example,
a file containing a list of names and scores may look like the following
Data Streams
when viewed in a word processor:
A stream applies to data input/
output in general. For example, Drew 84
memory, information sent to Tia 92
a printer, and data sent and
However, when thinking about file operations, the file should be visual-
received from an Internet site
can all be streamed. ized as a stream of data:

The carriage return character (Cr) followed by a line feed character (Lf) is
line terminator, end of file called a line terminator. A –1 is the end of file.

The FileReader and BufferedReader

Classes
The FileReader and BufferedReader classes, both from the java.io pack-
age, are used together to read the contents of an existing file. The FileReader
input file stream class is used to create an input file stream. Next, the BufferedReader class
is used to read text from the stream. The following is a summary of the
FileReader and BufferedReader classes:
Class FileReader (java.io)
Constructor/Method
FileReader(File fileName)
creates an input file stream for the File object. This
FileNotFoundException constructor throws a FileNotFoundException
exception if the file does not exist.
close() closes the input file stream. This method throws
an IOException exception if the file cannot be
closed.
TIP A buffer stores a large
number of characters from
the stream so that more than Class BufferedReader (java.io)
one character at a time can be Constructor/Methods
read, such as in a readLine(). BufferedReader(Reader stream)
creates a buffered-input stream from stream.
Reader is the FileReader superclass.
read() reads a single character from the input stream.
Reading Characters This method throws an IOException exception
The read() method returns an if the stream cannot be read.
int, which corresponds to a readLine() reads a line of text from the input stream. This
Unicode value. In Unicode, a method throws an IOException exception if the
space corresponds to 32, a tab stream cannot be read.
to 9, carriage return to 13, and
close() closes the input file stream. This method throws
line feed to 10.
an IOException exception if the stream cannot
be closed.

The application on the next page reads an existing file line-by-line to

show the contents of the file:

312 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 import java.util.Scanner;
import java.io.*;

public class ReadFile {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File textFile = new File("wonder.txt");
FileReader in;
BufferedReader readFile;
String lineOfText;

try {
in = new FileReader(textFile);
readFile = new BufferedReader(in);
while ((lineOfText = readFile.readLine()) != null ) {
System.out.println(lineOfText);
}
readFile.close();
in.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File does not exist or could
not be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: "
+ e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem reading file.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}

The ReadFile application reads and displays the file contents within
a try-catch statement because both the FileReader and BufferedReader
constructors and methods throw exceptions if there is a problem reading
the file. A try can have multiple catch statements. The catch statements are
in the order that they may occur. For example, the FileNotFoundException
is handled first because the FileReader object is created first in the try
statement.
The close() methods are used to close the FileReader and BufferedReader
streams. It is important that the streams be closed in the reverse order that
they were opened.
The ReadFile application displays the following output when run:

Review: Assignment
Create a Assignment application that reads and then displays the contents of a file containing instructions for
this assignment. Use Notepad or some other word processor to create the file. Be sure that the file is saved as
a Text file (TXT). The Assignment application will need to include the correct path to the location of the file.
If a path is not specified, the file must be placed in the same folder as the Assignment executable file.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 313

 Processing Numeric Data
A file on disk is a set of characters, even when the file contains numeric
data, such as test scores. An application written to process numeric data
from a file must convert the data after it is read. The Double and Integer
classes include class methods for converting a string to a primitive data
type:
Class Double ( java.lang.Double)
Method
parseDouble(String text)
returns the double value in the String text.

Class Integer ( java.lang.Integer)

Method
parseInteger(String text)
returns the int value in the String text.

The AvgScore application reads tests scores that are stored one score
per line in a text file and then reports the average:
import java.io.*;

public class AvgScore {

DAT Files
Text files that contain numeric public static void main(String[] args) {
data often have the file name File dataFile = new File("scores.dat");
extension .dat, also referred FileReader in;
BufferedReader readFile;
to as a DAT file.
String score;
double avgScore;
double totalScores = 0;
int numScores = 0;

try {
in = new FileReader(dataFile);
readFile = new BufferedReader(in);
while ((score = readFile.readLine()) != null ) {
numScores += 1;
System.out.println(score);
totalScores += Double.parseDouble(score);
}
avgScore = totalScores / numScores;
System.out.println("Average = " + avgScore);
readFile.close();
in.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File does not exist or could
not be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: "
+ e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem reading file.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

314 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 The application produces the output:

Review: Stats – part 1 of 2

Create a Stats application that reads names and scores from a data file named test1.dat, supplied with this
text. The file contains a student name on one line followed by the student’s test score on the next line. The
Stats application should read and display each name and score. After all the scores have been displayed, the
lowest score, highest score, and average score should be displayed.

The FileWriter and BufferedWriter

Classes
The FileWriter and BufferedWriter classes, both from the java.io pack-
age, are used together to write data to a file. The FileWriter class is used
output file stream to create an output file stream. A BufferedWriter class object is then used to
send text to the stream. Some of the FileWriter and BufferedWriter classes
methods include:
Class FileWriter (java.io)
Constructor/Method
FileWriter(File fileName, boolean append)
creates an input file stream for the File object. If
append is true, then data written to the file will
be added after existing data, otherwise the file
will be overwritten. This constructor throws
an IOException exception if the file cannot be
created or opened.
close() closes the output file stream. This method
throws an IOException exception if the file
cannot be closed.

When a FileWriter object is created, the file referenced by the File object
is automatically overwritten unless the FileWriter object is set to append. In
either case, if the file does not yet exist, a new one will be created. Caution
must be used so that a file is not inadvertently overwritten.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 315

 Class BufferedWriter (java.io)
Constructor/Methods
BufferedWriter(Writer stream)
creates a buffered-writer stream from stream.
Writer is the FileWriter superclass.
newLine() writes a newline character to the output stream.
This method throws an IOException exception
if the stream cannot be written to.
write(String str)
writes the string str to the output stream. This
method throws an IOException exception if the
stream cannot be written to.
write(char c) writes the character c to the output stream. This
method throws an IOException exception if the
stream cannot be written to.
close() closes the output file stream. This method
throws an IOException exception if the stream
cannot be closed.

The CreateDataFile application prompts the user for names and scores
and then writes them to a new file:
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;

public class CreateDataFile {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File dataFile = new File("StuScores.dat");
FileWriter out;
BufferedWriter writeFile;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
double score;
String name;

try {
out = new FileWriter(dataFile);
writeFile = new BufferedWriter(out);
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
System.out.print(:Enter student name: ");
name = input.next();
System.out.print("Enter test score: ");
score = input.nextDouble();
writeFile.write(name);
writeFile.newLine();
writeFile.write(String.valueOf(score));
writeFile.newLine();
}
writeFile.close();
out.close();
System.out.println("Data written to file.");
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem writing to file.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

Note that the application will overwrite the StuScores.dat file each time
that it is run. The CreateDataFile application displays output similar to
that shown on the next page:

316 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Review: Stats – part 2 of 2
Modify the Stats application to allow the user to enter the names and grades of the students. The user should
be prompted for the name of the file to create and for the number of student grades that will be entered.
After the data has been entered and the written to a file, the file should be read and the lowest, highest, and
average score displayed.

Object Serialization
A file can also be used to store object data. Writing objects to a file is
called object serialization. In this process, class information about an object
is written out to a stream. If a class uses another class, this information is
also written out, and so on. When information about an object is retrieved
from a file, it is called object deserialization.
Object serialization and deserialization is performed with object out-
put and input streams. The FileOutputStream and ObjectOutputStream
classes, both from the java.io package, are used together to write objects
to a file. The FileInputStream and ObjectInputStream classes, also from
the java.io package, are used together to read objects from a file. Some of
the methods from the classes for writing and reading objects include:
Class FileOutputStream (java.io)
Constructor/Method
FileOutputStream(File fileName, boolean append)
creates an output file stream for the File object.
If append is true, then data written to the file
will be added after existing data, otherwise
the file will be overwritten or created if the
file does not exist. This method throws a
FileNotFoundException exception if the file
cannot be opened or created.
close() closes the output file stream. This method
throws an IOException exception if the file
cannot be closed.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 317

 In addition to methods for writing objects to the output stream, the
ObjectOutputStream class also contains methods for writing primitive
data types.
Class ObjectOutputStream (java.io)
Constructor/Method
ObjectOutputStream(FileOutputStream stream)
creates an object stream from stream.
writeObject(Object obj)
writes object information to the output stream.
This method throws an IOException exception
if there are problems with the class or if the
stream cannot be written to.
writeInt(int num)
writes an int to the output stream. This method
throws an IOException exception if the stream
cannot be written to.
writeDouble(double num)
writes a dou ble to the output stream. This
method throws an IOException exception if
the stream cannot be written to.
close() closes the output stream. This method throws
an IOException exception if the stream cannot
be closed.

Objects are read from a FileInputStream stream object:

Class FileInputStream (java.io)
Constructor/Method
FileInputStream(File fileName)
creates an input file stream for the File object.
This method throws a FileNotFoundException
exception if the file cannot be read.
close() closes the input file stream. This method throws
an IOException exception if the file cannot be
closed.

The ObjectInputStream class contains method for reading both objects

and primitive data types.
Class ObjectInputStream (java.io)
Constructor/Method
ObjectInputStream(FileInputStream stream)
creates an object stream from stream. This con-
structor throws an IOException exception if the
stream cannot be read.
readObject() reads an object from the input stream. This
method throws exceptions IOException and
ClassNotFoundException if the the stream can-
not be read or a class cannot be deserialized.
readInt() reads an int from the input stream. This method
throws an IOException exception if the file can-
not be read.

318 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 readDouble() reads a dou ble from the input stream. This
method throws an IOException exception if the
file cannot be read.
close() closes the input stream. This method throws
an IOException exception if the file cannot be
closed.

The ObjectWriteRead application demonstrates writing and reading

objects from a file:
import java.io.*;

public class ObjectWriteRead {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File stuFile = new File("students.dat");

try {
/* write objects */
FileOutputStream out = new FileOutputStream(stuFile);
ObjectOutputStream writeStu = new ObjectOutputStream(out);
writeStu.writeObject(new Student("Drew", 87));
writeStu.writeObject(new Student("Tia", 92));
writeStu.close();
System.out.println("Data written to file.");

/* read objects */
FileInputStream in = new FileInputStream(stuFile);
ObjectInputStream readStu = new ObjectInputStream(in);
Student stu1 = (Student)readStu.readObject();
Student stu2 = (Student)readStu.readObject();
readStu.close();

System.out.println(stu1);
System.out.println (stu2);

} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File could not be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: "
+ e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem with input/output.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("Class could not be used to
cast object.");
System.err.println("ClassNotFoundException: "
+ e.getMessage());
}
}
}

The ObjectWriteRead application writes two Student objects to the

students.dat file. The Student class is shown on the next page:

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 319

 import java.io.*;

public class Student implements Serializable {

private String stuName;
private double stuGrade;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A Student object has been created.
* Student data has been initialized with parameters.
*/
public Student(String name, double grade) {
stuName = name;
stuGrade = grade;
}

/**
* Creates a string representing the student object
* pre: none
* post: A string representing the student object
* has been returned.
*/
public String toString() {
String stuString;

stuString = stuName + " grade: " + stuGrade;

return(stuString);
}
}

If the objects of a class are to be written to a file, the class must imple-
Serializable interface ment the Serializable interface. This interface is part of the java.io package
and contains no methods to implement. It simply allows information about
an instance of the class to be written out.
Note that reading an object from a file requires casting. The readObject()
method reads Object data from the file. It is up to the programmer to cast
the object to the appropriate type.
The ObjectWriteRead application catches several exceptions. First, a
FileNotFoundException occurs when there is a problem creating a File
object. IOException is a more general exception and occurs for various
input/output problems. If IOException were first in the catch clauses,
the other more specific exceptions would not be caught and the user
would not be able to read their descriptive error messages. Finally, the
ClassNotFoundException occurs if the class for an object written to the
file cannot be found.

Review: Roster
Create a Roster application that prompts the user for the name of the file to store student names and then
prompts the user for the number of students in a class. The application should then prompt the user for
the first and last name of each student and write this data to a file. After all the data is written to a file, the
application displays the class roster with one name after the other in a list. Create a StuName class that has
member variables firstName and lastName and a toString() member method.

320 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Chapter 12 Case Study
In this case study, a LocalBank2 application will be created. LocalBank2
is the Chapter 10 case study modified to read and write account informa-
tion from a file.

LocalBank2 Specification
The LocalBank2 application has the same specification as LocalBank.
It allows accounts to be opened, modified, and closed. Each account
has a unique account number, which is required for all transactions.
Transactions include deposits and withdrawals. An account balance can
also be checked.
The LocalBank2 interface will not change from LocalBank. It will pro-
vide a menu of options:

The LocalBank2 algorithm will not change from the LocalBank applica-
tion algorithm.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 321

 LocalBank2 Code Design
The LocalBank2 application will be modeled with a Bank object, Account
objects, and Customer objects, just as LocalBank. However, the Bank object
will store and retrieve accounts from a file. To do this, the Bank construc-
tor should create a file stream for the File object specified when the Bank
object is instantiated. The constructor should also load accounts from the
file stream into an ArrayList. An updateAccounts() method will need to
be added to the Bank class so that any account changes can be written
back to the file.
Because account objects will be read from and written to a file, the
Account class and any classes it uses must implement the Serializable
interface. This includes the Customer class.
The LocalBank2 client code must be modified to create a File object that
stores the account information. Before ending the LocalBank application,
the updateAccounts() method is called to write account information back
to the file. The pseudocode for the LocalBank2 client code follows:
File accountsFile = new File("LBAccounts.dat");
Bank easySave = new Bank(accountsFile);

do {
prompt user for transaction type

if (add account) {
easySave.addAccount();
} else if (not Quit) {
prompt user for account ID;
if (deposit) {
prompt user for deposit amount
easySave.transaction(make deposit, acctID, amt);
} else if (withdrawal) {
prompt user for withdrawal amount
easySave.transaction(make withdrawal, acctID, amt);
} else if (check balance) {
easySave.checkBalance(acctID);
} else if (remove account) {
easySave.deleteAccount(acctID);
}
}
} while (not quit);
easySave.updateAccounts(accountsFile);

LocalBank2 Implementation
The LocalBank2 application is shown below:
/**
* LocalBank2 client code.
*/

import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;

public class LocalBank {

public static void main(String[] args) {

File accountsFile = new File("LBAccounts.dat");
Bank easySave = new Bank(accountsFile);

322 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String action, acctID;
Double amt;

/* display menu of choices */

do {
System.out.println("\nDeposit\\Withdrawal\\Check balance");
System.out.println("Add an account\\Remove an account");
System.out.println("Quit\n");
System.out.print("Enter choice: ");
action = input.next();

if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("A")) {
easySave.addAccount();
} else if (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q")) {
System.out.print("Enter account ID: ");
acctID = input.next();
if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("D")) {
System.out.print("Enter deposit amount: ");
amt = input.nextDouble();
easySave.transaction(1, acctID, amt);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("W")) {
System.out.print("Enter withdrawal amount: ");
amt = input.nextDouble();
easySave.transaction(2, acctID, amt);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("C")) {
easySave.checkBalance(acctID);
} else if (action.equalsIgnoreCase("R")) {
easySave.deleteAccount(acctID);
}
}
} while (!action.equalsIgnoreCase("Q"));

easySave.updateAccounts(accountsFile); //write accounts to file

}
}

The Bank class is shown below. The accounts are expected to be loaded
from a file. Additionally, the number of accounts is also kept in the file.
This number is the first data item in the file. It is read first and then used
to determine how many accounts to read from the file. Throughout the
class, the number of accounts is updated when a new account is added and
when an account is deleted. When updateAccounts() is called, the number
of accounts is written to the file first, followed by the accounts:
/**
* Bank class.
*/

