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Observations on the History of the Incas of Peru, on the Indians of South Peru, and on
Some Indian Remains in the Province of Tarapaca

Author(s): W. Bollaert
Source: Journal of the Ethnological Society of London (1848-1856) , 1854, Vol. 3 (1854),
pp. 132-164
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3014140
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OBSERVATIONS
ON THE
HISTORY OF THE INCAS OF PERU,

ON
THE INDIANS OF SOUTH PERU,

AND ON SOME INDIAN REMAINS IN THE PROVINCE OF
TARAPACA.
BY W. BOLLAERT, F.R.G.S.
Read 12th May 1852.
THE origin of the term Peru is involved in some obscurity.

It appears to be derived from Biru, the name of a river. In
the north is the province of Biru-quete, and the ancient in-
habitants of Quito were called Puru-ayes and Puncays.
Peru, in the Quichua language, is Taguantin-suyo, or the
four quarters of the empire of the Incas: the people, Inca-
prunam, runa signifying man.
Columbus, believing, when he made his great discovery that
he was at the extremity of Asia, called its inhabitants Indios.
Inca, Inga, Inka, or rather Ynca, may be derived from
Ynti, the sun. I do not find the word Inca in the Quichua
works I have had access to, and am inclined to think the
word may belong to the Incas language, which is now lost,
as well as Manco, and some others: the first ruler called him-
self Manco; and Capac, now found in Quichua dictionaries,
meaning rich in virtue, was subsequently added. In the
early history of the Muyscas of Bogota a chief Hunca-hua was
chosen as a ruler; and Cundinimarca was originally called
Hunca. Peru, not long since, was known as Upper and Lower:
the former, since the separation of the American colonies
from Spain, bears the name of Bolivia. Lima, the capital of
Peru, was anciently called Rimac-Malca, or place of witches;
it being the custom, before the establishment of the Incarial

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Mr. Bollaert's Observations on the Incas of Peru. 133
power, as well as afterwards, to banish to this valley those

accused of witchcraft, the climate being considered unhealthy.
The half-Indian city of Arequipa is reached from the Port
of Islay, by crossing the mountains of the coast, then along
an elevated desert plain, covered in many places with sand,
medanos, or crescent-shaped sandhills, and volcanic ashes.
Arequipa is situated at the base of the active volcano of the
same name, formerly called Mistie. The city is large and
picturesque, the houses built with stone, and vaulted. The
Plaza in particular presents an animated appearance, the
Indian population, with their stalls laden with provisions and
other wares, give it a particular and interesting character.
The origin of the name of Arequipa appears to be the fol-
lowing:-Some Indians who were travelling with one of the
Incas, as was the custom of those monarchs to visit periodi-
cally their country, arrived there, when the Indians expressed
a wish to remain in that fruitful valley, and found a city.
The Inca, in answer to the request, said, " Ari-que-pac," or
"Yes, remain if the land pleaseth ye."
As the port of Arica is approached from the sea, barren,
undulating, and broken land is seen, and in its rear
ranges of sterile mountains, and, farther to the east, the icy
peaks of the Andes, towering majestically above all. Forty
miles inland from Arica is the flourishing town of Tacua,
where there are many Indians.
The south coast in particular is formed of arid and elevated
mountains, being a continuation of the uninhabitable desert
of Atacama: in the north the coast is lower, and where there
is another desert, that of Sechura. Peru has three great
divisions-Los Valles, or cultivable ravines, between the
Pacific and the western chain of the Andes.* or possibly from
* The terraced steps of land of the Indians were by the conquerors
called Andenes, which probably induced the Spaniards to give the name
of Andes to the entire ridge of the Cordillera. The gardens of
Shalimar, in Kashmere, are of this description. At Engaddi, in the
Dead Sea, there are similar terraces.
That part of Thibet which is near the British frontier is called
Undes. Dr. Wilson derives the word from Hiundes, the snow country,
or Hundes, the country of the Huns: however, in Quichua, "'Know
country" would be " Ritti-suyo."

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134 Mr. Bollaert's Observations on the
the nation of Antis (but not from the Quichua word " Anta"-
copper); La Montanfa, or the elevated mountain region between
the west and east chains, where but a few trees and a little pas-
ture is met with; and lastly, the great eastern region, with its
mountains, where rise the head waters of the Amazon and
other great rivers; as also the home of many tribes of Indians
but little known, and who inhabit dense tropical forests.
To go somewhat into detail, the features of the country are
as follows, particularly of the more southern part, and through
the province of Tarapaca in 20? S.
1. Arid porphyritic mountains of the coast, containing gold,
silver, copper, &c. From one mining district, that of Guan-
tajaya, a few miles inland from the port of Iquique, 200 12'
S., 700 14/ W., since its discovery in 1726 to 1851, has
yielded about fifteen millions sterling. Water has to be con-
veyed to these mines in skins from the interior. Some of
these groups of mountains, rising to nearly 6000 feet above
the sea, are entirely destitute of vegetation, and which is only
seen where a stream from the Andes may run. As it seldom
or ever rains in these latitudes, the surface of the country has
remained, and may for ages, in the same state, unless dis-
turbed by earthquakes or other volcanic agency. The hollows
and plains are covered with sand, salt, and other saline bodies;
the shores yield large quantities of guano, and from 1838 to
1852, of more than one million tons of this valuable manure
imported into this country, Peru has contributed more than
one half.
2. Extensive sandy desert plains succeed from 3000 to
4000 feet above the sea: one in particular, on the south, the
Pampa of Tamarugal, from whence, since 1831, no less than
240,000 tons of nitrate of soda has been sent to this country
(the larger portion by my friend and old fellow-traveller, Mr.
Smith), used as a fertilizer, in the manufacture of nitric and
sulphuric acids, glass, &c. Borates of lime and iodic salts
have been discovered in this plain by Mr. Smith. The borate
is likely to be useful in glass-making, pottery, and smelting.
Here some Tamarugo or Algarbo trees (of the acacia family)
are met with.
3. Another range of arid mountains, of 7000 to 8000
feet, succeeds; then,

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Incas of Peru. 135
4. An elevated district follows, where, for the first time,

cacti and a few small trees are seen, nourished by a little rain;
and, ascending still higher, vegetation ceases at about 16,000
feet. Here we now are at the real bases of the Andean
groups, where, amongst other elevated mountains, that of
Lirima, in 190 47' S., 690 12' W., is supposed to be from
24,000 to 25,000 feet. Many quiescent volcanoes, and some
active ones-that of Isluga, 17,000 to 18,000 feet, with its five
craters-are in the province of Tarapaca, the existence of
which was first made known in Europe by Mr. Smith and
myself in 1827. Salt and other saline compounds are found
at these great elevations (in this Thibet on a small scale): their
origin, I am inclined to think, are volcanic. In a paper read
before the British Association, in 1852, " On the distribution
of common salt and other saline bodies, with a view to shew
their primary origin and subsequent formations," I have en-
tered fully into the subject.
5. Is an elevated undulating region called the Mountain
knot, or Cordillera of Potosi, in Bolivia, where are the ele-
vated peaks of the golden Ilimani and snowy Sorata: further
on are the eastern mountains and descents into the great plains
beyond.*
During a residence of some years on the coast in latitude
200 S., I only once saw a slight shower of rain. The winds
are from the south during the day; at night they are easterly,
blowing off shore, depressing the temperature of the atmo-
sphere, when dew is formed: a calm succeeds; and as the sun
appears in the morning it heats and puts the air in motion,
giving rise to the warm southerly winds, which vaporises water
from the ocean, to be again deposited as dew; but as little of
this falls on the land, owing to the general set of the winds
being off shore, will account in a great measure for the desert
character of the coast of Peru.
Of a population of about 2,000,000 in Lower Peru, there are
not more than 100,000 Indians, the rest being descendants of
Spaniards, and various mixtures, some thirty or forty, with
Indians and Negroes.
* See " Observations on the Geography of Souithern Peru." By W.

Bollaert-Geographical Society's Journal, 1851.

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Bolivia, or Upper Peru, is from 90 S. to 250 30' S. It has

a very considerable range of climate, and varied mineral, ani-
mal, and vegetable productions. Here is the great Lake Titi-
caca (TIti, " lead;" caca, "mountain)," in the Aymara country,
as also the silver mountain of Potosi. Bolivia has a mixed
population of about 1,400,000, the Indian predominating.
The Aymara natives may be traced from the Lake of
Titicaca, in about a south-east direction, through the province
of Tarapaca to the coast; and, under the Incas, their morality
was so simple, that it was comprehended in the three following
principles-"Ama sua, ama qualla, ama liulla-No thieves, no
sluggards, no liars."
Before the times of the Incas, although it is stated that the
Indians generally were in a very barbarous state, still there
were many powerful nations among them, one of whom were the
ancient Aymaras, who erected large stone buildings, and
other works: the ruins of pyramids, and statues of Tia-
Huanacu, north-west of La Paz, in the Aymara country, are
of that early period. In Vol. I. " Mercurio Peruano," p. 204,
it is said that the origin of Tia-Huanacu is without doubt
anterior to the times of the Incas: the formidable pyramid,
the immense stone statues, also a variety of human figures,
well carved, although much affected by time, shew them to
have been monuments of some great nation. Cieca de Leon
says that some of the stones at these ruins are thirty-eight
feet long, eighteen broad, and six thick, whilst those at
Cannar, built by the Incas, are only eight feet long; that the
place seems never to have been finished; and that the natives
attribute the construction to a race of men who inhabited the
ridge of the Cordillera long before the foundation of the
empire of the Incas. According to Pentland, Tia-Huanacu
is 12)900 feet above the sea, and near a stream which runs
into the south end of Lake Titicaca; and he places the ruins
of Callacanchi, Lachesi, Paroparo, and Kenallata, on the east
shore of the lake. It would be interesting to know the his-
tory of these ruins, if they are of the Incarial period, of that
of Tia-Huanacu, or of any other.
Peru, this ancient and enigmatic empire of the Incas-tlhis
Egypt of the new world-its regal and theocratic form of

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Incas of Peru. 137
government, can only be traced to about A.D. 1100, which

period may be given as the commencenment of the reign of
Manco Capac, and ending with the death of Atahualpa in
1533.
Writers are now generally agreed that the peopling of the
New World has been from Asia, say by the Aleutian Islands,
but at a very early period.
Mr. Ranking, some years since, gave as his opinion the
Asiatic origin of the Peruvians in the thirteenth century, and
that Manco Capac was the grandson of Ghengis Khan, and
that the term Inga came from the Mongul word Ungut.
In Danish, Swedish, and Chinese history are found the
names of kings, such as Ingar, Ingo, Inguar, Ingell, Ing-tsing,
and Ing-wang, which appear to have about as much value as
to the derivation of Inca as the Mongul word " Ungut."
Humboldt, in Vol. I. " Travels," alluding to the Quichua for
the "sun," inti; "love," munay; "great," veypul, mentions that
in Sanscrit the "sun" is indre; (Wilson says, surya) ; "love,"
mayna; "great," vipulo. These are the only analogies that have
been found, but the grammatical character of the languages
is totally different. "Food," in Quichua is micunnam; in
Malay macannon.
In 1815 a Chinese, or Japanese junk anchored in the Port
of Iquique, when the strangers visited the silver mines of Santa
Rosa, a few miles inland, and then departed. A question has
been raised from whence the Sandwich Islands were peopled,
if from America or Japan, for Japanese junks have been
drifted ashore on the Sandwich Islands.
I have heard it stated, that in a valley near Truxillo, the
inhabitants of which are not desirous of mixing with sur-
rounding tribes, and who, on being visited by Chinese not
long since, appeared to have but little difficulty in understand-
ing their Asiatic visitors.
With the discovery of the gold regions of California, in
1848, there were then in that country only two Chinese men
and one woman; but early in 1852 there were 47,000 Chinese.
Chinese are also emigrating to the gold regions of Australia.
The latter end of 1852, 300 Chinese sailed from San Francisco
for Hong Kong, and had taken 70,000 dollars of gold dust

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with them. Mr. Sidney, in his work on the Australian Colo-

nies, states that there are traces of Chinese in North Australia.
They have at present a settlement on the Island of Timor,
250 miles from Cape York, and are in the habit of resort-
ing to the coast to collect the Chinese dainty, the trepang, or
sea-slug. In December 1852, we are informed that ship-loads
of Chinese from Amoy are arriving in Australia to serve as
shepherds and servants; and soon we may hear of Araforas,
Maoris, Hindoos, Cape Caffres, &c., wending their way thither.
Here, then, are disturbing causes as to races.* Again,
Acapulco, 16? 30' N. (from whence the Spanish galleons
traded to Manilla); the inhabitants are a mixture of Spaniards,
Indians, Negroes, and Chinese, and which in some families
have produced a new race, and similar to the Malay. In
some of the cities of Spanish America particularly, where
Negroes were taken as slaves, the mixture has produced
strange varieties of the human race. In a boat voyage I made
along the coast of the Desert of Atacama in 1828, from Cobya
to Paposo, my crew consisted of the pilot, who was a Chilote,
a mixture of the Chilian, Indian, and Spaniard, an Aymara
Indian, a Malay (the cook), and two powerful Kanakas or
Sandwich Islanders.
The Mongolidme are said by Dr. Latham to consist of seven
great divisions, the sixth being the American, which we find
extending from the shores of the Arctic Sea through the
whole length and breadth of the New World to the rocky
Archipelago of Tierra del Fuego.
The ancient monuments, particularly of the valley of the
* The natives of Esmeraldas, Rio Verde, and Atacames, are Zambos,

apparently a mixture of Negro and Indian. The tradition is, that a
ship having Negroes on board arrived on the coast (for soon after the
conquest great numbers of Negroes were taken from Africa to Panama,
and from thence to the coast of Peru), and having landed, killed a
great number of the male Indians, kept their widows and daughters,
and thus laid the foundation of the present race. Their language is
different from the Quichua, which is the general one of the Indians,
being rather nasal, and appears scanty of words. A woman is teona;
a man, qual-teona; a bitch, shang-teona. It is, however, not in-
harmonious, and some of their songs are not devoid of melody. They
are very honest and truthful.