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;

public class Bank {

private ArrayList<Account> accounts;
private int numAccts;

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 323

 /**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: accounts have been loaded from acctFile.
*/
public Bank(File acctsFile) {
accounts = new ArrayList<Account>();
Account acct;

/* Create a new file for accounts if one does not exist */

if (!acctsFile.exists()) {
try {
acctsFile.createNewFile();
System.out.println("There are no existing accounts.");
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("File could not be created.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
numAccts = 0;
} else { /* load existing accounts */
try {
FileInputStream in = new FileInputStream(acctsFile);
ObjectInputStream readAccts = new ObjectInputStream(in);
numAccts = (int)readAccts.readInt();
if (numAccts == 0) {
System.out.println("There are no existing accounts.");
} else {
for (int i = 0; i < numAccts; i++) {
acct = (Account)readAccts.readObject();
accounts.add(acct);
}
}
readAccts.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File could not be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: " + e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem with input/output.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("Class could not be used to cast object.");
System.err.println("ClassNotFoundException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

/**
* Adds a new account to the bank accounts.
* pre: none
* post: An account has been added to the bank's accounts.
*/
public void addAccount() {
Account newAcct;
double bal;
String fName, lName;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("First name: ");

fName = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Last name: ");
lName = input.nextLine();
System.out.print("Beginning balance: ");
bal = input.nextDouble();

324 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 newAcct = new Account(bal, fName, lName); //create account object
accounts.add(newAcct); //add account to bank accounts
numAccts += 1; //increment number of accounts

System.out.println("Account created. Account ID is: " + newAcct.getID());

}

/**
* Deletes an existing account.
* pre: none
* post: An existing account has been deleted.
*/
public void deleteAccount(String acctID) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch;

acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);

acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
accounts.remove(acctIndex); //remove account
System.out.println("Account removed.");
numAccts -= 1; //decrement number of accounts
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}

/**
* Performs a transaction on an existing account. A transCode of 1 is for deposits
* and a transCode of 2 is for withdrawals.
* pre: transCode is 1 or 2.
* post: A transaction has occurred for an existing account.
*/
public void transaction(int transCode, String acctID, double amt) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch, acct;

acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);

acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
acct = accounts.get(acctIndex); //retrieve object to modify
if (transCode == 1) {
acct.deposit(amt);
accounts.set(acctIndex, acct); //replace object with updated object
System.out.println(acct);
} else if (transCode == 2) {
acct.withdrawal(amt);
accounts.set(acctIndex, acct); //replace object with updated object
System.out.println(acct);
}
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 325

 /**
* Displays the account information, including the current balance,
* for an existing account.
* pre: none
* post: Account information, including balance, has been displayed.
*/
public void checkBalance(String acctID) {
int acctIndex;
Account acctToMatch, acct;

acctToMatch = new Account(acctID);

acctIndex = accounts.indexOf(acctToMatch); //retrieve location of account
if (acctIndex > -1) {
acct = accounts.get(acctIndex); //retrieve object to display
System.out.println(acct);
} else {
System.out.println("Account does not exist.");
}
}

/**
* Accounts are written to a file for storage.
* pre: none
* post: accounts have been written to acctFile.
*/
public void updateAccounts(File acctsFile) {

try {
FileOutputStream out = new FileOutputStream(acctsFile);
ObjectOutputStream writeAccts = new ObjectOutputStream(out);
writeAccts.writeInt(numAccts);
for (Object acct : accounts){
writeAccts.writeObject(acct);
}
writeAccts.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File could not be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: " + e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem with input/output.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

The Account class need only be modified to implement the Serializable

class:
/**
* Account class.
*/

import java.io.*;
import java.text.NumberFormat;

public class Account implements Serializable {

…rest of Account class (refer to Chapter 10 case study)

326 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

 The Customer class need only be modified to implement the Serializable
class:
/**
* Customer class.
*/

import java.io.*;

public class Customer implements Serializable {

…rest of Customer class (refer to Chapter 10 case study)

Running the LocalBank2 application displays the same output as the

LocalBank application:

LocalBank2 Testing and Debugging

The LocalBank2 application should be tested to be sure that it works
appropriately when no file exists, when a file with no accounts exists, and
when a file with accounts exists.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 327

Review: LocalBank2
Modify the Bank class to keep track of accounts with low balances. A low balance is an account with less
than $20.00. The number of low balance accounts should be stored after the number of accounts, but before
the account objects in the account file. Have the number of low balance accounts displayed when a Bank
object is created and again when the updateAccounts() method is called.

Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed files and exception handling. A file is a data
stored on a persistent medium such as a hard disk or CD. In Java, a File
object is associated with a file name. A File object can be used to create or
delete a file.
An exception is an error affecting program execution. An exception
handler is a block of code that performs an action when an exception
occurs. This chapter introduced the try-catch-finally statement for writ-
ing exception handlers.
A file must be associated with a stream in order to read and write to the
file. A file stream processes characters and is used to perform sequential
file access. The FileReader, BufferedReader, FileWriter, and BufferWriter
classes are used to read and write to a file.
An application written to process numeric data from a file must convert
the file data from a strings to numerics. The Double and Integer classes
contain methods for converting numeric characters in a string to an int
or a double.
Objects can be written to a file in a process called object serialization.
Reading objects from a file is called object deserialization. Serialization and
deserialization are performed with an object stream. The FileOutputStream,
ObjectOutputStream, FileInputStream, and ObjectInputStream classes are
used to write and read objects to a file. The ObjectOutputStream and
ObjectInputStream classes can also be used to write and read primitve
data to a file.

328 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Vocabulary

ClassNotFoundException An exception thrown IOException An exception thrown when a file

if a stream cannot be read or a class cannot be cannot be created, or when there is a general input/
deserialized. output problem.

End of file A –1 in the file stream. Line terminator A carriage return followed by a
line feed in the file stream.
err stream The stream used for displaying error
messages to the user. Object deserialization The process used to read
objects from a file.
Exception An error affecting program execution.
Object serialization The process used to write
Exception handler A block of code that performs
objects to a file.
an action when an exception occurs.
Output file stream A file stream for writing to a
File A collection of related data stored on a per-
file.
sistent medium.
Persistent Lasting.
FileNotFoundException An exception thrown
when a file does not exist. Sequential file access Reading and writing one
character after another.
File position The point at which reading or writing
in the stream last occurred. Stream The construct used for processing
characters.
Handle Take care of.
Throw Generate.
Input file stream A file stream for reading a file.

Java

BufferedReader A java.io class used for creating FileWriter The java.io class used for creating a file
a buffered file stream for reading a file. stream for writing to a file.
BufferedWriter A java.io class used for creating a Integer A java.lang class for converting numeric
buffered file stream for writing to a file. text in a string to an int.
Double A java.lang class for converting numeric try-catch-finally Statement used to write an excep-
text in a string to a double. tion handler.
File The java.io class used for creating an object ObjectInputStream A java.io class used for creating
that refers to a file. an object for reading objects from a file.
FileInputStream A java.io class used for creating ObjectOutputStream A java.io class used for creat-
an object input stream. ing an object for writing objects to a file.
FileOutputStream A java.io class used for creating
an object output stream.
FileReader The java.io class used for creating a file
stream for reading a file.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 329

 Critical Thinking

1. Can data in memory be called a file? Explain. c) Z-1 is the end of file.
d) A file on disk is a set of numbers ranging
2. Write the import statement required to access from 0 to 9.
the File Class in an application. e) Numeric data in a file must be converted to
a primitive data type before it can be pro-
3. Identify the error in the following statement: cessed numerically.
File textFile = new File("c:\inventory.txt"); f) A FileNotFoundException exception is
thrown if a file cannot be closed.
4. a) Which statement is used to write an excep- g) The output file stream is a file stream for
tion handler? writing to the screen.
b) Write an exception handler to handle an h) Reading an object from a file requires
IOException if a specified file name cannot casting.
be used to create a file. The exception han-
dler should display appropriate messages to
the user.

5. a) What is the name of the stream for display-

ing error messages.
b) Where are these messages displayed?

6. a) What does the file stream keep track of?

b) What characters together make up a line
terminator?

7. What two classes are used together to write data

to a file?

8. Write a statement to convert account balances

that have been read from a text file to a double
value and add them to totalBalance.

9. Explain the difference between object serializa-

tion and object deserialization.

10. What interface must be implemented if objects

of a class are to be written to a file?

11. Describe two situations where an IOException

exception could be thrown, and write an exam-
ple exception handler for each situation to out-
put an appropriate message if the exception
occurs.

True/False
12. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
a) An exception always results in program
termination.
b) Sequential file access reads and writes data
one character after another or one line after
another.

330 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Exercises

Exercise 1 ———————————————————— WordCount

Create a WordCount application that displays the number of words and the average word length in a
text file named source.txt. Consider a word to be any sequence of letters terminated by nonletters. For
example, forty-nine is two words.

Exercise 2 ————————————————————— WordStats

a) Create a WordStats application that lists all the unique words in a file and how many
times they occurred. WordStats should ignore capitalization. The application should
provide a listing similar to:
WORD OCCURENCES
the 57
and 12
zoo 3

b) Modify the WordStats application to list the words in alphabetical order. This can be
done by either using the sorting algorithm presented in Chapter 10, Exercise 11 or by
keeping the words in order as they are read.

Exercise 3 ——————————————————— TestProcessor

Test results for a multiple choice test can be stored in a text file as follows:
Line 1: The correct answers, one character per answer
Line 2: Name of the first student (length <= 30 chars)
Line 3: Answers for the student in line 2
The remaining lines: student names and answers on separate lines

For example:
BADED
Smithgall
BADDD
DeSalvo
CAEED
Darji
BADED

Create a TestProcessor application that processes the test results file for any number of students. The
application should provide statistics similar to:
Smithgall 80%
DeSalvo 60%
Darji 100%

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 331

Exercise 4 —————————————————————— MadLib
A Mad-Lib story is a story where nouns and verbs in a paragraph are randomly replaced with other
nouns and verbs, usually with humorous results. Create a MadLib application that displays a Mad-Lib
story. The application will require three files:
• story.txt which contains a story with # signs as noun placeholders, and % signs as
verb placeholders. For example:
Bugsy Kludge is a # with our company.
His job is to % all of the #s.

• verbs.txt which contains verbs, one per line. For example:

run
display
eat

• nouns.txt which contains nouns, one per line. For example:

banana
soprano
elephant
vegetable

Application output should display the story with apporpriate replacements made. A possible output
would produce a MadLib similar to:
Bugsy Kludge is a vegetable with our company.
His job is to display all of the elephants.

Exercise 5 ———————————————————— MergeFiles

The idea of merging two or more files is an important one in programming. One approach is to merge
the ordered data of two files into a third file, keeping the data in order.

Create a MergeFiles application that merges the integers ordered from low to high in two files into a
third file, keeping the order from low to high. For example, two files of integers could contain:
File 1: 12 23 34 45 56 67 69 123 133
File 2: 4 5 10 20 35 44 100 130 150 160 180

The application should not use an array to temporarily store the numbers, but should merge the two
files by taking one element at a time from each. After MergeFiles has been run, the third file should
contain:
4 5 10 12 20 23 34 35 44 45 56 67 69 100 123 130 133 150 160 180

Exercise 6 ö ——————————————————— MergeLarge

The algorithm implemented in Exercise 5 is sometimes used as part of a sorting algorithm with data
that is too large to be stored in memory at once. For example, to sort a large file large.dat that is twice
as large as will fit in memory, half can be read into an array, the array sorted, and then written to a file
numbers1.dat. Next, the second half of large.dat can be read into the array, sorted, and then written to
numbers2.dat. Finally, the two files can be merged in order back into large.dat. Create a MergeLarge
application that implements this algorithm. Test the application with a file that contains 30 integers
sorted from low to high.

332 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Exercise 7 ———————————————————— HTMLViewer
The early success of the Web is largely due to the simplicity of HTML (HyperText Markup Language),
for designing a Web page. HTML documents are text documents containing content and tags that
describe the format of the content. An HTML document could look similar to:
JUNE BUGS<p>June bugs RAM in megabytes of fleshy fruit,<br>downsize fine fat
figs<br>chip away at melon bits.<br>They monitor windows for open screens,<br>seeking
felicity in electricity.<br>Built-in memory warns of websites<br>hiding spiders
with sly designs.<br>Scrolling the scene of leaves and trees,<br>they network the
neighborhood in flashy green jackets,<br>each bug a browser, scanner, looter-
<br>not even knowing the word "computer."<p>by Avis Harley<p><hr>

Tags are enclosed in angle brackets, < >. The tag <br> means to start a new line. The tag <p> means to
start a new paragraph (a blank line). The tag <hr> means to draw a horizontal rule. When these tags
are interpreted, the HTML document above is displayed as:
JUNE BUGS

June bugs RAM in megabytes of fleshy fruit,

downsize fine fat figs
chip away at melon bits.
They monitor windows for open screens,
seeking felicity in electricity.
Built-in memory warns of websites
hiding spiders with sly designs.
Scrolling the scene of leaves and trees,
they network the neighborhood in flashy green jackets,
each bug a browser, scanner, looter-
not even knowing the word "computer."

by Avis Harley

------------------------------------------------

a) HTML documents are interpreted by browser software. Create an HTMLViewer appli-

cation that interprets an HTML file to display the Web content as intended, similar to
the way a browser decides how to display an HTML document.
b) Modify the HTMLViewer application to allow the user to specify the display line width.
For example, a width of 35 should display the HTML document as:
JUNE BUGS

June bugs RAM in megabytes of

fleshy fruit,
downsize fine fat figs
chip away at melon bits.
They monitor windows for open
screens,
seeking felicity in electricity.
Built-in memory warns of websites
hiding spiders with sly designs.
Scrolling the scene of leaves and
trees,
they network the neighborhood in
flashy green jackets,
each bug a browser, scanner,
looter-
not even knowing the word
"computer."

by Avis Harley

-----------------------------------

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 333

Exercise 8 ö ———————————————————— CarRecall
Modify the CarRecall application created in Chapter 6, Exercise 4 to load the defective car model
numbers from a file.

Exercise 9 ö ——————————————————— WordGuess

Modify the WordGuess case study from Chapter 6 to use a word from a file as the secret word. The file
should contain a list of words, with one word per line. The WordGuess application should determine
which word to use, by generating a random number that corresponds to one of the words in the file.

Exercise 10 —————————————————— FindAndReplace

Create a FindAndReplace application that prompts the user for a file name, a search word or phrase,
and a replacement word or phrase. After entering the replacement word or phrase, FindAndReplace
finds all occurrences of the search word or phrase in a file and replaces them with the specified replace-
ment word or phrase.

Exercise 11 —————————————————— ApplicationDoc

Create an ApplicationDoc application that prompts the user for the file name of a Java source code file
(the file name extension should be java) and then copies all the documentation comments (/** */) to
a separate file.

Exercise 12 ö ———————————————————— MySavings

Modify the MySavings application from Chapter 8, Exercise 1 to store and load the PiggyBank object
from a file.

Exercise 13 ö —————————————————————— Adder

Modify the Adder application from Chapter 8, Exercise 8 to keep track of player scores in a file. The
application should prompt the player for his or her name and then create a file based on the player
name. For example, if the player’s name is Jo, then a file named JoScores.txt should be created. The
application should write the player’s score to their file at the end of the game and then display the
player’s previous scores.