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Incas of Peru. 139
Mississippi and north of Mexico, the civilization of Anahuac,

Bogota, and Peru, were peculiar to those great divisions of
the New World, and may be said to have originated there.
As to the origin of the Incas, the following is the generally
received tradition-that Manco and his sister, or wife, the
Ccoya, came amongst a wandering horde of Indians on the
borders of Lake Titicaca. They announced themselves to be
children of the sun, which luminary, as well as every thing
else, had been made by Pacha-Kamak, God, or the creator of
the universe, (Pacha-Kamak was also called Vira-cocha), and
to be commissioned to improve and civilize the country.
The Indians listened with respect to the words of the sup-
posed messengers from the sun, and were easily induced to
obey, following them to the spot where Cuzco (Ccozecoo,
" centrical" or " navel)" now stands, and erecting a city.
Garcilasso alludes to two other traditions: one is, that a
a man appeared at Tia-Huanacu (the mention of this locality
induces me to think that the Incarial race may have sprung
from one of the ancient Aymara nations), who divided the
country into four parts, aind gave them to four chiefs-Manco,
Colla, Tocay, and Pinhua. Manco went to the north, found-
ing Cuzco; but of the other three nothing is known. The
other tradition is-that in the beginning of the world, at
Paucartambo, four men and four women, brothers and sisters,
came out of some openings that were in some rocks: the
names of the men were Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Uchu, and
Ayar Sauca. Manco founded Cuzco, but of the remaining
three there are no accounts.
Herrera relates the following:-At Pavec Tampu, "the
shining dormitory," or "house of veneration," eight leagues
south of Cuzco, there appeared three men and three women:
the name of the former were Ayarache, Ayranca, and Ayra-
manco; and of the latter, Mama-cola, Mama-cona, and Mama-
rana, clothed so beautifully that they were called tocabo or
royal. They had a golden sling, which was endowed with
peculiar virtues, produced abundance of wrought silver, as-
sumed the government of the country, and built Pacavec
Tampu. Ayarache, having got the sling into his possession,
overturned mountains, and gained such a superiority, that his

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brothers, jealous of his power, devised a scheme to destroy

him. They persuaded him to enter a cave for a precious
vessel which they had left there, and pray to their father the
sun, to assist them in the conquest of the country. Ayarache
entered the cave, when his brothers blocked up the mouth
with stones; upon which a violent earthquake was felt, which
overturned mountains and entombed hills, woods, and rocks
in the bowels of the earth.
Ayarache was afterwards seen flying through the air with
painted wings, and a voice was heard telling the two brothers
not to be afraid, for Ayarache was going to found the empire
of the Incas. Ayarache then discovered himself to his
brothers, and desired them to build a temple where Cuzco
now stands, in which the sun should be worshipped. They
went to the hill of Guonanere, and there raised altars to
Ayarache. Ayra-manco was chosen Inca, after which
Ayarache and Aranca were converted into stone statues.
Ayra-manco and the women founded Cuzco, he taking the
name of Manco Capac.
Approaching our own times, another tradition has appeared:
the best version is given by Stevenson, in Vol. I. of his
" Narrative."
A white man was found on the coast by a Cacique named
Cocapac; by signs he asked the white man who he was, and
received for answer, an Englishman; (or rather say, some
word of a similar sound). The stranger lived with him, till
a daughter of the Cacique (who is said, in another version, to
have been born blind) bore him a son and daughter, and then
died. The old man called the boy Ingasman Cocapac,,* and
the girl Mama Oelle: they were of a fair complexion, had
light hair, and were dressed in a different manner from the
Indians. From accounts given by this stranger of the manner
in which other people lived, and how they were governed,
Cocapac determined on exalting his family; and having in-
structed the boy and girl in what he proposed to do, he took
them first to Cuzco, where one of the largest Indian tribes
* It is easy to make Inga Manca Capac out of this, but how far
much reliance can be placed is a question.

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Incas of Peru. 141
resided, and informed them that their god (the sun) had sent
them two of his children to make therm happy, and to govern
them. He requested them to go to a certain mountain on the
following morning, at sunrise, and search for them: he more-
over told them that the Vira-cochas, children of the sun (Vira
probably means " those people ;" cocha, " from over the sea or
lake)," had their hair like rays of the sun. In the morning
the Indians went to the mountain of Condor-urco, and found
the younig man and woman; but, surprised at their colour and
features, declared them to be a wizard and a witch. They
now sent them to Rimac Malca, the plain on which Lima
now stands; but the old man followed them, and next took
them to the neighbourhood of Lake Titicaca, where another
powerful tribe resided. Cocapac told these Indians the same
tale, but requested them to search for the Vira-cochas on the
edge of the lake at sunrise. They did so, and found them
there, and immediately declared them to be the children of
their god, and their supreme governors. Elated with this
success, Cocapac was determined to be revenged on the In-
dians of Cuzco. For this purpose he privately instructed his
grandchildren in what he intended to do, and then informed
the tribe that the Vira-cocha Ingasman Cocapac had deter-
mined to search for, the place where he was to reside. He re-
quiested they would take their arms, and follow him, saying,
that wherever he struck his golden rod or sceptre into the
ground, that was the spot where he chose to remain.
The young man and woman directed their course to the
plain of Cuzco, where being arrived, the signal was given,
and the Indians were surprised by the re-appearance of the
Vira-cochas, and, overawed by the number of Indians that ac-
companied them, acknowledged them as their lords, and the
children of their god.
I. Inca, Manco Capac-Ccapac Apu, king or ruler-is said

to have appeared on the shores of Lake Titicaca, and about
A.D. 1100 may be fixed as the period, with his wife or
sister, some of whose names are the following:-Ccoya
(female), Manca, Oclo or Ocallo (sacred), Huaca or Vaco
(beautiful), and Ccapac Ccoya, a queen.
There is no historical record from whence the Inca came,

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and but very few words are preserved of the language spoken
by the first Incas; for under the fifth the Quichua and
Aymara natives were conquered, when the former became the
principal language; and although it is probable that some
words of the Incas language are mixed with the Quichua and
Aymara, we may, however, conclude that their language is lost.
Cuzco or Cosco was commenced by Manco, and is seventy
miles north-west from Lake Titicaca, his dominions extending
on the north to the River Pancartambo, on the east eight
leagues, on the west to the Apurimac, and nine leagues on the
south to Quequesama. Manco had other appellations, such
as Huac-chacuyac, " the friend and protector of the poor ;"
Yntip-chiurni, " child of the sun." " He gave to his people a
code of admirable laws, reduced them into communities, and
then ascended to his father the sun."
II. Sinchi Roca (Sinchi, "'valiant ;" Rucu, "aged"), son of
Manco. His wife was Ocallo Coya. He was the first to be
served in vessels of gold and silver.
III. Lloqui Yupanki. (Lloqui, "left handed ;" Yupanki is
said to be a very expressive word, one of the meanings, that
he was capable of great deeds. He was the eldest son of
Sinchi Roca, and his queen was Coya Cava, or Anavarqui.
He subjected to his rule the Canas and Ayviri, and built
fortresses. The Collas, a nation composed of several tribes,
were conquered by him, as well as the Chucuytus; then
towards Titicaca, the Hillari, the Challu, Pamata, and Cipita,
were joined to his kingdom. He conquered the populous
country of Hurin-Pacaca. He was the first Inca who invaded
the territory on the coast, of a powerful chief, the Chincu or
Chimu, whose capital was at Truxillo, The Inca Pacha-
cutec induced the Chimu of his day to swear allegiance to
him at the Chimu's palace and fortress of Paramonga, five
miles from Patavilca, 100 50' S. However, in 1420, Huayna
Capac led an army against the Chimu, or king of the coasts.
Stevenson says, that in the plain of Truxillo are the ruins of
the ancient city of the Chimus: they buried their dead in
HIuacas, and out of one, in 1574, 150,0001. of gold was ex-
tracted.
Near Lambayeque is the village of Eten, inhabited by In-