Exercise 14 ö ——————————————————— CountVowels

Modify the CountVowels application created in Chapter 6, Exercise 20 to count the number of vowels
in a text file. The application should prompt the user for the file name.

334 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling

Exercise 15 ö —————————————————————— Coder
Modify the Coder application created in Chapter 10, Exercise 10 to encode the text in one file and write
it to a new file.

Exercise 16 ö —————————————————— CourseGrades

Modify the CourseGrades application created in Chapter 10, Exercise 12 to write the GradeBook object
to a file.

Exercise 17 ö ——————————————————————— Life

Modify the Life application created in Chapter 10, Exercise 14 to retrieve the initial life grid from a
file.

Exercise 18 ö ———————————————————— Inventory

Modify the Inventory application created in Chapter 10, Exercise 16 to write the inventory items to a
file.

Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling 335

336 Chapter 12 Files and Exception Handling
 Chapter 13
Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

A lgorithms for searching and sorting data will be covered in this

chapter. Recursion will be used in the implementation of some of these
algorithms.

Selection Sort
Sorting is the process of putting items in a designated order, either from
low to high or high to low. The selection sort algorithm starts by finding
the lowest item in a list and swapping it with the first. Next, the lowest
item among items 2 through the last is found and swapped with item 2,
and then the lowest item among items 3 through the last is swapped with
item 3. This process is continued until the last item is reached, at which
point all the items are sorted.
The selection sort algorithm compares an element to the items in the
array after the element. This algorithm can be implemented with nested
for loops. The outer loop controls which element to compare and the inner
for loop iterates through the array after the element (the subarray). The
selection sort pseudocode for sorting an array of items from low to high
appears like:
for (arrayIndex = 0 to numItems-1) {
for (subarrayIndex = arrayIndex to numItems-1) {
if (items[subarrayIndex] < items[arrayIndex]) {
swap items[subarrayIndex] and items[arrayIndex]
}
}
}

The Sorts class on the next page implements a selectionSort() method:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 337

 public class Sorts {

/**
* Sorts an array of data from low to high
* pre: none
* post: items has been sorted from low to high
*/
public static void selectionSort(int[] items) {

for (int index=0; index<items.length; index++) {

for (int subIndex=index; subIndex<items.length; subIndex++) {
if (items[subIndex] < items[index]) {
int temp = items[index];
items[index] = items[subIndex];
items[subIndex] = temp;
}
}
}
}
}

The TestSorts application generates an array of integers and then calls

selectionSort() to sort the array elements:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestSorts {

public static void displayArray(int[] array) {

for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
System.out.print(array[i] + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numItems;
int[] test;

System.out.print("Enter number of elements: ");

numItems = input.nextInt();

/* populate array with random integers */

test = new int[numItems];
for (int i = 0; i < test.length; i++) {
test[i] = (int)(101 * Math.random());
}
System.out.println("Unsorted:");
displayArray(test);

Sorts.selectionSort(test);

System.out.println("Sorted:");
displayArray(test);
}
}

338 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 The TestSorts application produces output similar to:

Sorting Objects
Relational operators, such as > and <, cannot be used to compare objects.
Objects use methods of their class to determine if one object is greater
equals(), compareTo() than, less than, or equal to another. The equals() method in a class is used
to determine equality. For determining order, the compareTo() method is
used.

Comparable interface Objects that are to be sorted must have a class that implements the
Comparable interface. The String, Double, and Integer clases implement
the Comparable interface. The Circle class in Chapter 9 also implements
the Comparable interface.
An interface cannot be used to instantiate a class. However, an interface
can be used as a data type. An interface data type can reference any class
polymorphism that implements it. This polymorphic behavior makes it possible to imple-
ment a generic sort that works with any list of objects that implement the
Comparable interface.
The Sorts class has been modified to include an overloaded SelectionSort()
method, which has a Comparable array parameter:
/**
* Sorts an array of objects from low to high
* pre: none
* post: Objects have been sorted from low to high
*/
public static void selectionSort(Comparable[] items) {

for (int index = 0; index < items.length; index++) {

for (int subIndex=index; subIndex<items.length; subIndex++) {
if (items[subIndex].compareTo(items[index]) < 0) {
Comparable temp = items[index];
items[index] = items[subIndex];
items[subIndex] = temp;
}
}
}
}

The TestSorts application, on the next page, has been modified to sort
an array of Circle objects:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 339

 import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestSorts {

public static void displayArray(Circle[] array) {

for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
System.out.println(array[i] + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numObjects;
Circle[] test;

System.out.print("Enter number of objects: ");

numObjects = input.nextInt();
input.close();

/* populate array with Circle objects of varying radii */

test = new Circle[numObjects];
for (int i = 0; i < test.length; i++) {
test[i] = new Circle((int)(10 * Math.random() + 1);
}
System.out.println("Unsorted:");
displayArray(test);

Sorts.selectionSort(test);

System.out.println("Sorted:");
displayArray(test);
}
}

The TestSorts application produces output similar to:

340 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

Review: ArrayListSort
Create an ArrayListSort application that implements a selection sort on an ArrayList object. Test the sort with
an ArrayList containing Double objects.

Insertion Sort
More efficient than the selection sort algorithm is the insertion sort
algorithm. An insertion sort starts by sorting the first two items in a list.
This sort is performed by shifting the first item into the second spot if
the second item belongs in the first spot. Next, the third item is properly
inserted within the first three items by again shifting items into their
appropriate position to make room for the moved item. This process is
repeated for the remaining elements.
The insertion sort is illustrated below with an array containing four
elements. Step 1 shows the original list, which contains items 40, 10, 30,
and 20. Step 2 shows that 40 is shifted to make room for the second item,
10. Next, 30 compared to the value in the previous position (40), 40 is
shifted into position 3, 30 is then compared to the value in the previous
position (10), and then 30 is placed at position 2. This process repeats for
the remaining items.

Based on the algorithm, the insertion sort pseudocode for an array of

integers is:
for (index = 1 To array.length - 1) {
temp = array[index]
previousIndex = index - 1
while (array[previousIndex] > temp && previousIndex > 0) {
shift array[previousIndex] up one element
previousIndex = previousIndex - 1
}
if (array[previousIndex] > temp) {
swap the two elements
} else {
insert element at appropriate location
}
}

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 341

 The Sorts class has been modified to include an insertionSort()
method:
/**
* Sorts an array of integer from low to high
* pre: none
* post: Integers have been sorted from low to high
*/
public static void insertionSort(int[] items) {
int temp, previousIndex;

for (int index = 1; index < items.length; index++) {

temp = items[index];
previousIndex = index - 1;
while ((items[previousIndex] > temp) && (previousIndex > 0)) {
items[previousIndex + 1] = items[previousIndex];
previousIndex -= 1; //decrease index to compare current
} //item with next previous item
if (items[previousIndex] > temp) {
/* shift item in first element up into next element */
items[previousIndex + 1] = items[previousIndex];
/* place current item at index 0 (first element) */
items[previousIndex] = temp;
} else {
/* place current item at index ahead of previous item */
items[previousIndex + 1] = temp;
}
}
}

The TestSorts application has been modified to use the insertionSort()

method to sort an array of integers:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestSorts {

public static void displayArray(int[] array) {

for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
System.out.print(array[i] + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numItems;
int[] test;

System.out.print("Enter number of elements: ");

numItems = input.nextInt();

/* populate array with random integers */

test = new int[numItems];
for (int i = 0; i < test.length; i++) {
test[i] = (int)(100 * Math.random());
}
System.out.println("Unsorted:");
displayArray(test);

Sorts.insertionSort(test);

342 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 System.out.println("Sorted:");
displayArray(test);
}
}

The TestSorts application produces output similar to:

Review: ObjectsInsertionSort
Create an ObjectsInsertionSort application that implements an insertion sort on an array of objects. Test the
sort on an array of String objects.

Recursion
A method can call itself. This process is called recursion and the calls
recursive call are referred to as recursive calls. The RecursiveDemo application contains
a method that calls itself:
public class RecursiveDemo {

public static void showRecursion(int num) {

System.out.println("Entering method. num = " + num);
if (num > 1) {
showRecursion(num - 1);
}
System.out.println("Leaving method. num = " + num);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

showRecursion(2);
}
}

The call showRecursion(2) from the main() method is the initial call. In
the showRecursion() method, a call is made to itself passing num - 1. When
showRecursion is called with num equal to 1, the if is skipped and the
remaining statement in the method is executed. At this point the stack of
calls made before num was 1 are executed in the reverse order they were
made, with each call executing the statement in the method after the
recursive call (after the if).
The RecursiveDemo produces the output shown on the next page:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 343

 Recursion is a programming technique that can be used whenever a
problem can be solved by solving one or more smaller versions of the same
problem and combining the results. The recursive calls solve the smaller
problems.
One problem that has a recursive solution is raising a number to a power.
For example, 24 can be thought of as:
24 = 2 * 23 which can be thought of as
23 = 2 * 22 which can be thought of as
22 = 2 * 21 which can be thought of as
21 = 2 * 20 which can be thought of as
1
In each case, the power problem is reduced to a smaller power problem.
A more general solution is:
xn = x * xn–1
However, carefully analyzing this solution shows that there is no stopping
point. For example, 23 would be 2 * 22, which would return 2 * 21, which
returns 2 * 20, which returns 2 * 2–1, and so on. This solution would cause
infinite recursion infinite recursion. To prevent this, a recursive solution must have a base
base case case that requires no recursion. For this solution, when the power is 0, 1
should be returned.
The intPower() method in the Power application implements a recursive
solution for calculating an int raised to an int power to return an int (as
opposed to Math.pow(), which returns a double):
public class Power {

/**
* Returns num to the power power.
* pre: num and power are not 0.
* post: num to the power power has been returned.
*/
public static int intPower(int num, int power) {
int result;
if (power == 0) {
result = 1;
} else {
result = num * intPower(num, power-1);
}
return(result);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int x = intPower(2, 5);
System.out.println(x);
}
}

The Power application produces the output:

344 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

Review: RecursiveFactorial
Create a RecursiveFactorial application that returns the factorial of an integer. The factorial of a number is
the product of all positive integers from 1 to the number. For example, 5! = 5*4*3*2*1. Computing 5! could be
thought of as 5*4! or more generally, n*(n–1)!. By definition, 0! is equal to 1. Compare your recursive solution
to the nonrecursive solution created in the Factorial Review completed in Chapter 6.

Mergesort
The selection sort is simple, but inefficient, especially for large arrays.
TIP Measuring an algorithm’s Imagine using the selection sort process by hand for a pile of 1000 index
efficiency is discussed later in
cards. Searching through the cards for the lowest item would take a long
this chapter.
time, but more importantly, after each search the remaining cards must
be searched again! Each card ends up being examined about 500 times.
The mergesort algorithm takes a “divide-and-conquer” approach to sort-
ing. Imagine the 1000 cards being divided into two piles of 500. Each pile
could then be sorted (a simpler problem) and the two sorted piles could
be combined (merged) into a single ordered pile. To further simplify the
sorting, each subpile could be divided and sorted, and so on. This algo-
rithm is best implemented recursively.
The mergesort pseudocode is:
if there are items remaining {
mergesort the left half of the items
mergesort the right half of the items
merge the two halves into a completely sorted list
}

The mergesort subtasks are recursive calls to mergeSort() and a call to

merge(). The mergesort() method will need arguments indicating which
portion of the array is to be sorted. Similarly, merge() implements the
merging of two halves and needs arguments indicating which portion of
the array is to be merged.
The mergesort() method is defined as:
/**
* Sorts items[start..end]
* pre: start > 0, end > 0
* post: items[start..end] is sorted low to high
*/
public static void mergesort(int[] items, int start, int end) {
if (start < end) {
int mid = (start + end) / 2;
mergesort(items, start, mid);
mergesort(items, mid + 1, end);
merge(items, start, mid, end);
}
}

The stopping condition for the recursive function is determined by

comparing start and end. The middle of the array is calculated using
integer division, which automatically truncates the decimal portion of the
quotient.

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 345

 The merge() method uses a temporary array to store items moved from
two sorted portions of the items array. The elements are moved so that the
temporary array is sorted. To illustrate the merge() algorithm, suppose at
entry to merge() the array looks like:

The array is sorted from start to mid and from mid+1 to end. The merge()
method starts by examining the first element of each sorted portion, start
and mid+1, as indicated by pos1 and pos2:

Since items[pos1] < items[pos2], the element items[pos1] is moved to the

new array, and pos1 is incremented:

fei' c_Z fei(

In this case, items[pos1] > items[pos2], so the the element items[pos2] is

moved to the new array and pos2 incremented:

This process is repeated until all items have been moved. Since it is likely
that one array portion will be exhausted before the other, merge() tests for
this case and just moves items from the remaining list. Finally, merge()
copies the merged items in the temporary array to the original array.
The Sorts class has been modified to include a mergesort() method.
Note that the merge() method is private because it is a helper method:

346 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 /**
* Merges two sorted portion of items array
* pre: items[start..mid] is sorted. items[mid+1..end] sorted.
* start <= mid <= end
* post: items[start..end] is sorted.
*/
private static void merge(int[] items, int start,
int mid, int end) {
int[] temp = new int[items.length];
int pos1 = start;
int pos2 = mid + 1;
int spot = start;

while (!(pos1 > mid && pos2 > end)) {

if ((pos1 > mid) ||
((pos2 <= end) && (items[pos2] < items[pos1]))) {
temp[spot] = items[pos2];
pos2 += 1;
} else {
temp[spot] = items[pos1];
pos1 += 1;
}
spot += 1;
}
/* copy values from temp back to items */
for (int i = start; i <= end; i++) {
items[i] = temp[i];
}

/**
* Sorts items[start..end]
* pre: start > 0, end > 0
* post: items[start..end] is sorted low to high
*/
public static void mergesort(int[] items, int start, int end) {
if (start < end) {
int mid = (start + end) / 2;
mergesort(items, start, mid);
mergesort(items, mid + 1, end);
merge(items, start, mid, end);
}
}

The if in the merge() method says that if the pos1 (left) subarray is
exhausted, or if the pos2 (right) subarray is not exhausted and the pos2
element is less than the pos1 element, then move an item from the pos2
subarray to the temp array, otherwise move an item from the pos1 subar-
ray. This process continues until both subarrays are exhausted.

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 347

 The TestSorts application has been modified to use the mergesort()
method to sort an array of integers:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestSorts {

public static void displayArray(int[] array) {

for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
System.out.print(array[i] + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numItems;
int[] test;

System.out.print("Enter number of elements: ");

numItems = input.nextInt();

/* populate array with random integers */

test = new int[numItems];
for (int i = 0; i < test.length; i++) {
test[i] = (int)(100 * Math.random());
}
System.out.println("Unsorted:");
displayArray(test);

Sorts.mergesort(test, 0, test.length - 1);

System.out.println("Sorted:");
displayArray(test);
}
}

The TestSorts application produces output similar to:

Review: ObjectsMergesort
Create an ObjectsMergesort application that implements a mergesort on an array of objects. Test the sort on
an array of String objects.

348 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 Binary Search
Arrays are sorted in order to perform a more efficient search. A binary
TIP The linear search algorithm search is used with a sorted list of items to quickly find the location of
was introduced in Chapter 10. a value. Like the mergesort algorithm, the binary search algorithm also
A linear search, also called a takes a divide-and-conquer approach. It works by examining the middle
sequential search, is much less item of an array sorted from low to high, and determining if this is the
efficient than a binary search. item sought, or if the item sought is above or below this middle item. If
However, a linear search does
the item sought is below the middle item, then a binary search is applied
not require a sorted list.
to the lower half of the array; if above the middle item, a binary search is
applied to the upper half of the array, and so on.
For example, a binary search for the value 5 in a list of items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, and 7 could be visualized as:

The binary search algorithm is very efficient. For example, an array of

100 elements checks no more than 8 elements in a search, and in an array
of one million items no more than 20 items are checked. If a list of the
entire world’s population were to be searched using this algorithm, less
than 40 checks are made to find any one person.
The binary search algorithm can be implemented recursively. The
pseudocode for a recursive solution appears like:
if (goal == items[mid]) {
return(mid)
} else if (goal < items[mid]) {
return(binarySearch(lowerhalf)
} else {
return(binarySearch(upperhalf)
}

The Searches class on the next page implements a binary search:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 349

 public class Searches{

/**
* Searches items array for goal
* pre: items is sorted from low to high
* post: Position of goal has been returned,
* or -1 has been returned if goal not found.
*/
public static int binarySearch(int[] items, int start,
int end, int goal) {

if (start > end) {

return(-1);
} else {
int mid = (start + end) / 2;
if (goal == items[mid]) {
return(mid);
} else if (goal < items[mid]) {
return(binarySearch(items, start, mid-1, goal));
} else {
return(binarySearch(items, mid+1, end, goal));
}
}
}
}

The TestSorts application has been modified to sort an array of integers

and then prompt the user for a number to search for:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.Math;

public class TestSorts {

public static void displayArray(int[] array) {

for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
System.out.print(array[i] + " ");
}
System.out.println("\n");
}

public static void sortIntArray() {

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
int numItems, searchNum, location;
int[] test;

System.out.print("Enter number of elements: ");

numItems = input.nextInt();

/* populate and sort array */

test = new int[numItems];
for (int i = 0; i < test.length; i++) {
test[i] = (int)(100 * Math.random());
}
Sorts.mergesort(test, 0, test.length - 1);
System.out.println("Sorted:");
displayArray(test);

350 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 /* search for number in sorted array */
System.out.print("Enter a number to search for: ");
searchNum = input.nextInt();
while (searchNum != -1){
location = Searches.binarySearch(test, 0,
test.length-1, searchNum);
System.out.println("Number at position: " + location);
System.out.print("Enter a number to search for: ");
searchNum = input.nextInt();
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

sortIntArray();
}
}

The modified TestSorts application displays output similar to:

Review: SearchLocations
Create a SearchLocations application that displays the positions examined during a binary search. The
application output should look similar to:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 351

Review: ObjectsBinarySearch
Create an ObjectsBinarySearch application that implements a binary search on an array of objects. Test the
search on an array of String objects.

Review: BinarySearch2
Create a BinarySearch2 application that implements a nonrecursive binary search. The binary search algo-
rithm can be implemented without recursion by doing the following:
• Enclose the method body with a do-while loop
• Replace the recursive calls with appropriate assignments to the values of start or
end.

Depth-First Searching
Many programs generate and search through a series of possibilities,
such as:
• different paths through a maze
• different possible ways of making change
• different possible plays in a game
• different schedules for a student in a school
• different pixels reachable from an initial pixel
All these tasks can be solved through the recursive technique called depth-
first searching. The depth-first searching algorithm works by searching from
a given starting position, processing that position, and then (recursively)
searching from all adjacent positions.
Depth-first searching can be illustrated in a DetectColonies application
that allows a researcher to determine the number and size of distinct
colonies of bacteria on a microscope slide. The slide has been converted to
digital format, where a * represents a cell that is part of a colony, and a -
represents the background color of the slide. A slide file has the format:
First line: length of slide
Second line: width of slide
Remaining lines: slide data.
For example, a slide file could look similar to:
7
9
---------
---*--*--
--***-**-
***---*--
**-**----
---****--
---*--*--

352 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 Cells are considered to be part of the same colony if they touch hori-
zontally or vertically. The example slide contains three colonies. Counting
rows and columns starting from zero, one colony has a cell at (1, 3) and
contains 9 elements. Another colony has four elements with a cell at (1,
6), and the third has eight elements with a cell at (4, 3). Note that the first
and third colonies are considered separate because they touch across a
diagonal but not horizontally or vertically.
The DetectColonies application analyzes the slide and displays the fol-
lowing output:

A depth-first search is appropriate here because once a colony cell is

detected, all the possible directions for connected cells must be searched.
If a connected cell is a colony cell, then all the possible directions for that
cell must be searched, and so on. The basic idea is that, given a starting
cell at (row, col) in a colony, the total number of connected cells in that
colony can be found as:
1 for the starting cell
+ count of connected cells starting with (row+1, col)
+ count of connected cells starting with (row–1, col)
+ count of connected cells starting with (row, col+1)
+ count of connected cells starting with (row, col–1)

The latter four lines are recursive calls. To find the starting cells, each cell
in the slide is tested with a nested for loop.
When implementing a depth-first search algorithm, code must be
included to avoid infinite recursion. For example, a starting cell of (1, 3)
generates a recursive call with cell (2, 3), which generates a call with (1, 3)
again, which generates a call with (2, 3), and so on. For this application, a
cell will be changed to the background color once it has been examined.
This makes counting colonies a destructive algorithm.
The DetectColonies application can be modeled with a Slide class. The
constructor will load the slide data into variable member slideData, which
is a two-dimensional array appropriate for modeling the slide. Method
members displaySlide() and displayColonies() will display the slide and
determine the colonies. Member constants COLONY and NON _ COLONY will
represent * and -.
The displayColonies() method checks each cell of the entire slide, and
whenever a colony cell is encountered, displayColonies() determines the
colony size and displays data about the colony. To determine the size,
displayColonies() calls a private member method collectCells(), which
changes a cell to the background once it is counted.
The Slide class is implemented on the next page:

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 353

 import java.io.*;

public class Slide {

private char COLONY = '*', NON _ COLONY = '-';
private char[][] slideData;

/**
* constructor
* pre: Slide file contains valid slide data in the format:
* first line: lenght of slide
* second line: width of slide
* remaining lines: slide data
* post: Slide data has been loaded from slide file.
*/
public Slide(String s) {

try {
File slideFile = new File(s);
FileReader in = new FileReader(slideFile);
BufferedReader readSlide = new BufferedReader(in);
int length = Integer.parseInt(readSlide.readLine());
int width = Integer.parseInt(readSlide.readLine());
slideData = new char[length][width];
for (int row = 0; row < length; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < width; col++) {
slideData[row][col] = (char)readSlide.read();
}
readSlide.readLine(); //read past end-of-line
}
readSlide.close();
in.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File does not exist or could not
be found.");
System.err.println("FileNotFoundException: "
+ e.getMessage());
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Problem reading file.");
System.err.println("IOException: " + e.getMessage());
}
}

/**
* Determines a colony size
* pre: none
* post: All colony cells adjoining and including
* cell (Row, Col) have been changed to NON _ COLONY,
* and count of these cells is returned.
*/
private int collectCells(int row, int col) {

if ((row < 0) || (row >= slideData.length) ||

(col < 0) || (col >= slideData[0].length)
|| (slideData[row][col] != COLONY)) {
return(0);
} else {
slideData[row][col] = NON _ COLONY;
return(1+
collectCells(row+1, col)+
collectCells(row-1, col)+
collectCells(row, col+1)+
collectCells(row, col-1));
}
}

354 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 /**
* Analyzes a slide for colonies and displays colony data
* pre: none
* post: Colony data has been displayed.
*/
public void displayColonies() {
char[][] temp;
int count;

for (int row = 0; row < slideData.length - 1; row++) {

for (int col = 0; col < slideData[0].length; col++) {
if (slideData[row][col] == COLONY) {
count = collectCells(row, col);
System.out.println("Colony at (" + row + "," + col
+ ") with size " + count);
}
}
}
}

/**
* Displays a slide.
* pre: none
* post: Slide data has been displayed.
*/
public void displaySlide() {

for (int row = 0; row < slideData.length; row++) {

for (int col = 0; col < slideData[0].length; col++) {
System.out.print(slideData[row][col]);
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}

The depth-first search algorithm is implemented in the helper method

collectCells(). The first if statement checks to see that the current posi-
tion is on the slide and contains a colony cell. This eliminates the need to
check before each recursive call. As good programming style, it is better
to check data at the start of the recursive function rather than before each
call.
The DetectColonies application is relatively simple:
public class DetectColonies {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Slide culture = new Slide("slide.dat");

culture.displaySlide();
culture.displayColonies();
}
}

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 355

 The DetectColonies application displays output similar to:

Review: DetectColonies – part 1 of 3

How must the DetectColonies application be modified if the definition of a colony allowed the colony to be
connected across diagonals? What colonies would be reported by DetectColonies for the sample slide?

Review: DetectColonies – part 2 of 3

Modify the DetectColonies application to display the slide colonies from largest to smallest.

Review: DetectColonies – part 3 of 3

What slide will be output by the second culture.displaySlide() statement if DetectColonies contained the
statements below? Explain.
public static void main(String[] args) {

Slide culture = new Slide("slide.dat");

culture.displaySlide();
culture.displayColonies();
culture.displaySlide();
}

Algorithm Analysis
Algorithm analysis includes measuring how efficiently an algorithm
TIP Theoretical running times performs its task. A more efficient algorithm has a shorter running time.
can be writ ten in Big Oh Running time is related to the number of statements executed to implement
notation, which is a theoretical an algorithm. It can be estimated by calculating statement executions.
measure of an algorithm’s
Running time estimations are usually based on a worst-case set of data.
efficiency.
For example, an array that is already sorted or nearly sorted may require
fewer statement executions than an array of data that is in reverse sorted
order. Since the original state of the data is usually unknown, the worst
case should be assumed.
As a first analysis, consider the selection sort algorithm, which uses
nested for loops to sort items. If the sort is thought of in simplified terms,
with each for statement containing a single statement, for an array of n
items, n * n statements are executed. The selection sort is therefore said
to have a running time of n2.

356 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 The insertion sort algorithm seems more efficient because a while loop
is used within a for loop. This could allow for a faster sort in some cases,
but in the worst case, the insertion sort algorithm executes n statements *
n–1 statements for a running time of about n2.
The mergesort is a more complicated algorithm, but a divide and conquer
approach can be much more efficient than a linear approach. Because this
algorithm divides the array and each subarray in half until the base case
of one element is reached, there are Log2n calls to mergesort() and then n
calls to merge. The mergesort algorithm is said to have running time of
n Log2n.
The binary search also implements a divide and conquer approach.
However, the elements are already ordered. The algorithm is simply
performing a search. Because this algorithm divides the array and each
subarray in half until the base case of one element is reached, there are
Log2n calls to binarySearch(). Therefore, the algorithm is said to have a
running time of Log2n.

Chapter Summary
Sorting is the process of putting items in a designated order, either from
low to high or high to low. The selection sort, insertion sort, and mergesort
algorithms were presented in this chapter. The merge sort algorithm takes
a divide-and-conquer approach to sorting. It is implemented recursively
and is much faster than the selection and insertion sorts.
Objects cannot be compared with relational operators. Therefore, lists of
objects are sorted by implementing an algorithm that uses the Comparable
interface. Interfaces can be used as data types, which allows a generic
implementation of an algorithm that sorts objects. Objects that are to be
sorted must have a class that implements the Comparable interface.
A method can call itself in a process called recursion. Recursion is a
programming technique that can be used whenever a problem can be
solved by solving one or more smaller versions of the same problem and
combining the results. To prevent infinite recursion, a base case that
requires no recursion must be part of the recursive solution.
A binary search algorithm can be used to find an element in a sorted
array. Binary search is implemented recursively and is very efficient. The
depth-first searching algorithm can be used to search through a series
of possibilities. When implementing depth-first searching, code must be
included to avoid infinite recursion.
Algorithm analysis includes how efficiently an algorithm performs its
task. A more efficient algorithm has a shorter running time.

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 357

Vocabulary

Binary search A searching algorithm that recursively Insertion sort A sorting algorithm that repeat-
checks the middle of a sorted list for the item being edly inserts an item into the appropriate position
searched for. of a subarray until the subarray has no items left
to insert.
Base case The part of a recursive solution that
requires no recursion. Recursion The process in which a method calls
itself. A programming technique that can be used
Depth-first search A searching algorithm that
whenever a problem can be solved by solving one
recursively checks a starting position, processes that
or more smaller versions of the same problem and
position, and then searches adjacent positions.
combining the results.
Infinite recursion A recursive solution which has
Recursive call A call to a method from within the
no base case.
same method.
Mergesort A sorting algorithm that recursively
Selection sort A sorting algorithm that repeatedly
divides a list into halves, sorting those halves,
selects the lowest item in a subarray of an array and
and then merging the lists so that the items are in
moves it to the position just before the subarray until
order.
the subarray has no items left to search.

Java

Comparable A java.lang interface that is required

to be implemented by a class if their objects are to
be sorted. Comparable can also be used as a data
type.

358 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 Critical Thinking

1. For the list 4, 6, 2, 10, 9, show how the numbers 5. Use the recursive method below to answer the
are ordered after each loop iteration of the questions:
algorithms: public void ct(int n) {
a) selection sort if (n > 0) {
b) insertion sort ct(n/10);
System.out.println(n % 10);
2. What must be done to a list of items in order to }
}
use a binary search to find a specific item?
a) What output is generated when ct (13) is
3. Use the recursive method below to answer the called?
questions: b) What output is generated when ct(124) is
public void ct(int n) { called?
System.out.println("Starting " + n); c) What output is generated when ct(21785) is
if (n > 0) { called?
ct(n/3); d) What in general does this method do?
System.out.println("Middle " + n);
}
}
6. Use the recursive method below to answer the
questions:
a) What output is generated when ct(13) is
public void whatzItDo() {
called? Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
b) What output is generated when ct(3) is String letter = input.next();
called? if (!letter.equals(".")) {
c) What output is generated when ct(0) is whatzItDo();
called? System.out.print(letter);
}
}
4. Use the recursive method below to answer the
questions: a) What output is generated when the user
public void ct(int n) {
enters T, E, S, T, . ?
System.out.println(n); b) What in general does this method do?
if (n > 0) {
if (n % 2 == 1) { 7. A sorting algorithm is said to be “stable” if two
ct(n/3); items in the original array that have the same
} else { “key value” (the value to be sorted on) maintain
ct(n/2);
}
their relative position in the sorted version. For
} example, assume an array with the following
} data:
Ann Jon Mel Tom Kim
a) What output is generated when ct (13) is
20 19 18 19 22
called?
b) What output is generated when ct(14) is When the array is sorted by age, a stable sort
called? would guarantee that Jon would stay ahead of
c) What output is generated when ct(15) is Tom in the sorted array, as in:
called? Kim Ann Jon Tom Mel
22 20 19 19 18
and not:
Kim Ann Tom Jon Mel
22 20 19 19 18
Which of the sorts presented in this chapter
(selection, mergesort) is stable? For each which
is not stable, give an example of data to illustrate
this.

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 359

True/False
8. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
a) Sorting always puts items in order from low
to high.
b) One measure of the efficiency of a sorting
algorithm is the speed at which it can com-
plete a sort.
c) The selection sort algorithm is more efficient
than the insertion sort.
d) A method can call itself.
e) The merge sort algorithm is more efficient
than the selection sort algorithm for large
arrays.
f) A binary search is used to sort a list of
items.
g) A binary search starts by examining the last
item in an array.
h) The more statements required to complete a
task, the more efficient the algorithm.
i) An interface can be used as a data type.
j) A recursive solution that has no base case
results in infinite recursion.
k) An insertion sort recursively divides a list
into halves, sorting those halves, and then
merging the lists in order.