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Incas of Peru. 143
dians: they are the only people who speak the Chimu dialect,
which is the original language of the coast of Peru; and so
different from the Quichua, that Stevenson could not under-
stand a single word, or trace any analogy, and beyond the
limits of their town their language is unintelligible.
In the vicinity of Lagunilla, and not far from Cajamarca,
are the ruins of a curiously built Indian town, which was
probably the residence of the Chimu of Chicama, when he
resided in the interior of his territory, and before he was sub-
jected by the Incas.
IV. Mayta Capac, son of the preceding. He is called the
reformer of the calendar. Coya Cuca, or Yachi, was his wife.
He commenced his conquests by going to the south part of
Lake Titicaca, and subjecting the people of Tia-Huanacu.
Pazos, in his letters,* says, "In the village of Tia-Huanacu
are the ruins of a palace of Mayta Capac, which is now little
more than huge stones placed one upon the other;" also
" ancient walls built by the Incas thirty miles long, reaching
from the top of the Cordillera to the shores of the Lake of
Titicaca."
These ruins must not be confounded with the more ancient
ones already mentioned, and even the name of Tia-Huanacu
is comparatively modern (its original name being lost), and
was so called in consequence of one of the Incas being at
that spot, and receiving some important news brought by a
messenger, who had travelled with extraordinary speed, when
the Inca said to him, in praise of his exertions, " Tia-Huanacu,"
or, " Rest thou, Huanaco ;" thus comparing his celerity with
that of the fleet Huanaco.
Mayta Capac conquered the Cacyaviri, Mallanca, and
Huarina. In the west his arms were victorious to the shores
of the Pacific, particularly over the Cuchuna. Having made
himself master of the districts of Llaricassa, Sancavan, Solla,
* See an interesting and rare work, " Letters on the United Pro-
vinces of South America, by Don Vicente Pazos, New York and
London, 1819. Pazos was a native of La Paz, of the Aymara family
of Silvas Arandos, Cacique of Carabaya Ylabaya. Pazos was Consul
for Buenos Ayres in London, 1835; subsequently Consul-General for
Bolivia, and died in Buenos Ayres in 1852.

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and all the tribes from Huaycha to Callamarca, Mayta Capac,

went twenty-four leagues further, to Caracollo, and the Lake
of Parca, 190 S., through the country of the Chaccas, and
from thence, turningr east, entered the country of the Antis, a
nation remarkable for cruelty to their prisoners. Valera says
they yvere cannibals, and never conquered by the Incas. Some
nations in this direction submitted to this Inca even to the
Valley of Chuquiapa. Wishing to extend hiis empire further
to the east, he caused a swinging bridge to be thrown over
the Apurimac, to the east of Cuzco; and having traversed the
desert of Conti-suyo, he subjected the peaceful people of
Tannima, Gotahuaci, Parihuana-cocha, Pumatampa, Arumi-
Collahua, unto the valley of Arcypa, or Arequipa. He was
succeede(d by his son.
V. Capac Yupanki, whose queen was Coya Cava, or
Curyllpay. His first conquests were over the Yanahuara.
The extended country of the Aymarai nations about Titicaca
fell under his sway. Garcilasso says, from the district of
Piti this Inca passed into the country of the Amayra
(Aymara), where no less than eighty nations were as-
sembled to oppose him. The Aymara country was called by
the Incas Uma-suyo-a country of waters-that is, of the
Lake Titicaca and its rivers.
Entrusting an army to his brother Anqui-Titu, who pro-
ceeded to Colatampa and Colanna, south-west of Cuzco, in-
habited by part of the Quichua nation, which was conquered
without opposition, this same army entered the country of
Huamanpalpa, and the lands of those tribes on both sides of
the River Amnancay, west-north-west of Cuzco, people be-
longing to the Quichuas, were subjected. The valleys of
Huacari, Uvinna, Camana, 160 12' S., Caravilli, Pietaquellca,
as well as the valleys in the Pacific, submitted to his arms.
At the head of an army, the Inca went himself against the
people of Lake Paria. Resolved to penetrate into the
country of Collasuya, he traversed the districts Tapac-ric, and
Cochapampa, 18? 20' S., and entered the country of Chayanta,
where all the Curacas, or chiefs, hastened to do him homage.
Covered with glory, this Inca returned to Cuzco, whilst his
eldest son, Roca, conquered the countries of Curahuari,
Amancay, Sura, Apucara, Runcana, and Hatunrucasca, from

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Incas of Peru. 145
whence be descended to this coast, subjecting those of the

valley of Mansaca, as well as all the country between it and
Arequipa. Capac Yupanki made a statue of gold, and called
it Ynti-lapi.
VI. Inca Roca: his wife was Coya Micay. His first expe-
dition was against the Chinchasuya, Tacmara, Quinullai, Cocha-
caca, and Curumpa. He was then successful in the lands of
the Anta-hualla, inhabited by several tribes called Chancas;
also in the districts of Homohuallo, Tunsulla, Ramarcu,
Villca, and others. In his second expedition he went to the east
of Cuzco, reducing the small nation of Challaparrmpa, and took
possession of the lands of Havisca and Tuna. The country
beyond this being uninhabitable, and covered with marshes
and stones, here terminated his conquests towards the east.
His third expedition was to the extended country of Charcas,
where he reduced the Picunca, Muyamaya, Misqui, Sacaca,
Machaca, Curacara, unto Chuquisaca, 190 30' S. 66? 40' W.
VII. Yuhuar-Huacac (the first word means "blood;" the
second, "to weep") succeeded his father Roca. Chichia was
his wife. He sent an army under his brother Mayta, who
conquered the country of Colla-suya, which is between
Arequipa and Tacama. This Inca's eldest son, afterwards
known as Vira-cocha, gave him much trouble, when he was
exiled to Chita, where he remained three years. About this
time the people of Chanca, Uramarca, Villea, Ultasulla,
Humo, and Huallu, rebelled against the Inca, and marched
upon Cuzco. The Inca retreated to Collasuya, and the
people of Cuzco fled from the city, when some of them met
Vira-cocha, informing him of the revolt, as well as of the flight
of his father, whom he succeeded in joining, and persuaded
" all the Incas of royal blood," amounting to 4000, to return
with him to Cuzco, where he formed an army of 10,000 men.
The Quichuas, Aymaras, Catacampas, Cotanecas, and others,
20,000 strong, joined the standard of Vira-cocha; battle was
given to the Chaucas, who were defeated at Yahuac-pampa,
or field of blood. Vira-cocha now took the government of
the empire into his own hands, and sent his father to a place
of retirement called Muyna. It would appear that Vira-cocha
had some share in the rebellion against his father.
L

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VIII. Inca Vira-cocha-from the fair phantom king he said

had appeared to him when in exile. His queen was Coya
Runta, " fair, or as white as an egg." (After the VIIth Inca,
Alcedo mentions the Inca Ripac, who may be the same as
Viracocha, and that he conquered Tucuman; also the Inca
Urco, who was deposed after eleven days). Viracocha built
a palace in the valley of Muyna, on the river Yumay. He
resolved to conquer the districts to the east of Carama, Ullaca,
Llipi, and Chica, giving the command of the expedition to his
brother, Palmac-Mayta-" he who flies." The Inca himself
proceeded to the north of Cuzco, making himself master of the
people of Huaytara, Pocra, and Huamanca, (Guamanga,
130 S. 740 W.) Asamarca, Parac, Pique, and Acos. He cut
a canal from the mountains of Parcas and Pecui, to Rucanes.
Before returning to Cuzco, Viracocha went to Charcas,
when he received an embassy from the King of Tucma
(Tucuman, 270 S. 650 W.), who became subject to him. Humo-
Hualla, a chief, not contented with the government of Vira-
cocha, persuaded many to emigrate with him, which they did
probably in an eastern direction. The chief of Chaucas also
retired "200 leagues from his own country;" and Viracocha
found it necessary to command other nations to take posses-
sion of the vacated lands.
The tomb of Viracocha was in the valley of Xaxahuma,
six leagues from Cuzco: it was opened by Emzalo Pizarro,
who plundered it of its gold. Garcilasso, who saw the bodies
of Viracocha, Yupanqui, and Huayna Capac, says that the
first must have been very old when he died, for his hair was
as white as snow.
IX. Pacha-cutec " change-world" succeeded his father Vira-
cocha. His wife was Anavarqui. His first conquests were
over the Huama, and the country of Sansa, or Xanja, 110 50'
S.; also over the wandering tribes of Churcupu, Amaraa, and
Huayllas, 90 S., Pisco-pampa, Chuncuca, and Huamachaca:
the victorious army then entered the country of Cassa-marca,
70 10' S. 780 80' W., and Yanya. In the third war the
people of Ica, 140 10' S., and Pisca, 130 45' S., on the coast,
submitted without opposition. The Chinchas, 13? 25' S., also,
after somne resistance. The Inca's army marched into the

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Incas of Peru. 147
valleys of Runahuac, Huarca, Malla, and Chilca, 12? 30' S.,

where the Curaca, or chief Chuqui-manca, after a siege of
eight months, submitted to the Inca.
The valleys of Pachacamac, Rimac-malca, Chancay, and
Huaman, composed a small state under Quismanca, who be-
came his ally. This chief had at Pachacamac a temple in
lhonour of the idol Rimac, or Rincac (which means, " one who
speaks, an oracle"). The architecture of this district may
have been of as old a date, or even older, than that of Tia-
Huanacu.
This Inca's arms entered the country of an old enemy-
that of the powerful Chincu, or Chimu, who possessed the
valleys of Pumunca, Huallmi, and Huarapa (Truxillo). Miller
says, "Near Guambocho are the remains of an extensive line
of fortifications, constructed previous to the conquest. A
battle was gained here by the Inca over the Chimu, the last
king of the province called Truxillo." The Quichua became
the general language, but the Aymara and Chinchisuyo were
cultivated: still the Incas had a language of their own, and
only understood by them; and, when Garcilasso wrote his
history, it was quite lost; for as the empire was annihilated,
so was the language of the Incas. The Collas and Paiquinas
(Aymaras), satisfied with their's, held in contempt that of
Cuzco, viz. the Quichua. 0n the death of this Inca he left
his empire to his son.
X. Yupanki, whose wife was Chimpu Ocallo (Chimpu is a
coloured thread or fringe, the redness of the sky, and the halo
round the sun or moon). The Musas became his allies. He
marched against the Chirihuanos, but was not successful.
He then projected an inroad into Chile, about 1440, giving
the command of the army to Sinchi-cura, who subjected the
Copayapenicas (Copiapo), those of Cuquimpu (Coquimbo), and
his army went as far as the river Maulli (Maule), where the
Purumacuas, Antalli, Pienca, and Canquis (Araucanos), fornmed
a coalition, and, after much fighting, forced the Peruvian
monarch to fix his somewhat problematical boundary at the
river Maule in Chile. He was succeeded by his son.
XI. Inca Tupac Yupanki (the brilliant). His wife was
Coya Ocelo. He formed expeditions against the countries of
L 2

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148 Mr. Bollaeres Observations on the
Huacrachuca, Chuchapuya, 60 15' S., Muyapampa, Ascayuma,

Humapampa, Casa, Aya-huaca, and Callua; also against
Huanucu, 100 S., 750 40' W., Cannaris, and Tumipampa.
He gave the command of the conquest of Quito to his son,
Huayna Capac, who went onwards to Pastu, 10 10' N. Steven-
son, in his valuable narrative, observes, that the language of
the Malaba Indians of the river San Miguel, in Esmeraldos,
resembles the Quichua. YWhen he visited them about 1815,
the name of the chief was Cushi-cagua, and his tribe con-
sisted of 200 Ishcay huarango families, and, according to
their traditions, they are descendants of the Puncays of Quito,
but were never conquered by the Incas. The oral traditions
of the Indians of Quito, before the time of Huayna Capac,
are very trifling; the language spoken by the Puncays is un-
known, having been superseded by the Quichua.
XII. Inca Huayna Capac (the youthful). It is stated that
be had four wives-1. Pilen (a wreath of flowers); 2. Huaca
(beautiful); 3. Rava Ocallo, the mother of Huasca; 4. A
Toto-pulla, named Pacchachire, the mother of Atahualpa:
she was the daughter of the conquered chief, or Quitu, known
also as the Coucho-cando, Scyri, or King of Lican, the name
of the ancient capital of Quito, the nation being called the
Puncays. This Inca added to his empire the valleys of
Chacma, Pasmaga, Zanna, Collque, Cintu, Tucmi, Sagama,
Mutups, Pichia, and Tullana, which are between the valleys
of the Chimu and Yumpri (Yumbez, 40 30' S.). The neigh-
bouring tribes of Chunana, Chintuy, Collonche, and Yaquall,
became his subjects, as well as those of the island of Pun-',
30 S., whose chief was niamed Tumpalla. After a time he
turned his arms against the country of Munta, inhabited by
the Apechique, Pichusi, Sava, Pullansinique, Pampahuaci,
Saramissa, and Passau.
A rebellion broke out among the Caranquins, whom he
severely punished: the heads of the rebels were thrown into
a lake, which from that day has been called Yanhar-cocha, or
lake of blood. The Indians of Paraguay made some success-
ful inroads into Peru during the reign of this Inca, some of
the spoil being gold and silver ornaments.
Huayna Capac being at his palace of l'umi-pampa, the news

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Incas of Peru. 149
were brought to him of the appearance of the Spaniards on

his coast. This Inca died shortly afterwards, according to
Garcilasso in 1527: Herrera says 1525, and Alcedo 1529.
Quito was given to Atahualpa, the empire to Huasca. The
population of Peru at this period is supposed to have been
more than 10,000,000. In 1575 it is said to have been
8,280,000.
XIII. Inca Inti-cusi Huallpa, or Huascar (Inte-cusi means
"son of joy"; Huasca, from the golden rope or chain that went
round the great square of Cuzco, made to commemorate his
coming of age. He reigned about eight years, when he be-
came the prisoner of his brother Atahualpa, by whose order it
appears he was killed, in 1533, at Andamarca.
XIV. Inca Atahualpa (Hualpa is a fowl or cock in Quichlua).
He reigned five years, and was executed by Francisco Pizarro,
at Cajamarca, August 19th, 1533. Like most of the Incarial
family, he is said to have been handsome. His manners were
elegant, his perception was remarkably quick and clear.
Brave and active in war, he was also sagacious and designing
in politics.
XV. Manco Capac II., brother of Huasca, killed by some
of Almagro's followers.
XVI. Inca Toparpa, brother of Atahualpa, died in 1535,
on his way from Cuzco to Cajamarca.
XVII. Inca Syri Tupac resigned his sovereignty to Philip
It. Alcedo gives for the duration of the empire 300 years;
Blos Valeru 500 to 600.
In the foregoing sketch of the history of the Incas, Garci-
lasso has been taken as the principal guide.
Sir I. Newton supposes 1283 as the period of the appear-
ance of Manco; and as the deatlh of Huayna Capac took place
about 1525, will give 242 years: this divided by 12, the
number of Incas generally considered to have reigned from
MIanco, allows twenty years for each reign. There may, how-
ever, have been more than twelve Incas. We know that the
Indians lived to a great age, for grey hair does not commence
in the Peruvian before 70, nor the beard in small quanti-
ties before 60. When grey they are supposed to be
100. Stevenson, who witnessed the burial of two In-