360 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

Exercises

Exercise 1 —————————————————————— Friends

Create a Friends database application that maintains a file of Friend objects that contain names, tele-
phone numbers, and email addresses. The Friends application should load Friend records from a file
and then allow the user to add new friends, delete friends, display a list of all friends by either first
name or last name, and search for a friend. The application should display a menu similar to:

Exercise 2 ——————————————————— TernarySearch

Modify the Searches class to include a ternarySearch() method. A ternary search, similar to a binary
search, divides an array into three pieces rather than two. A ternary search finds the points that divide
the array into three roughly equal pieces, and then uses these points to determine where the goal
should be searched for.

Exercise 3 ———————————————— InterpolationSearch

Modify the Searches class to include an interpolationSearch() method. An interpolation search is a
variation of the binary search. The idea is to look in a likely spot, not necessarily the middle of the
array. For example, if the value sought is 967 in an array that holds items ranging from 3 to 1022, it
would be intelligent to look nearly at the end of the array. Mathematically, because 967 is about 95% of
the way from 3 to 1022, the position to start searching at is a position 95% of the way down the array.
For example, if the array holds 500 elements, the first position to examined is 475 (95% of the way from
1 to 500). The search then proceeds to a portion of the array (either 1..474 or 476..500) depending upon
whether 967 is greater or less than the 475th element.

Exercise 4 ————————————————————— NumDigits

Create a NumDigits application that includes a recursive method numDigits() that returns the number
of digits in its integer parameter. Numbers –9 through 9 have one digit; numbers –99 to –10 and 10 to
99 have two digits, and so on. (Hint: the number of digits of a number n is one more than the number
of digits in n/10.)

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 361

Exercise 5 —————————————————— DetectColonies2
Create a DetectColonies2 application that is based on DetectColonies presented in this chapter. This
application gives improved colony results because slides are now digitized to report color. For example,
a slide file could look similar to:
6
8
00550000
00050000
00005500
01200000
01111000
00000030

The digits 1 through 9 represent various colors. The digit 0 represents black (background color).

The DetectColonies2 application should display a listing of the size, location, and color value of each
colony on the slide. A colony is defined as a connected (horizontally or vertically) sequence of cells
holding the same color value. For the above slide, the application should report:
Color Size Location
5 3 1, 3
5 2 3, 5
1 5 4, 2
2 1 4, 3
3 1 6, 7

Exercise 6 ————————————————————— Knapsack

A well-known problem in computer science is called the knapsack problem. A variation is as follows:

Given a collection of weights of (possibly) different integral values, is it possible to

place some of the weights in a knapsack so as to fill it to some exact total weight?
For example, if the weights are 3, 5, 6, and 9, then it is possible for such totals as 3, 8,
11, 14, 17, etc. to be made exactly, but 2, 4, 22, etc. are not possible.
Create a Knapsack application that solves this problem. The fillKnapsack() method handles the first
weight, and then recursively handles the remaining weights with an isPossible() helper method.
fillKnapsack() and isPossible() have the following declarations:
/* Returns true if there exists a subset of the items in
* weights[start..weights.length] that sum to goal.
* pre: items in weights[start..weights.length] > 0
* post: true has been returned if there exists a subset
* of items in weights[start..weights.length] that sum to goal.
*/
fillKnapsack(int[] weights, int goal, int start)

362 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 /* Returns true if there exists a subset of the items in
* weights that sum to goal.
* pre: items in weights > 0
* post: true has been returned if there exists a subset
* of items in weight that sum to goal.
*/
isPossible(int[] weights, int goal)

The fillKnapsack algorithm determines if the goal can be found in all of the items not including the
first, or if it can be found by including the first in the subset. The pseudocode is:
if (simple case) {
handle simple cases
} else {
if (fillKnapsack(weights, goal, start+1)) {
return(true);
} else if (fillKnapsack(weights, goal-weights[start], start+1)) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

Note that the simple cases will need to be determined and handled properly.

Exercise 7 ——————————————————————— Maze

A maze can be defined in a file using X characters to represent walls, space characters to represent paths,
and a $ character to represent the goal. For example, a file containing a maze could look similar to:
8
10
XXXXXXXXXX
X X
XX XXX XXX
XX X X
XXXX X X X
X X XXX
X XXXX $X
XXXXXXXXXX

The starting point is assumed to be location (1, 1) and the maze is assumed to have a border. Create a
Maze application that displays the sequence of positions in a path from the start to the goal, or indicate
if no path is available. For example, for the maze above, the application should report:
Path: (6,8) (6,7) (6,6) (5,6) (4,6) (3,6)
(2,6) (1,6) (1,5) (1,4) (1,3) (1,2) (1,1)

Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms 363

Exercise 8 ————————————————————— MyBoggle
The game of Boggle is played on a square board with random letters. The object is to find words
formed on the board by contiguous sequences of letters. Letters are considered to be touching if they
are horizontally, vertically, or diagonally adjacent. For example, the board:
Q W E R T
A S D F G
Z X C V B
Y U A O P
G H J K L

contains the words WAS, WAXY, JOB, and others, but not the word BOX. Words can contain duplicate
letters, but a single letter on the board may not appear twice in a single word, for example POP is not
contained on this board.

Create a MyBoggle application that displays a board of random letters, and allows the user to enter
words found on the board. The application should report if the word entered by the user is indeed on
the board.

Hint: Search the board for the first letter of the word entered, and then recursively search around the
found letter for the remaining letters of the word.

364 Chapter 13 Recursion and Advanced Algorithms

 Chapter 14
Data Structures

D ata structures are discussed in this chapter. Stacks, queues, and

linked lists are covered.

The Stack Data Structure

A data structure organizes data. The stack data structure can contain
many data items just as an array can. Additionally, it has a set of operations
that can be performed on the data.
top A stack structure has a top. For example, the stack shown below holds
three integers. The value 11 is the top item in the stack:

There are two standard operations that can be performed on the items
pop in a stack, and only the top item of a stack can be processed. The pop
operation removes the top item. For example, when a pop is executed on
the stack above, the top value, 11, is removed:

The next item, 34, is now at the top of the stack, and is the only item that
can be accessed.
push Another operation is the push operation, which adds an item to the top
of the stack. For example, if the value 27 is pushed onto the stack, the stack
becomes:

Chapter 14 Data Structures 365

 isEmpty Other stack operations include the isEmpty query, which returns true
size when there are no items in the stack, and false otherwise. The size opera-
tion determines the number of items in a stack. A stack can be emptied
makeEmpty with the makeEmpty operation.
Since the stack is designed so that the last item pushed on is the first
LIFO item to be popped, it is sometimes referred to as a last-in-first-out (LIFO)
data structure. There are a number of applications of stacks, particularly in
writing compiler software. For example, each of the following is generally
performed using a stack:
• Matching of braces, { and }. In Java, a close brace, }, always goes
with the last open brace, {.
• Matching else with if: An else always goes with the last if.
• Matching of parentheses in an expression: A closing parenthesis
always goes with the last open parenthesis.
• Recursion: After completion of a recursive call, control returns
to the last call that was executed. In fact, recursion is sometimes
replaced with a stack.

The Stack Class

A data structure has a specific set of operations that can be performed
on the data it stores. Therefore, a class is often used to implement the data
structure.
The StackDemo application uses a stack:
public class StackDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Stack s = new Stack(10);

System.out.println("Adding 10 and 13 to stack.");

s.push(10);
s.push(13);
System.out.println("Top of stack: " + s.top());
System.out.println("Items in stack: " + s.size());
System.out.println("Removing top item.");
s.pop();
System.out.println("Top of stack: " + s.top());
System.out.println("Items in stack: " + s.size());
System.out.println("Adding a new item.");
s.push(40);
System.out.println("Top of stack: " + s.top());
System.out.println("Items in stack: " + s.size());
}
}

366 Chapter 14 Data Structures

 The StackDemo produces the output:

The Stack class below is a very simple stack implementation that stores
data in an array:
public class Stack {
private int[] data;
private int top;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An empty stack that can hold up to maxItems
* has been created.
*/
public Stack(int maxItems) {
data = new int[maxItems];
top = -1; //no items in the array
}

/**
* Returns the top item without removing it from the stack.
* pre: Stack contains at least one item.
* post: The top item has been returned while leaving it
* on the stack.
*/
public int top() {
return(data[top]);
}

/**
* Removes the top item from the stack and returns it.
* pre: Stack contains at least one item.
* post: The top item of the stack has been removed
* and returned.
*/
public int pop() {
top -= 1;
return(data[top + 1]);
}

Chapter 14 Data Structures 367

 /**
* Adds an item to the top of the stack if there is room.
* pre: none
* post: A new item has been added to the top of the stack.
*/
public void push(int num) {
if (top < data.length - 1) {
top += 1;
data[top] = num;
}
}

/**
* Determines if there are items on the stack.
* pre: none
* post: true returned if there are items on the stack,
* false returned otherwise.
*/
public boolean isEmpty() {
if (top == -1) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Returns the number of items in the stack.
* pre: none
* post: The number of items in the stack is returned.
*/
public int size() {
if (isEmpty()) {
return(0);
} else {
return(top + 1);
}
}

/**
* Empties the stack.
* pre: none
* post: There are no items in the stack.
*/
public void makeEmpty() {
top = -1;
}
}

The Stack class implements a stack for int values. A generic implemen-
tation would use objects. This implementation is completed in the Stack2
review.

Review: Stack2
Create a Stack2 class that implements a stack data structure for data type Object. Since Object is the super-
class of other objects, a Stack2 object can store objects from any class. Write appropriate client code to test
the Stack2 class.

368 Chapter 14 Data Structures

Review: Stack3
The Stack class is limited because the stack size cannot change from its initial size. Create a Stack3 class
that implements a stack data structure using an ArrayList. Write appropriate client code to test the Stack3
class.

The Queue Data Structure

A queue is a data structure similar to a stack in that it holds a number
rear, front of data items. However, one end of the queue is referred to as the rear and
the other end the front. For example, the queue shown below holds three
items:

All insertions are made at the rear and all removals are made at the
front.
There are two standard operations that can be performed on a queue.
dequeue The dequeue operation removes an item from the front. For example, when
a dequeue is executed on the queue above, the value at the front, 12, is
removed from the queue:

enqueue The enqueue operation adds an item to the rear of the queue. For example,
if the value 27 is enqueued, the queue becomes:

Other queue operations include the front operation, which returns the
front item without removing it from the queue. The isEmpty query returns
true when there are no items in the queue, and false otherwise. The size
operation determines the number of items in a queue. A queue can be
emptied with the makeEmpty operation.
A queue is analogous to a line at a ticket counter where “first come,
FIFO first served,” and is sometimes referred to as a first in first out (FIFO) data
structure. There are a number of real-world situations that can be repre-
sented as a queue structure. For example:

Chapter 14 Data Structures 369

 • Lines at a toll booth or bank teller
• Waiting lists for tickets on planes
• Pages of data queued up for a printer
• Performing breadth-first-searching where all items near the start-
ing position are examined before looking at those farther away.

The Queue Class

The QueueDemo application uses a queue:
public static void main(String[] args) {
final int MAX _ ITEMS = 3;
Queue q = new Queue(MAX _ ITEMS);
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String choice;
int num;

do {
System.out.print("Add/Remove/Count/Front/Quit: ");
choice = input.next();
if (choice.equalsIgnoreCase("a")) {
if (q.size() < MAX _ ITEMS) {
System.out.print("Number to add: ");
num = input.nextInt();
q.enqueue(num);
} else {
System.out.println("Queue is full.");
}
} else if (choice.equalsIgnoreCase("r")) {
System.out.println("Dequeueing: " + q.dequeue());
} else if (choice.equalsIgnoreCase("c")) {
System.out.println("Items in queue: " + q.size());
} else if (choice.equalsIgnoreCase("f")) {
System.out.println("Front of queue: " + q.front());
} else {
System.out.println("quitting");
}
} while (!choice.equalsIgnoreCase("q"));
}

The QueueDemo produces the output:

The Queue class on the next two pages is a very simple queue imple-
mentation that stores data in an array:

370 Chapter 14 Data Structures

public class Queue {
private int[] data;
private int front, rear, maxSize;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: An empty queue that can hold up to maxItems
* has been created.
*/
public Queue(int maxItems) {
data = new int[maxItems];
front = -1; //no items in the array
rear = -1;
maxSize = maxItems;
}

/**
* Returns the front item without removing it from
* the queue.
* pre: Queue contains at least one item.
* post: The front item has been returned while leaving
* it in the queue.
*/
public int front() {
return(data[front]);
}

/**
* Removes the front item from the queue and returns it.
* pre: Queue contains at least one item.
* post: The front item of the queue has been removed
* and returned.
*/
public int dequeue() {
int num;

num = data[front]; //get front item

//if dequeueing last item then make empty
if (front == rear) {
makeEmpty();
} else {
//move pointer to next item
front = (front + 1) % maxSize;
}
return(num);
}

/**
* Adds an item to the queue if there is room.
* pre: none
* post: A new item has been added to the queue.
*/
public void enqueue(int num) {
if (isEmpty()) { //first item queued
rear = 0;
front = 0;
data[rear] = num;
} else {
rear = (rear + 1) % maxSize;
data[rear] = num;
}
}

Chapter 14 Data Structures 371

 /**
* Determines if there are items on the queue.
* pre: none
* post: true returned if there are items on the queue,
* false returned otherwise.
*/
public boolean isEmpty() {
if (front == -1 && rear == -1) {
return(true);
} else {
return(false);
}
}

/**
* Returns the number of items in the queue.
* pre: none
* post: The number of items in the queue is returned.
*/
public int size() {
if (isEmpty()) {
return(0);
} else { //front item is "in front" of rear item
if (rear > front) {
return(rear - front + 1);
} else if (front == rear + 1) { //queue is full
return(maxSize);
} else { //front item is "behind" rear item
return(front - rear + 1);
}
}
}

/**
* Empties the queue.
* pre: none
* post: There are no items in the queue.
*/
public void makeEmpty() {
front = -1;
rear = -1;
}
}

Because the queue is limited to the number of items it can store, the
front and rear pointers must cycle through the spots available in the
array. Therefore, the front and rear values are calculated using modular
arithmetic (%).
The Queue class implements a queue for int values. A generic imple-
mentation would use objects. This implementation is left as a review.

Review: Queue2
Create a Queue2 class that implements a queue data structure for data type Object. Since Object is the super-
class of other objects, a Queue2 object can store objects from any class. Write appropriate client code to test
the Object2 class.

372 Chapter 14 Data Structures

Review: Queue3
The Queue class is limited because the queue size cannot change from its initial size. Create a Queue3 class
that implements a queue data structure using an ArrayList. Write appropriate client code to test the class.