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dians, one, 127, the other, 109; and, on his examining

the parish books of Barrancas, found that in seven years
eleven Indians had been buried whose joint ages amounted
to 1207 years-nearly 110 years average age.
Don Vicente Pazos, in his " Memorias Historico Politicos,"
a few copies of which were printed by himself at his own
house in London in 1834, says, " that Quintana, guided by
the imperfect information of the Spaniards, gives about
four centuries for the duration of the Peruvian empire;
but it appears to me that four centuries are not sufficient for
a nation to arrive at the state of civilization in which the
Peruvians were found. If we examine into the Incarial
policy, this could only have been the result of many centuries
of experience."
After the fall of the Incas, Peru came under Spanish
despotic dominionl, with occasional risings of the Indians
against their conquerors.
For a period of three centuries Spain received hoards of
gold and silver from its American possessions, produced by
forced Indian labour; the aborigines getting in exchange
European goods, whether useful or not to them, and for which
the most extraordinary prices were demanded. During such
a lapse of time some progress, we might expect, would have
been made in favour of the Inidians, if only in the more useful
arts; but no such thing occurred; all was stultified by the
gloom of the cloister, the vicious habits of the priesthood, and
the exacting and tyrannous character of the Spanish rulers.
However, with the distracted position of Spain at the com-
mencement of this century, the Creoles, aided by the Indians,
threw off the yoke, and it is to be hoped that time only is re-
quired to perfect the work of self-government in those coun-
tries, and at the same time to ameliorate the position of the
Indians. Tschudi, however, has come to the following pain-
ful conclusionl: " The Indians see they have been made the
tools of the Creoles. The Creoles, like the Spaniards, will
draw the string of despotism till it snaps: then will arise In-
dian rebellions like those headed by Tupac-amaru," in 1780,
that of Puma-caguLa, in 1814, "bbut with a more successful

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Incas of Peru. 151
result. After a fearful struggle they may re-conquer their

fatherland, and re-establish their ancient institutions; and can
it be a matter of surprise if they wreak cruel venigeance on
the enemies of their race." Tupac-amaru wrote from Tinta,
March 5th, 1781, a long letter to the Visatador Areche, in
which the sufferings of the Indians are stated in a calm and
manly way, remedies suggested without the necessity of Peru
separating froul Spain, but no ear was given to the appeal of
humanity. Tupac-amaru was betrayed, and cruelly butchered,
with his family and the greater part of his followers. This
celebrated letter is in the Appendix to the Spanish edition of
General Miller's Memoirs, by his brother, Mr. John
Miller.
The Peruvian Indians may be said to be more or less catho-
licised (with the exception of those on the eastern slopes of
the Andes), but many of them still preserve some of their
ancient rites and customs, among which is their adoration of
the sun, mountains, the sea, and other objects animate and
inanimate.
Cajamarca, in about 7' S. to the east of the great Cordillera,
and Cuzco in particular, in 130 30', were the principal resi-
dences of the Incas, where still live many Indians (Quichuas).
In these localities, as well as in many others, are ruins of temples
dedicated to the sun, palaces, generally fortified: the best in
preservation is that to the N.E. of Atun-Cannar, 10,640 feet
above the sea, probably built by Tupac Yupanki, such ruins
being called Inca-pirca, or walls of the Incas. Pucaras, or
frontier fortresses, tambos, or Andean caravanserais, baths,
menageries, mines-those of Escamera, Chilleo, and Abatanis
were of gold;* Choquipi-na and Porco of silver; Curahuiata
of copper; Carabuco of lead; probably the vicinity of Oruro
yielded tin; and the "magnificent" iron works of Ancori-
+ Much of the golden wealth of Peru is said to have been drawn fromi
the auriferous streams and sands of the province of Carabaya, in the
district of Puno. The golden plates which roofed the temple of the
sun, and the uncounted millions vainly paid in ransom for the life of
Atahualpa, were accumulated from the unskilful washings of the Indians
of Puno.

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ames 160 25' S., on the east margin of Lake Titicaca, are men-
tioned in Vol. I, Mercurio Peruano, p. 201, 1791. Antonio
Ulloa, who wrote in 1772, says the Peruvian Indians had
neither tools of iron or steel, but we know they had tools made
of copper and tin. Tunnels, aqueducts of Lucanos, Nasca,
Lupe, Condesuyos, &c., and all through the country remains
of well-constructed roads.
In Cuzco the church of Santo Domingo is built on part
of the ruins of the tenmple of the sun, dedicated to Pacha-
camak; Pacha, the universe or globe we inhabit-Camak,
"c creator or preserver, the eternal animator, the sun or soul of
the universe," sometimes translated, "He who created the world
out of nothing." The great temple of the sun, with a palace
and a fortress, formed a mass of architecture of more than
half a league, whilst its height appears to have been no
more than twelve feet.
The principal ruins in Cuzco are the following:-Sacsa-
hulaman is a fortress said to have taken fifty years to build.
It " is on a lofty hill to the north of the city: nmany parts of the
walls are still in perfect preservation. They are built of
stones of extraordinary magnitude, of polyangular or cyclo-
pean shapes, seldom fewer than from six to nine angles,
sometimes more, placed one upon another, without any cement,
but fitted with such nicety as not to admit the insertion of
a needle between them. It is surprising, and still unex-
plained, how and by what machinery the Peruvians could have
conveyed andl raised these enormous masses to such heights;
and it is equally extraordinary how the diversified angles of
the blocks could have been fitted with such precision."-
Miller's Memoirs, II. 224.
Colcampata, palace of 1st Inca, Manco Capac.
Palace of the Inca Roca,
Ab-Uahuan, residence of the virgins of the sun.
Palaces of the Incas Yupanki and Huasca.
Incarial ruins within the convent of Santa Theresa, and
monastery of San Francisco.
Cyclopean construction in the street of the Marquez.
Yntipampa, place or plaza of the sun.
House of Garcilasso the historian.

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Incas of Peru. 153
Gardens of the temple of the sun, the Coricancha or plaza

of gold.
The following summary on the subject of Peruvian monu-

ments is by my friend, Mr. John Miller, who has kindly
allowed me to transcribe from an intended third edition of his
brother's Memoirs.
On the landing of Pizarro, the Peruvians were found to
have attained a high degree of civilization, much higher, in-
deed, than any other nation prior to the use of graphic records;
and that they were a great and ingenious people is clear from
the vestiges of their mighty undertakings, which, as to useful-
ness, magnitude, and durability, compete with the works of
Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
The coast and inland roads from Cuzco to Quito, each
above 500 leagues in length; the causeway which runs
through the morass of Anta; the extensive fortress or Zagsa-
huaman, with the underground communications with the
city of Cuzco; the castles of Ollantaitambo; the ruins of
numerous Pucaras or frontier fortresses, generally built on
hills, surrounded by moats and strengthened by parapets of
stone, and the outward moat of Pambamarca is upwards of
four miles in extent; the palaces of Huanuco, Tumipampa,
Pomallacta, Pachacamac, Cajamarca, the superb ruins of
Cayambe and Tia-Huanacu (some of the ruins at this last-
mentioned place I have mentioned as of an age prior to that
of the Iincas), some built of unhewn blocks, or rather de-
tached fragments of granite, carried from great distances and
elevations difficult of access; the winter palaces, gardens,
fountains, and baths of Urubamba; the hot baths and palace
of Huamalies; the quarry of Chinchero, shaped into a quad-
rangular theatre, the seats of which are decorated with ani-
mals chiselled in alto-relievo out of solid rock; the circular
monuments or mausolean towers of massive stones of Celos-
tani near Puno; the osier bridge of Huachacaca across the Apu-
rimac; the balsa or pontoon bridge of the Desaguadero, and
many other bridges of curious construction; the black rock
quay, a mile long, on each side of the Guatany; the subter-
ranean aqueducts of Nazca; and many other edifices, fuir-
nish, whether in ruins or converted by the Spaniards into

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barracks or monkish establishments, evidences of the taste,

power, and opulence of the Incas, and of the vastness of the
population.
Among the changes to be deplored are the unfed canals,
whose branching conduits once gave fertility to parched
lands; mountain declivities, formerly adorned with andenes
or fruitful gardens; and granaries, now empty vaults like
those of Cajamarca; the mouldering ruins of numerous
fishing villages on the coast; the Positos, or lands recovered
from the desert, being excavations formed by the scooping
out of the coating of sand, until the arable substratum is laid
bare for cultivation.
The monuments which in Cuzco alone survive the destruc-
tive barbarity of its conquerors, attest, more strongly than
the concurring accounts of early Spanish authors, the civili-
zation of the people by whom they were erected.
We will now turn to the south part of Peru. I have io

doubt that the Nymara Indians at present in the province of
Tarapaca are descended from those who lived there previous
to and in the times of the Incas. Almagro's troops, on their
return from his discovery of Chile in 1537, came along the
eastern margin of the desert of Atacama, when South Peru was
discovered, and when some of his followers remained behind
in the less arid localities of Pica, Tarapaca, and Camijla, whiclh
contained Iiidian populations under Aymara Curacas, or
chiefs, named Sanga, Opo, Chuquichumbi, Ayvire, Tancari,
&c., which names are to be met with amonigst them at the
present day.
From what I have already stated, it will be seen that the
language spoken by the first Incas is lost: there is a proba-
bility, however, that it may have been one of the languages of
the Aymara nations. It is only under the Vth Inca that the
Aymaras and Quichuas were conquered; and it was the XIJth
Inca who " tried his utmost so that the Quichua should be
the only language spoken. He did not succeed, without the
other barbarous idioms slhould be abolished." The Quicliua
was spoken in all its purity at Cuzco.

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Incas of Peru. 155
In our own times the Quichua and Aymara nations are the
principal ones known in the inhabited parts of Peru. The
Indians of Atacama appear to be distinct from the two already
mentioned, and the Changos or fishermen found between
Cobija and Copiapo are rather a mixed breed, and do not, I
think, constitute a separate tribe, as is sometimes stated.
In the beginning of 1828, I was at the port of Cobija,
22' 28', on my way along the coast of the desert of Atacama
to Chile. At Cobija were a few half Indian or Chango fisher-
men. I left Cobija in an open boat bound to the south for
Paposo, sailing during the day, rowing at night, along a most
wretched, sterile, and mountainous coast. On the ninth day
we saw three fishermen on shore; they spoke Spanish. On
the following day three came off to us on a seal-skini balsa
out of the Caleta de Cardon, exchanging with us their dried
fish (congreo) for flour and coca. When they heard we had
coca, they exclaimed, " 0 que cosa tan rica y bendita,"-" Oh!
how good and blessed is coca." On the twelfth day three
more came off in balsas from El Rincon, and on that day we
anchored in Paposo, where there are three or four families,
people from Copiapo, who are here to barter for dried fish
with the fishermen, who speak Spanish, and may understand
the Atacama and Aymara languages.
Two leagues south of Paposo is Punta Grande, where there
are three or four families, and five leagues further soutlh is Agua
Dulce, where there are half a dozen families, who have a
few goats and asses. Having traversed the dangerous Mal
Paso, I came to HuEso PARADO, in about 250 30' (this spot
was shewn to me as the divisional point between Peru, or rather
Bolivia, and Chile). Nearing the valley of Copiapo is Salinas,
where I found four or five families, and the fishermen, who had
been supplied with wine, were dancilng and singing all night.
It was a sort of " wake," in consequence of the death of two
children, the bodies of whom were about being taken to
Copiapo for burial: thus perhaps these Indians may be called
christianized.
These fishermen move from one caleta (cove) to another;
they told me that they belongeed to the district of Copiapo,
but paid no tribute. They go occasionally with asses laden

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with dried fish (charquicillo) across the desert to San Pedro de

Atacama, and perhaps further in that direction, also to
Copiapo.
At Copiapo, these fishermen of the coast are known as
"Changos," but I did not hear it mentioned that they were a
distinct tribe of Indians, and I looked upon the term " Chango "
as something to do with their miserable condition and occu-
pation, rather than their name as a tribe. I saw about 100,
and allowing 50 fishing north of Cobija, and 100 more travel-
ling in the interior, would make in all about 250 souls.
Acosta speaks of a nation of " Changos" ninety miles from
Cuzco. In 120 20' S., in the interior of Peru, there is a spot
called Changos. The Quichua and Aymara are the principal
Indian languages spoken in Peru. The Aymara was and is
that known the best in the south, and spoken by the Indians
of Tarapaca. There is a dialect called the Chinchisuya spoken
more to the north.
These originally oral languages were learnt by the Spaniards,
and made by them to follow the Greek and Latin construc-
tion, having similar declensions and terminations.
The following may not be deemed uninteresting to philo-
logists. It is from the Spanish preface to the Gospel of St.
Luke, translated into Aymara by the late Don V. Pazos,
Doctor of the University of Cuzco.-Moyes, Took's Court,
Chancery Lane, 1829.
The Amyara language has a labial, dental, and guttural
pronunciation peculiar to it. The first is designated as pp,
being pronounced by enmitting the respiration with force
against the lips united as ppia, a hole; ppampar2a, to bury.
The second with tt, is done by the tongue being placed
against the teeth, as ttanta, head, but which, if pronounced
with force, would mean something knavish. The third, ck
or k, are pronounced in the throat, with this difference, that
the first is more guttural, as cholka, tree; kollke, money. The
w has been introduced, because the Spanish v and u do not
give the sound of w, but which in Aymara is the same as in
English: thus, acawa, this; acanwa, here. The other letters
have the same value and sound as those in Spanish.
The Aymarba Indian is of a brown olive colouLr, but darker