The Linked List Data Structure

Another way of storing lists of data in memory requires each item to
store information that indicates where the next item is stored. The addi-
tional information is a reference, or pointer, to a data location. This kind
of list data structure is called a linked list, and can be illustrated like:

head, tail The first item in a linked list is called the head. The last item points to
node null and is called the tail. Each element of a linked list is called a node.
There are three nodes in the list above.
TIP Objects stored in memory
are stored in dynamic memory. Because each item in a linked list must contain data and a pointer, an
Dynamic memory is allocated item is best modeled with a class. Therefore, a linked list is a list of objects.
from an area called the heap, The objects in a linked list are organized because they point to each other.
which is used during program There is no need to place them in a structure, such as an array, for orga-
execution. nization. This mean that linked links are not restricted by the size of an
array.
There are two standard operations that can be performed on a linked
addAtFront list. The addAtFront operation adds a new node to the front of the list. When
a new node is added to the front of a linked list, it is simply designated
the head and its pointer is set to the current head. For example, if Raj was
the head, adding a new item means that the new object is now the head
and its pointer points to the Raj object:

remove The remove operation removes an item from the linked list. Removing
an item from a linked list means that the pointer of the previous item is
changed to point to the item after the one to be removed. For example,
removing Raj from the list below means that the object is no longer refer-
enced by another object in the list:

Linked lists are useful for maintaining dynamic lists because the num-
ber of items in a linked list can shrink and grow as needed.

Chapter 14 Data Structures 373

 The LinkedList Class
The LinkedListDemo application uses a linked link:
public class LinkedListDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

LinkedList list = new LinkedList();

list.addAtFront("Sachar");
list.addAtFront("Osborne");
list.addAtFront("Suess");
System.out.println(list);

list.remove("Suess");
list.remove("Sachar");
list.remove("Osborne");
System.out.println(list);
}
}

The LinkedListDemo produces the output:

nested class The LinkedList class below contains a nested class. A nested class is a
class within a class. A nested class is a member of the class it is within. As
a class member, it has access to all the other members of the class, includ-
ing private member variables and methods. A class that contains a class
outer class member is called an outer class. The Node class is a nested class because
its members should only be accessed by a LinkedList object:
public class LinkedList {
private Node head;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A linked list with a null item has been created.
*/
public LinkedList() {
head = null;
}

/**
* Adds a node to the linked list.
* pre: none
* post: The linked list has a new node at the head.
*/
public void addAtFront(String str) {
Node newNode = new Node(str);
newNode.setNext(head);
head = newNode;
}

374 Chapter 14 Data Structures

 /**
* Deletes a node in the linked list.
* pre: none
* post: The first node containing str has been deleted.
*/
public void remove(String str) {
Node current = head;
Node previous = head;

if (current.getData().equals(str)) {
head = current.getNext();
} else {
while (current.getNext() != null) {
previous = current;
current = current.getNext();
if (current.getData().equals(str)) {
previous.setNext(current.getNext());
}
}
}
}

/**
* Creates a string that lists the nodes of the
* linked list.
* pre: none
* post: The linked list has been written to a string.
*/
public String toString() {
Node current = head;
String listString;

if (current != null) {
listString = current.getData() + "\n";
while (current.getNext() != null) {
current = current.getNext();
listString += current.getData() + "\n";
}
return(listString);
} else {
return("There are no items in list.");
}
}

private class Node {

TIP Nested classes were also private String data;
introduced in Chapter 11. private Node next;

/**
* constructor
* pre: none
* post: A node has been created.
*/
public Node(String newData) {
data = newData;
next = null;
}

Chapter 14 Data Structures 375

 /**
* The node pointed to by next is returned
* pre: none
* post: A node has been returned.
*/
public Node getNext() {
return(next);
}

/**
* The node pointed to by next is changed to newNode
* pre: none
* post: next points to newNode.
*/
public void setNext(Node newNode) {
next = newNode;
}

/**
* The node pointed to by next is returned
* pre: none
* post: A node has been returned.
*/
public String getData() {
return(data);
}
}
}

Review: LinkedList – part 1 of 3

Modify the LinkedList class to include a member function size() that returns the number of items in the
list.

Review: LinkedList – part 2 of 3

Modify the LinkedList class to include a member function addAtEnd() that adds a new item to the end of
the linked list.

Review: LinkedList – part 3 of 3

Modify the LinkedList class to include a member function makeEmpty() that removes all the items in the
list

376 Chapter 14 Data Structures

Chapter Summary
The stack, queue, and linked list data structures were introduced in this
chapter. Each data structure organizes data and can be used to perform a
set of operations on that data.
The stack data structure is also called a LIFO structure because the
last item in the first item out. A stack has a top. Operations that can be
performed on a stack include pop, push, isEmpty, size, and makeEmpty.
The queue data structure is also called a FIFO structure because the
first item in is the first item out. A queue has a front and rear. Operations
that can be performed on a queue include enqueue, dequeue, isEmpty,
size, and makeEmpty.
The linked list data structure is a list of objects that point to each other.
The linked list does not have the size limitations of a data structure imple-
mented using an array. A linked list has a head and a tail. Each item in a
linked list is called a node. Operations that can be performed on a linked
list include addAtFront and remove.

Vocabulary

addAtFront A linked list operation where an item Pop A stack operation where the top item is
is added to the front of the list. removed.

Dequeue A queue operation that removes the item Push A stack operation where a new item is
at the front of the queue. added.

Enqueue A queue operation that adds an item to Queue A data structure that has a front and rear
the rear of the queue. and organizes data so that the first item in is the
first item out.
FIFO First In First Out. A queue data structure.
Rear The end of a queue.
Front The start of a queue.
Remove A linked list operation where an item is
Head The first node in a linked list. removed from the list.
isEmpty A stack or queue operation that returns Size A stack or queue operation that returns the
true when there are no items in the data structure number of items in the data structure.
and false otherwise.
Stack A data structure that has a top and organizes
LIFO Last In First Out. A stack data structure. data so that the last item in is the first item out.
Linked list A data structure that has a head and Tail The last node in a linked list. The tail points
tail and contains nodes that point to each other. to null.
Nested class A class that is a member of another Top The last item pushed onto a stack.
class. A class within a class.
Node A linked list element. A node contains the
item and a pointer to the next node.
Outer class A class that contains a class member.

Chapter 14 Data Structures 377

 Critical Thinking

1. Explain the similarities between an array and True/False

a stack.
8. Determine if each of the following are true or
false. If false, explain why.
2. Describe how a programmer might use a stack
a) A stack data structure has a front and a
when writing compiler software.
rear.
b) A stack can be emptied.
3. What output is generated by the following state-
c) In a stack, top refers to the first item pushed
ments if s is a Stack object?
onto a stack.
Stack s = new Stack(10); d) The isEmpty operation returns an i n t
s.push(5);
value.
s.push(8);
int x = s.pop(); e) A queue can hold more than one data item.
s.push(x); f) In a queue, all removals are made at the
s.push(12); rear.
s.push(13); g) The enqueue operation adds an item to the
int y = s.pop(); front of the queue.
System.out.println(x + " " + y);
h) The first item in a linked list is called the
y = s.pop();
x = s.top(); head.
System.out.println(x + " " + y); i) A node refers to an item in a stack.
j) The number of items in a stack or queue can
4. Consider the “hot plate” problem: In a busy res- be determined with the length operation.
taurant, fresh salad plates are brought out and k) In a linked list, the tail points to null.
added to the existing pile of plates. This means
that, even though there may be plates that were
washed long ago, the customer is frequently
stuck with a warm plate for salad. Explain how
this is analogous to a stack.

5. What output is generated by the following state-

ments if q is a Queue object?
Queue q = new Queue(10);
q.enqueue(5);
q.enqueue(8);
int x = q.dequeue();
q.enqueue(x);
q.enqueue(12);
q.enqueue(13);
int y = q.dequeue();
System.out.println(x + " " + y);
y = q.dequeue();
x = q.front();
System.out.println(x + " " + y);

6. Explain the difference between a FIFO and a

LIFO data structure.

7. List two real-world situations that could be rep-

resented as a queue structure other than those
listed in the chapter.

378 Chapter 14 Data Structures

Exercises

Exercise 1 —————————————————————— StackList

The Stack class implemented a stack using an array. A stack can also be implemented using a linked
list. Create a StackList class that implements a stack using a linked list that can store Object data. The
StackList class should implement the standard stack operations. Note that the standard linked list opera-
tions will not be implemented when the linked list is implementing a stack. What are the advantages
or disadvantages of using a linked list rather than an array?

Exercise 2 ———————————————————— ReverseList

Create a ReverseList application that uses a stack to reverse a set of integers entered by the user. The
user should be prompted to enter up to 10 numbers or to terminate the list of numbers by entering 999.
Application output should look similar to:

Exercise 3 ——————————————————— ParenChecker

To analyze an expression with parentheses, the computer must be able to determine which left paren-
thesis any given right parenthesis matches.

a) Create a ParenChecker application that prompts the user to enter an expression with
parentheses, and then displays a list of the positions of pairs of parentheses. The
application should store the positions of the left parentheses on a stack when they are
found. Application output should look similar to:

b) Modify the ParenChecker application to detect the two errors below and display
appropriate error messages:
1. Attempt to pop an empty stack.
2. Stack not empty at the end of the program.

Chapter 14 Data Structures 379

Exercise 4 ————————————————————— QueueList
The Queue class implemented a queue using an array. A queue can also be implemented using a linked
list. Create a QueueList class that implements a queue using a linked list that can store Object data.
The QueueList class should implement the standard queue operations. Note that the standard linked
list operations will not be implemented when the linked list is implementing a queue. What are the
advantages or disadvantages of using a linked list rather than an array?

Exercise 5 ———————————————————————— Stats

a) Create a Stats interface that declares methods sum(), min(), and max(). The member
methods should return an int value that represents the sum of the items in a list, the
minimum value in a list, and the maximum value in a list.
b) Create a LinkedList class that implements the Stats interface and stores int values.
Write client code that tests the modified class.

Exercise 6 ————————————————— DoublyLinkedList

The nodes in a doubly-linked list point to the next and previous nodes, and can be thought of as:

The node of the doubly-linked list may be represented as:

private class Node {
private String data;
private Node next;
private Node prev;
…rest of class

The previous field of the head is set to null.

a) What advantages does this structure offer? What disadvantages?

b) Compare the doubly-linked list with the singly linked list implemented in this chapter.
When would you choose to use one rather than the other?
c) Create a DoublyLinkedList class. Include member methods addAtFront(), addAtEnd(),
remove(), and displayList() and displayReverseList().

380 Chapter 14 Data Structures

 Appendix A
Unicode

E very letter of an alphabet (Latin, Japanese, Cherokee, and so on) and

symbols of every culture (=, @, ½, and so on) have been given a repre-
sentation in a digital code called Unicode. Unicode uses a set of sixteen
1s and 0s to form a 16-bit binary code for each symbol. For example, the
uppercase letter V is Unicode 00000000 01010110, which can be thought
of as the base 10 number 86 (8610). Lowercase v has a separate code of
00000000 01110110, or 11810. Below is a table of some Unicode symbols and
their corresponding decimal and binary equivalents.

Appendix A Unicode 381

382 Appendix A Unicode
 Appendix B
Using JCreator Pro

J Creator Pro is an integrated development environment (IDE). An IDE

provides a workspace that allows for editing, compiling, and running of
source code. The JCreator IDE has a graphical user interface, which makes
it easy to learn and use.

The JCreator IDE

The JCreator IDE can be used to create Java applets, console applications,
and Swing applications. JCreator maintains each applet and application as
a project. Projects are created in a workspace environment, which consists
of several windows:

&ILE 6IEW
WINDOW CODE EDITOR WINDOW

0ACKAGE 6IEW
WINDOW

"UILD /UTPUT WINDOW 'ENERAL /UTPUT WINDOW

• The File View window displays the folders and files associated
with the project workspace.
TIP Commands in the View
menu are used to display • The Package View window displays the classes associated with
and hide the JCreator IDE the project workspace.
windows.
• The code editor window is used to type and edit Java and HTML
code.
• The Output windows display Java program output, build errors,
a task list, and debug output.

Appendix B Using JCreator Pro 383

 To start JCreator, double-click on the Desktop or select Start j All
TIP To reset the JCreator work-
space to the default settings, Programs j JCreator j JCreator. When JCreator is started, if an existing
delete the gui _ options.xml workspace is open, it is important to select File j Close Workspace before
file from the JCreator Options creating a new project because a workspace can contain more than one
folder. project.

Compiling and Running a Program

In JCreator, a Java applet or application must be compiled before it is
run. Compiling automatically saves the program file and converts the Java
source code to bytecode. Select Build j Compile Project or click Compile
Project on the toolbar to compile the program. If the program compiles
successfully, the message ”Process completed.” will appear in the Build
Output window. Next, select Build j Execute Project or click Execute
on the toolbar to run the program and display the program output in the
General Output window.

Creating a Basic Java Applet

Java applets can be viewed in a Web site. Applets are created in Chapter 2.
JCreator contains a Basic Java Applet template that can be modified to eas-
ily create Java Applets. JCreator also contains an Applet Viewer that is used
to view applets as they will appear on a Web page. If the Basic Java Applet
template is not modified, it will appear similar to the window below when
it is compiled and run in JCreator:

JCreator Basic Java Applet template displayed in the

JCreator Applet Viewer
To create a Java Applet, select File j New j Project and then select Basic
Java Applet from the Project Wizard dialog box. Select Next to display the
second Project Wizard dialog box. In the Name box, type a descriptive
applet name, verify that the project paths are correct in the Location, Source
Path, and Output Path boxes. If the project paths are not correct, click

384 Appendix B Using JCreator Pro

 beside the corresponding box and select the appropriate path from the
Select Directory dialog box. Select Finish to create the project workspace,
folders, and files.
A Basic Java application template automatically generates a .java file
and an .htm file. To create an applet, first modify and compile the .java
file. Select File j Execute Project to view the applet in the JCreator Applet
Viewer. Next, modify the .htm file so that the applet is appropriately
placed in the HTML document. The applet can then be viewed in a Web
browser.

Review: Welcome
! START JCREATOR

@ CREATE A NEW PROJECT

a. Select File j New j Project. The Project Wizard dialog box is displayed.
b. In the Project Wizard dialog box, select Basic Java Applet:

c. Select Next. The second Project Wizard dialog box is displayed.

d. In the Name box, type Welcome:

Appendix B Using JCreator Pro 385

 e. Verify that the project paths are correct in the Location, Source Path, and Output Path
boxes. If the project paths are not correct, click beside the corresponding box
and select the appropriate path from the Select Directory dialog box.
f. Select Create new workspace and Local folder system, if they are not already
selected.
g. Select Finish.
h. Select Finish. The File View window displays the folders and files associated with
the Basic Java Applet template. Note that Welcome.java is displayed in the code
editor window.
i. Click to expand the two project folders:

# EDIT TEMPLATE SOURCE CODE

a. If line numbers are not displayed in the code editor window, select Configure j
Options, which displays a dialog box. Select Java and then select the Show line
numbers check box.
b. In line 6, change @author to your name.
c. In line 7, change the date to today’s date.
d. In line 20, change “Welcome to Java!!” to This is my first Java Applet!! and
change “50, 60” to 100, 100:

386 Appendix B Using JCreator Pro

 $ COMPILE THE JAVA SOURCE CODE
Select Build j Compile Project. The Java source code is saved and “Process completed.”
is displayed in the Build Output window.

% VIEW THE APPLET IN JCREATOR VIEWER

a. Select Build j Execute Project. The applet is displayed in the JCreator Applet
Viewer.
b. Close the Applet Viewer window.

^ OPEN AND EDIT THE WELCOME.HTM FILE

a. In the File View window, double-click Welcome.htm to display the HTML template
file in the code editor window.
b. Change <body bgcolor="000000"> to <body bgcolor="006400">.
c. Change the width to 400.
d. Change the height to 200.
e. Select File j Save. The Welcome.htm file is saved.

& QUIT JCREATOR

* VIEW THE APPLET IN A BROWSER

Creating a Console Application

A console application displays text and does not have a GUI interface.
Project Files In JCreator, output for a console application is displayed in the General
Output window. Console applications are created in Chapters 3 through
Project files for a console
application will include the
10 and Chapters 12 through 14.
Java source code (.java), the To create a console application, select File j New j Project and then select
Java bytecode (.class), the
Empty Project from the Project Wizard dialog box. Select Next to display
workspace description file
(.jcw), and the project descrip- the second Project Wizard dialog box. In the Name box, type a descriptive
tion file (.jcp). application name, verify that the project paths are correct in the Location,
Source Path, and Output Path boxes. If the project paths are not correct, click

Appendix B Using JCreator Pro 387

 beside the corresponding box and select the appropriate path from the
TIP A project must have the Select Directory dialog box. Select Finish to create the project workspace
same name as the file that
contains the controlling class. and folder.
A new Java file is then created by selecting File j New j File or clicking
New File on the toolbar, which displays the File Wizard dialog box.
Select Empty Java File and then click Next. Another File Wizard dialog box
is displayed. In the Name box, type the same name as the application name
and then select Finish.
After typing a program, select File j Save All to save the program file(s)
and select File j Save Workspace to associate the file with the workspace. If
the workspace is not saved, the added program file will not appear in the
File View window when the project workspace is opened even though the
program file is in the project directory. When finished working in JCreator,
select File j Exit to remove the JCreator IDE from the Desktop.

Review: Message – part 1 of 2

You will create a project named Message.

! START JCREATOR
Select File j Close Workspace if an existing project is displayed when the IDE is
started.

@ CREATE A NEW PROJECT

a. Select File j New j Project. The Project Wizard dialog box is displayed.
b. In the Project Wizard dialog box, select Empty Project:

c. Select Next. The second Project Wizard dialog box is displayed.

d. In the Name box, type Message:

388 Appendix B Using JCreator Pro

 e. Verify that the project paths are correct in the Location, Source Path, and Output Path
boxes. If the project paths are not correct, click beside the corresponding box
and select the appropriate path from the Select Directory dialog box.
f. Select Create new workspace and Local folder system, if they are not already
selected.
g. Select Finish. The Message workspace file and project folder are displayed in the
File View window.

# ADD A FILE TO THE PROJECT

a. On the toolbar, click New File . The File Wizard dialog box is displayed.
b. Select the options as shown:

c. Select Next.
d. In the Name box, type Message:

Appendix B Using JCreator Pro 389

 e. Select Finish. A Message.java file is created.

$ ENTER A JAVA PROGRAM

In the code editor window, type the following program:

% COMPILE AND RUN MESSAGE

a. Select Build j Compile Project. The Message.java file is saved and the message
“Process completed.” is displayed in the Build Output window:

b. Select Build j Execute Project. The program output window is displayed:

390 Appendix B Using JCreator Pro

^ SAVE THE WORKSPACE AND QUIT JCREATOR
a. Select File j Save Workspace. The project workspace is saved.
b. Select File j Close Workspace.

Errors
The JCreator compiler will display any errors in the Task View window
when the program is compiled:

The Task List displays a description of the error and the

error location
Double-click the error message to display a red arrow next to the line of
code containing the error. To remove an error message, correct the error
and then compile the project.

Opening a Project Workspace and

Printing
To open a project’s workspace, select File j Open Workspace. Use the Look
in list and contents box to display the appropriate workspace file and then
select Open.
To print the source code, click the code editor window and then select
File j Print. Click in the General Output window and then select File j
Print to print application output.

Appendix B Using JCreator Pro 391

Review: Message – part 2 of 2
You will open the Message workspace and print the code.

! OPEN MESSAGE WORKSPACE

a. Select File j Open Workspace. A dialog box is displayed.
b. Use the Look in list and the contents box below it to display file name Message.
c. In the contents box, click Message and then select Open.

@ PRINT MESSAGE
a. In the File View window, double-click Message.java.
b. Click the code editor window.
c. Select File j Print.

# CLOSE THE MESSAGE WORKSPACE

$ QUIT JCREATOR

Adding Files to a Project

A Java application can include multiple classes. Only one class is the con-
trolling class. Other classes define abstract types used in the controlling
class or within the additional classes. Applications that contain multiple
classes are created in Chapters 8 through 14.
To add a new class to a project, add a file to the project and then type
the new class code in this file. To add an existing class to a project, select
Project j Add Files, which displays the Open dialog box. Use the Look in list
and contents box to display the appropriate file. Select the file and then
select Open.

Help Features
JCreator has several help features that can be accessed in the Help menu.
The Help Contents and JDK Help commands access a database of help topics
that can be searched and the JCreator on the Web command provides links
to technical support information on the JCreator Web site.

392 Appendix B Using JCreator Pro

 Index

Symbols <table> 48 algorithm 66

! 112 <title> 37 design 66
!= 105 <ul> 46 stable 359
“ 63 = 78, 86 algorithm analysis 244, 356
% 83 == 105 alignment, Swing API 280
%= 86 comparing objects 186 ALU 2
&& 111 > 105 Amaya 35
* 78, 81, 83 >= 105 AMD 2
*= 86 [] 237, 246 anchor tag 48
+ 83, 138 \ 63 AND 17
toString() 187 \” 63 And 111
++ 135 \\ 63, 310 evaluation 112
+= 86 \n 63 antivirus software 21
+ (plus sign) 17 \t 63 API 60
-- 135 { } 61 appending data to a file 315
- (minus sign) 17 || 111 applets 41, 43
. 80, 81 – 83 adding color 43
.class extension 62 –= 86 drawing shapes 43
.java extension 62 3GL 5 parameters 44
/ 83 4GL 5 placing in an HTML document
/** */ 62, 164 802.11 network 8 44
/* */ 62 appletviewer 42
// 62 A application, terminating gracefully
/= 86 abs(), Math class 113 310
< 105 abstract class 220 applications software 2
<!--comment--> 46 abstract data type 80 argument 63, 160
<= 105 abstract keyword 220 object 161
<a> 48 abstract method 220 passed by value 161
<applet> 44 Abstract Windows Toolkit 278 primitive data type 161
<body> 37 accessibility 44 ArithmeticException 89
<br> 46, 333 accessor method 182 Arithmetic Logic Unit 2
<h1> 46 access level, method 159 array 237
<h2> 46 access modifier 159 algorithm 240
<h3> 46 acos(), Math class 129 characters 242
<h4> 46 ActionListener interface 278 data structure 237
<h5> 46 action command 277 dynamic 250
<h6> 46 ActiveX 44 element 237
<head> 37 add(), ArrayList class 250 initializing 238
<hr> 46, 333 add(), JPanel class 274 length 238
<html> 37 addActionListener(), JButton 276 offset indexes 241
<img> 48 addActionListener(), JComboBox parameter 239, 246
<li> 46 286 reference data type 240
<object> 44 addActionListener(), JTextField 283 traversing 238
<ol> 47 addAtFront, linked list 373 two-dimensional 245
<p> 46, 333 addition 83 ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
<script> 38 address 10 238, 239
address bus 2

Index 393
ArrayList, data structure analysis bus 2, 7 close(), BufferedReader class 312
250 bus topology 7 close(), BufferedWriter class 316
ArrayList class 250 button, Swing API 276 close(), FileInputStream class 318
array element 237 for displaying an image 290 close(), FileOutputStream class 317
accessing 238 byte 9, 79 close(), FileReader class 312
assigning a new value 238 bytecode 62 close(), FileWriter class 315
artificial intelligence 5 converting to machine code 62 close(), ObjectInputStream class
ASCII 10 Byte class 251 319
asin(), Math class 129 close(), ObjectOutputStream class
Ask Jeeves 16 C 318
assembly language 5 C 5 coaxial cable 7
assignment 78, 86 C++ 6, 62 COBOL 5
array element 238 cable modem 14 code convention
constant 87 cache 2 variable identifier 77
variable 78 calling a method 159 code conventions 65
atan(), Math class 129 CAN-SPAM Act 16 collection 250
attributes 46 carpal tunnel syndrome 20 collections framework 250
auto-unboxing 253 carriage return character 312 colors, Swing API 289
autoboxing 253 case clause 108 combo box, Swing API 286
auxiliary storage 12 case sensitivity, identifiers 88 comments 46, 61, 62
awt 278 casting, see type casting 85 block 62
CD-R 12 documentation 62, 164
B CD-RW/DVD drive 1 for debugging 137
backslash character in a string 63 cellular radio 7 inline 107
backslash for escape sequence 63 Central Processing Unit 2 method 164
backup copy 21 chaos theory 154 multiline 62
backup tools 4 char 79, 242 postcondition documentation
bahavior of an object 179 array 242 164
bandwidth 7 Character class 251 precondition documentation
base 10 logarithm 127 charAt(), String class 242 164
base class 212 char array, initializing 243 single line 62
Basic 5 Children’s Online Privacy Communications Privacy Act of
Big Oh notation 244, 250, 356 Protection Act of 1998 19 1986 22
binary files 11 cipher text 19 communications satellites 7
binary number system 9 circuit boards 1 Comparable interface 223, 339
binary search 152, 349 citation 17 compareTo(), Comparable interface
binary search algorithm analysis citations 18 223
357 class 60 compareTo(), Double class 252
BIOS 2 abstract 220 compareTo(), Integer class 251
bit 9 base 212 compareTo(), String class 140
blog 15 body 180 compareTo(), when sorting 339
Bluetooth 4 constructor 182 compareToIgnoreCase(), String
boolean 79, 106 declaration 180 class 140
Boolean class 251 derived 212 compiler 5, 62
Boolean expression 17, 105, 131 designing 180 just-in-time 62
evaluation 112 extending 211 method overloading 162
border, Swing API 279 inner 188, 293 compiling source code 62
boundary value 168 naming 181 compound interest 103
BoxLayout manager, Swing API 280 nested 188, 293, 374 compression program 11
breadth-first-searching 370 outer 293, 374 computers
breakpoint 136 variables 180, 184 desktop 1
break statement 108 wrapper 251 handhelds 5
broadcast radio 7 writing 180 notebook 4
buffer 312 class, objects to be written to a file wearable 5
BufferedReader(), BufferedReader 320 wrist-top 5
class 312 ClassCastException 186 computer vision syndrome 20
BufferedReader class 312 classes using classes 187 concatenation 138
BufferedWriter(), BufferedWriter ClassNotFoundException 320 toString() 187
class 316 class method 159, 184 conditional control structure 105,
BufferedWriter class 315, 316 client/server network 7 108
bug 136 client code 180 constant 87
built-in data types 79 close() 81

394 Index
constructor 180, 183 depth-first searching 352 encapsulation 59, 179, 182
subclass 213 dequeue, queue 369 encryption 19
writing 183 derived class 212 endsWith(), String class 140
container, Swing 273 desktop computer 1 end of file 312
content frame, Swing 273 device driver 4 enqueue, queue 369
controlling class 61 digital camera 1 environment 3
Swing application 276 digital signature 15 distributed 3
control bus 2 Digital Subscriber Line 14 multiprocessing 3
conventional modem 14 disk defragmentation 4 multitasking 3
conversion, numeric 84 disk drive 1 multiuser 3
cookie 18 divide-and-conquer 152, 345, 349 environmental concerns 20
copyright 21 division 83 equals() 186
copyright infringement 21 integer 83 equals(), String class 140
cos(), Math class 129 modulus 83 equals(), use by ArrayList 250
counter 133 real 83 equals() versus == 186
counting values 133 type casting 85 equalsIgnoreCase(), String class
CPU 2 do-while 131 140
crackers 21 documentation equal sign 78
createNewFile(), File class 309 comments 62 ergonomics 20
cross-platform connectivity 5 external 62 error 62, 89
package 80 exception handling 310
D postcondition comments 164 logic 89
data precondition comments 164 run time 89, 238
boundary values 168 documentation comments 164 semantic 89
passing to a method 160 Double 252 syntax 62, 88, 132
processing 81 double 79 err stream 311
processing from a file 314 doubleValue(), Double class 252 escape sequence 63, 310
reading from a file 312 Double class 283 Ethernet 7
reading objects from a file 317 downloading 17 ethical implications of computer
testing a method 168 DSL 14 use 19
writing objects to a file 317 DVD drive 13 ethical responsibilities, IT
writing to a file 315 dynamic array 250 professional 22
data structure dynamic lists 373 ethical responsibilities of an IT
array 237 dynamic memory 373 professional 22
ArrayList 250 ethical use of computers 19
data structures 365 E Euclid’s Algorithm 153
linked list 373 e, natural logarithm 127 Eudora 15
queue 369 E-FOIA 19 event 273
stack 365 e-mail 15 event-driven application 273
data structure analysis address 15 event handler 273
ArrayList 250 attachments 21 exabyte 13
data type 77 corporate 16 exception 81, 89, 310
abstract 80 ethics 16 array 238
interface 339 etiquette 16 handling 89
primitive 79 law prohibiting spam 16 exception handler 310
debugger 136 school 16 Excite 16
debugging 136 e-mail server 16 execution
commenting out statements 137 EBCDIC 10 program 62
debugger 136 ECPA 19 exists(), File class 309
variable trace 136 Electronic Communications Privacy exp(), Math class 127
with println() 137 Act of 1986 19, 21 expansion boards 1
Debug Window 136 Electronic Freedom of Information expectations vii
decision structure 105, 108 Act of 1996 19 exponent 10
declaration electronic mail 15 exponentiation 113
array 237 element extends keyword 212
class 180, 212 array 237 extension 11
method 159 ArrayList 250 extranet 13
two-dimensional array 246 ArrayList, adding 250
variable 77 ArrayList, finding 250 F
decrement operator 135 ArrayList, removing 250 factorial 136
Default package name 61 employee monitoring 20 Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970
delete(), File class 309 20

Index 395
false 79 DiceRolls 240 lists 46
fiber optic cable 7 Dice Roll 208 style sheets 49
file 11, 309 Game of 21 209 tables 47
creating 315 GuessingGame 125, 151, 178 tags 36
HTML 37, 333 Life 270, 335 text color 50
processing numeric data 314 Mad-Lib story 332 validating 37
reading 312 Mankala 271 HTML 4 45
stream 311 Mastermind 267 hub 8
writing to 315 Maze 363 hyperlink 48
File(), File class 309 MyBoggle 364 hypertext 35
FileInputStream(), FileInputStream Nim 209 HyperText Markup Language 35
class 318 Penny Pitch 270
FileInputStream class 317, 318 Rock Paper Scissors 114, 196 I
FileNotFoundException 313, 320 TicTacToe 246 identifier 77
FileOutputStream(), WordGuess 141, 334 choosing 88
FileOutputStream class 317 generics 250 identity theft 20
FileOutputStream class 317 get(), ArrayList 250 if-else if statement 107
FileReader(), FileReader class 312 getActionCommand(), JButton 276 if-else statement 106
FileReader class 312 getContentPane(), JFrame 274 nested 107
files getMessage(), Throwable class 311 if statement 105
organizing 181 getSelectedItem(), JComboBox 286 IllegalArgumentException 161
FileWriter(), FileWriter class 315 getText(), JTextField 283 IM 15
FileWriter class 315 GIF 48, 290 IMAP server 16
File class 309 gigabytes 10 immutable 139
file position 311 gigahertz 2 import, package 60
file size 11 Google 16 import statement 81
final 87 graphical user interface 3, 273 increment operator 135
Financial Privacy Act of 1978 20 greatest common divisor 153 index 138
Firefox 35 GridLayout manager, Swing API index, array element 237
firewall 13 280, 282 indexOf(), ArrayList 250
FireWire port 12 GUI 3, 273 indexOf(), String class 140
flag 134 Gutenburg, Johann 59 infinite loop 132
float 79 Gutenburg Press 59 infinite recursion 344
floating point 79 information age 19
floating point numbers 10 H information hiding 179, 182
Float class 251 hackers 21 infrared signals 7
flowchart 66 hailstone numbers 154 inherit 186
flowchart symbols 67 HAN 6 inheritance 59, 211
FlowLayout manager, Swing API handheld computers 5 initializing an array 238
279 handwriting recognition software initializing an object 80
folders 11 4 ink jet printer 1
format() method 64 hard-coded data 241 inline comments 107
formatting output 64 hardware 1 inner class 188, 293
Fortran 5 has-a relationship 187 input, getting from user 81
for statement 135, 238 head, linked list 373 input, getting from user in a GUI
array traversal 239 heading tags 46 283
ArrayList traversal 239 heap 373 InputMismatchException 81, 89, 95
nested 246 helper method 182 input devices 1
for-each statement 239, 251 hexadecimal 9, 50 input file stream 312
frame, Swing 273 histogram 267 input stream 81
front, queue 369 Home Area Network 6 input validation loop 149
functional decomposition 180 horizontal rule tag 46 insertion sort 341
Fundamental Theorem of HTML 35, 333 insertion sort algorithm analysis
Arithmetic 150 alignment 51 357
attributes 46 instance 179
G background color 50 instance methods 184
game comments 46 instance variables 184
Adder 210, 334 documents 36, 37 instantiation 80
BirthdayGame 90 document tags 37 instant messaging 15
Bowling 210 elements 36 int 79
Break-A-Plate 296 hyperlinks 47 Integer 251
Carnival 191 images 47 Integer class 283

396 Index
integrated circuits 2 javax.swing.JTextField 283 link 48
Integrated Services Digital Network Java 2 59 linked list 373
14 Java 2 Platform Standard Edition 61 Linux 2
Intel 2 Java applets 41 list, linked 373
interface 223 adding color 43 listener, Swing API 277
as data type 339 drawing shapes 43 LISTSERV 16
Comparable 339 parameters 44 Local-Area Network 6
console 273 placing in an HTML document local scope 160
graphical 273 44 log(), Math class 127
implementing 223 Java application 61 log10(), Math class 127
implementing multiple 225 Java Application Programming logical operators 17
text-based 273 Interface 60 logical topology 8
interface, as variable type 339 Java Foundation Classes 273 logic error 89, 132
interface, object 181 Java platform 59 logistic equation 154
Internet 13 Java Virtual Machine 41, 62 long 79
history of 13 Jaz drives 12 Long class 251
Internet Acceptable Use Policy 19 JButton(), JButton class 276, 291 loop, controlling iterations 134
Internet Explorer 15, 35 JButton class 291 loop control variable 135
Internet filtering software 19 JComboBox(), JComboBox 286 loop structure 131
Internet privacy issues 18 JComboBox class 286 lowercase, converting strings 138
Internet services 15 JCreator 41, 383
Internet Service Provider 14 JDK 80, 191 M
Internet Use Agreement 19 JFrame class 274 Mac 1
interpolation search 361 JIT 62 machine code 62
interpreter 6 JLabel(), JLabel class 275 machine language 5
Java VM 62 JLabel class 274 Mac OSX Tiger 273
interpreting bytecode 62 JPanel class 274 Mac OS X Tiger 2
intranet 13 JPG 48, 290 magnetic technology 13
intValue(), Integer class 251 JRE 42, 80 mailing list server 16
IOException 320 JTextField 283 main() method 61, 62, 157
IP address 18 JTextField(), JTextField class 283 mainframe 3
is-a relationship 211 just-in-time compiler 62 main memory 2
ISDN 14 Majordomo 16
isEmpty(), String class 138 K makeEmpty, queue 369
isEmpty, queue 369 K 11 malicious code 21
isEmpty, stack 366 Kbps 14 MAN 6
IT 22 keyboard 1, 81 mantissa 11
Itanium 2 keyword 88 Mastermind 267
iteration 131 keywords 17 Math class 113, 127, 128, 129
IT Careers 22 kilobytes 11 maze 363
knapsack problem 362 Mbps 14
J median, determining 267
J2SE Runtime Environment 80 L megabytes 10
Java 6 label, Swing API 274 megahertz 2
enabling 41 for displaying an image 290 member, accessing 80
java.awt 282, 289 LAN 6 members, class 180
java.awt.event 278 laser printer 1 memory, dynamic 373
java.io 309, 312, 315, 317 lastIndexOf(), String class 140 memory-resident 4
java.lang 63, 79, 80, 113, 223, 252 layout, Swing API 279 memory keys 1
java.lang.Double 252, 283, 314 layout manager, Swing API 279 mergesort 345
java.lang.Integer 251, 283, 314 leased/dedicated lines 14 mergesort algorithm analysis 357
java.lang.Math 109, 113, 127 length(), String class 138 message, passing 193
java.lang.Object 186 length, array 238 method 157
java.text 86 library 60 abstract 220
java.util 80 Life 270 accessor 182
java.util.ArrayList 250 with GUI 307 array parameter 239
java.util.Random 138 Linear Congruential Method 109 body 159
java.util.Scanner 81, 138, 140, 242 linear search 244, 349 calling 159
JavaScript 38, 40 linear search, algorithm analysis class 159, 184
javax.swing 273 244 declaration 159, 162
javax.swing.Frame 274, 275, 276, 290 line feed character 312 documentation 164
javax.swing.JPanel 274 line terminator 312 helper 182

Index 397
 instance 184 nextBoolean(), Scanner class 81 overloading, methods 162
modifier 182 nextDouble(), Scanner class 81 overriding
naming 160 nextInt(), Scanner class 81 methods 212
overloading 162 node 7 overriding a method 186
overriding 186 node, linked list 373 overwriting a file 315
parameters 160 NOT 17
returning a value 163 Not 112 P
testing 167 notebook computer 4 pack(), JFrame 274
test data 168 No Electronic Theft Act of 1997 21 package 60
writing 159 null 139, 238 documentation 80
methods NullPointerException 139 naming 61, 81
behavior of object 179 number package statement 61
Metropolitan Area Network 6 converting type 84 paradigm
microphone 1 whole 77 object-oriented 211
Microsoft Internet Explorer 15 number systems 9 parallel processing 3
Microsoft Windows 273 numeric expression 83 parameter
microwaves 7 array, two-dimensional 246
MLA 17 O Object 186
MLA Handbook for Writers of object 59, 80, 179 parameters 44
Research Papers, Sixth Edition argument 161 array 239
17 object, to be written to a file 320 constructor 183
mobile computing devices 4 object-oriented development 191 method 160
modem 14 object-oriented programming 6, 59 pass by value 161
moderator ObjectInputStream 317 parentheses 84
list serve 16 ObjectInputStream(), parseDouble(), Double class 283,
modifier method 182 ObjectInputStream class 318 314
modular 193 ObjectInputStream class 318 parseInteger(), Integer class 283,
modulus division 83 ObjectOutputStream 317 314
monitor 1 ObjectOutputStream(), Pascal 5
motherboard 1 ObjectOutputStream class 318 passing an array 240
mouse 1 ObjectOutputStream class 318 passing data to a method 160
Mozilla Firefox 15 objects, sorting 339 pass by value 161
MP3 players 5 Object class 185, 211 PC 1
MSN 16 object deserialization 317 PDAs 5
multimedia 36 Object parameter 186 peer-to-peer network 7
multiplication 83 object serialization 317 Pentium 2
multiprocessing 3 offset array index 241 peripheral devices 1
multitasking 3 online profiling 18 persistent data 309
multithreading 3 OOP 6, 59 persistent media 11
multiuser OS 3 Opera 35 petabyte 13
Mylar 12 operand 83 phishing 22
operating systems 2, 59 PI, Math class 113
N operations, order of 84 piracy 21
native format 11 operator 83 pixel 279
natural logarithm 127 relational 105 pixels 42
necklace problem 153 operators, built-in 83 pixel tags 18
nested class 188, 293, 374 operator precedence 84 platform 3, 59
nested statements 107 Opteron™ 2 platform-dependent languages 62
netiquette 9 optical technology 12 platform independence 59, 62
Netscape 35 OR 17 PNG 48
networked environment 7 Or 111 polymorphism 59, 215
networks 6 evaluation 112 polymorphism, interfaces 339
benefits 6 order of operations 112 pop, stack 365
size classifications 6 out 63 POP3 server 16
network architecture 7 outer class 293, 374 ports 1
network interface card 6 Outlook 15 Bluetooth 1
network operating system 7 output, formatting 64 FireWire 1
NET Act 19 output devices 1 parallel 1
new 80, 237, 246 output file stream 315 serial 1
newLine(), BufferedWriter class 316 output stream 63 USB 1
newline character 63 overflow 132 post 164
next(), Scanner class 81 overflow error 10

398 Index
postcondition, method readInt(), ObjectInputStream class searching an array 244
documentation 164 318 Search class 244
postfix 135 readLine(), BufferedReader class search criteria 17
pow(), Math class 113 312 specifying 17
pre 164 readObject(), ObjectInputStream search engine 16
precondition, method class 318 secondary memory 2
documentation 164 Read Only Memory 2 selection sort 269, 337
prefix 135 real-time clock 2 selection sort algorithm analysis
primary memory 2 real-time OS 3 356
prime factors 150 real numbers 10 semantic error 89
prime number 150 rear, queue 369 semicolon 62
primitive data type 79 recursion 343 sentinel 134
argument 161 recursive algorithm, binary search sequential file access 311
primitve data type 349 sequential search 349
array element 240 recursive algorithm, depth-first Serializable interface 320
print() method 63 search 352 server 7
printer 1 recursive algorithm, mergesort 345 setActionCommand(), JButton 276
println() recycling 20 setBackground(), Swing API 289
debugging 137 reference data type setContentPane(), JFrame 274
toString() 187 array 240 setDefaultCloseOperation(), JFrame
println() method 63 interface 339 274
privacy 20 object 80 setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated()
Privacy Act of 1974 20 object parameters 161 JFrame 274
privacy policy 18 polymorphism 215 setEditable(), JComboBox 286
private keyword 182, 213 String 139 setForeground(), Swing API 289
procedural abstraction 157 relational operator 105 setIcon(), JButton class 291
programming language remove(), ArrayList 250 setSelectedIndex(), JComboBox 286
first generation 5 remove(), JPanel 274 setText(), JLabel 275
second generation 5 remove, linked list 373 setVisible(), JFrame 274
program specification 59 replaceAll(), String class 138 short 79
modeling 211 replaceFirst(), String class 138 short-circuit evaluation 112
program specification, modeling reserved words 88 Short class 251
191 return statement 163 significand 10
prompt 82 reusability 60 sign bit 10
prompt, in a GUI 283 code 191 simple interest 103
pseudocode 66 ring topology 8 sin(), Math class 129
pseudorandom 109 ROM 2 size(), ArrayList 250
public 159 rounding 84 size, queue 369
public keyword 159 rounding double to int 85 size, stack 366
public static void main(String[] roundoff error 11, 105 smartphones 5
args) 61 router 8, 14 SMTP server 16
push, stack 365 run-time error 89 social implications of computer
array 238 use 19
Q running a program 62 software development 157, 191
queue 369 running time 356 solid state technology 13
quotation mark 63 sorting, numbers 337
in a string 63 S sorting objects 339
quotient 83 Safari 35 sorts 337
Safety and Freedom through sound cards 1
R Encryption Act of 1999 19 source code 62
RAM 2 scanner 1 spam 16
random() 109 Scanner object, closing 82 spec 59
Random Access Memory 2 scope 135 spyware 18
random numbers 109 scope, local in a method 160 SQL 5
random walk 155 scripts 38, 40 sqrt(), Math class 113
range, determining 267 search, binary 349 square root 113
read(), BufferedReader class 312 search, depth-first 352 SRAM 2
readDouble(), ObjectInputStream search, interpolation 361 stack 365
class 319 search, linear 349 startsWith(), String class 140
reading numeric and string data 82 search, sequential 349 star topology 8
reading objects 317 search, ternary 361 statement 61

Index 399
state of an object 179 top-down design 157 Watch window 136
static 159 top-down development 157 wearable computers 5
static method 184 topology 7 Web 15
Static Random Access Memory 2 toRadians(), Math class 129 Web site 35
static variables 184 toString() 186 Web site citations 18
step-wise refinement 157 toString(), Double 283 Web Accessibility Initiative 44
Step command 136 toString(), Integer 283 Web beacons 18
storage, file 309 toUpperCase(), String class 138 Web browser 15
storage devices 12 transmission media 7 Web browsers 35
storage media traversing Web bugs 18
care of 13 array 238 Web server 36
stream 311 ArrayList 252 while 131
input 81 trim(), String class 138 whole number 77
string 63 Trojan horse 21 Wi-Fi 8
formatting 64 true 79 Wide-Area Network 6
strings 79 truncate Windows 2
comparing 140 modulus division 83 Windows media player 44
creating 138 toward 0 84 Windows XP environment 3
joining 138 truth table 111 WinZip 11
String class 79, 138 try-catch-finally statement 310 wireless access point 8
student expectations vii twisted-pair wiring 7 Wireless Fidelity 8
style sheets 49 two-dimensional array 245 wireless networks 8, 14
class 50 accessing elements 246 wireless transmission media 7
embedded 49 type casting 84, 243 words 10
linked 50 object 186 World Wide Web 15, 35
rules 50 World Wide Web Consortium 36
stylus 4 U worm 21
subclass 212, 215 ultra-portable devices 12 wrapper classes 251
subclasses 185 underscore (_) 87 wrapping values 253
substring(), String class 138 Unicode 10, 79, 242, 312, 381 wrist-top computers 5
subtraction 83 Unicode Standard 140 write(), BufferedWriter class 316
summing values 133 Unix 2 writeDouble(), ObjectOutputStream
superclass 185, 215 unwrapping values 253 class 318
Object class 211 uppercase, converting strings 138 writeInt(), ObjectOutputStream
supercomputer 3 USB 12 class 318
super keyword 213 utility program 4 writeObject(), ObjectOutputStream
Swing API 273 class 318
switch statement 108 V writing data to a file 317
syntax error 62, 88, 132 variable 77 WWW 35
System.in 81 class 180, 184 www.sun.com 80
System class 63 initializing in a class 183
system reliability 22 instance 184 Y
system restore 4 in println() 78 Yahoo! 16
member 181
T state of object 179 Z
tablet PC 4 variable trace 136 Zip drives 12
tab character 63 video adapters 1
tail, linked list 373 virtual 62
tan(), Math class 129 Virtual Machine 62
TCP/IP 14 virus 21
telecommunications 14 downloaded files 17
terabyte 13 visibility 159, 182
ternary search 361 subclasses 213
text field, GUI 283 Visual Basic 6, 62
this keyword 189, 277 visual organizer 66
thread 276 VM 62
Throwable class 311 void 159
Tim Berners-Lee 36
toCharArray(), String class 242 W
toDegrees(), Math class 129 W3C 36
toLowerCase(), String class 138 WAI 44
top, stack 365 WAN 6

400 Index
! 'UIDE TO 0ROGRAMMING IN *AVA 3ECOND %DITION EMPHASIZES THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOOD PROBLEM SOLVING
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