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Incas of Peru. 157
in the Andes, has straight black hair, sparely made, and may
be called a small race of people. The whole population of
the province of Tarapaca is about 10,000, of which 6000 are
Indians. The province is divided into four curatos, viz.
Tarapaca, Pica, Sibaya, and Camina.
La Paz, N.N.E. of Tarapaca, is in about the centre of the
Aymara country (which anciently included, among others, the
following nations :-Canchis, Canas, Collas, Collaguas, Lupa-
cas, Pacases, Carancas, and Charcas).
The only legend I met with in Tarapaca was the following:
-Two Curacas, the brave and generous Tata* Jachura and
the sullen and savage Tata Savaya, were in love with an
Indian maiden, Marna Huanapa. She gave the preference to
Jachura, upon which Savaya dared his rival to mortal combat;
but in which Savaya fell, when his head was severed from
his body. The Indians say that Pacha-cawak immediately
reared three mountains to perpetuate the occurrence; one
called Huanapa, which looks as if tresses of hair were
banging about it (probably old lava streams). Jachura is a
very conical mountain, 17,000 feet above the sea, to the sum-
mit of which I ascended; Savaya mountain having its upper
part cut off, is probably a volcanic mountain, its cone havinig
fallen in.
There is reason to believe, that although the Incas had car-
ried their conquering arms beyond Quito, the Peruvians knew
little or nothing of countries much beyond the Equator. The
celebrated quippos, or knotted coloured strings, serving the
Peruvians the purpose of writing, are but little used now in
Peru. The natives of Anahuac, before they used hierogly-
phical paintings, had quippos. Such were found among the
Canadians, and used in very remote times by the Chinese, as
Humboldt tells us. The quippos were known to the Pun-
cays of Quito, according to Stevenson, who also saw a species
of quippo in use in Arauco.
* It is said that mama is the Indian word for " mother," and tata or
taita, " father :" these expressions appear to me to he of Spanish origin.
In some Quichua grammars, " motber" is put down as mamay, but " fa-
ther," taya or tayay. In Aymara, " mother" is taica, and " father," haki.

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The ancient Peruvians used strings of the pods of capsi-

cum and leaves of the coca in lieu of a monetary medium.
The Indian of Tarapaca is quiet and inoffensive: his only
arm is the sling, with which he hunts the huanaco, vicuna.
and biscacha. He has been taught but very imperfectly the
Christianity of Romanism, and the priests, aided by the secular
arm, have great power over the Indian. Occasionally the
priests get up a miracle; and not many years since " our
lady of Guadaloupe," or the Virgin Mary, was made to appear
to an Indian woman, or she was induced to believe so,
near to the volcano of Isluga, when great ceremonies were
performed, a large cross erected on the spot, and the place
has become one of great veneration. The Indians marry at
an early age. They are slow, but persevering; and whilst the
men convey the produce of their land into the Creole towns,
the females left at home assist in the cultivation, and tend
the llamas and alpacas. The Indians present beasts of
burden are the mule and ass: formerly they used the llamas
and alpacas. The dog is the faithful companion of the In-
dian, particularly when travelling; is generally of a black
colour, good size, long head and nose, and its bark is that of
a sharp howl.*
The Indians, when at home in their villages, live well,
having llama meat, poultry, fruit, and vegetables: some have
wheat flour, but the chief grain is maize (first known by the
name of " mahiz " in Hayti), of which there appears to be five
varieties in Peru: their bread is made from it, as also, by fer-
menting the grain, their favourite drink, chicha, the merits of
which is often celebrated in song: a verse of one runs thus-
0! most savoury nectar,
Thou golden coloured stream,
The Indian's joyous treasure,
0 ! let us freely quaff.
Chicha de maiz is like sweet-wort, made also from barley
* The Inca Pacha-cutec, when he conquered the Indians of Huancuya

and Jauj a, found that the dog was the object of adoration. The Peru-
vian dog is called in Quichua, " runa-alleo :" this is the canis ingce, and a
barking species. There are some fine black ones in Tarapaca, and for-

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Incas of Peru. 159
and white millet; the red millet is

(quinoa a chenopodium).
With a little toasted maize, water in a gourd, and some
cuca or coca,@ they will travel for days over the most desert
tracks. The coca leaves are masticated with mambi or
uncta, which is composed of an alkaline ash, principally of the
cactus and quinoa, and sometimes mixed with boiled potato.
Deleterious effects are said to be produced upon the coquero
or confirmed masticator; and the chewing to acullicar gives
them an ugly appearance, the cheeks being stuffed out with
it, the mouth,lips, teeth of a dirty green colour, and the
breath very unpleasant.
The Indian habitations are built of rough stone and thatched
with grass, of seldom more than one apartment, without win-
dows, the fireplace in the centre, the smoke going out at the
top. Their cooking utensils consist of a few earthen pots and
disbes; they manufacture, by spinning and rough weaving, the
material for their clothing from the wool of the llama, alpaca,
and sheep, and also from cotton; their present fashion of dress
being a mixture of Indian and Spanisb. The men are never
without the poncho or mantle; that worn by the women is
called the Iliella: their carpets are termed chuces: topos, or
ornamented pins of a large size, of gold or silver, serve to
fasten the lliella, and sometimes one end is made into a spoon.
On the rivers in the north, and lakes in the interior, balsas
or floats-1huamnpu in Quichua-made of wood or rushes, are
merly, the Aymara Indians destroyed those who were not of this colour.
There is another known as the canis caribicus, whiclh is described as
hairless and without voice. In Mexico, the techichi "was the only
dumb dog." Tschudi thinks that thed canisfamiliaris was indigenous to
Peru, and not introduced by the Spaniards.
* Erythrocelon Peruvianum-The tree of hunger and thirst. The
leaves are picked in May and November, and sometimes thrice a year,
dried in the sun, tied up in bundles of 221b. each, pressed, steeped in
ley, ancl then are ready for sale. The bundle is worth about 21. The
annual sales at La Paz are about one million sterling. This plant was
esteemed in the time of the Incas more than gold or silver, and was
burnit in their solemn sacrifices. The Xeques or priests of Bogota perw
fumed their idols with burning coca.

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used; but on the south coast, whlere the surf is heavy, t

Indian fisherman uses a balsa made of seal-skins inflated, the
manufacture of which shews great ingenuity.
Those Indians who hold a little land pay a tribute equal to
11. per annum; others who have no land, but in expectation of
having it when a vacancy occurs, pay sixteen shillings. They
reside from the coast to great elevations in the Andes; indeed,
the town of Isluga, at the foot of the active volcano of the
same name, is about 14,000 feet above the sea. The llama is
bred here, and a little millet grown: during summer pastures
are found even higher than 15,000 feet. Here the condor is
met with, which often destroys young domestic animals. The
puma, or maneless lion, and ostrich are seen at these great
elevations.
Occasionally a few Yungenos, also called Chirihuanos,
visit South Peru. They are known as the travelling doctors, in
consequence of having an ambulatory pharmacy, containing
remedies for every disease, real or imaginary, viz. herbs,
gums, resins, roots, ointments, carimunachis, and piri-piris,
or love charms of various sorts, including loadstone; but the
only useful medicine is the quina, or cinchona bark, taken for
fevers, which appear in the autumn in the valleys of the coast,
where there may be water and vegetation. At Pica, which
is about 3800 feet above the sea, it is very bad at times,
but at 2000 or 3000 feet higher it is not known. The
Chirihuano sometimes bleeds, the operation being performed
by a rude lancet, composed of a sharp piece of obsidean,
or glass, fixed into a piece of wood, placing the sharp edge
on the vein, and then giving it a nick with the thumb and
finger.
Mr. Blake, in his notice of Tarapaca, (American Journal
of Science, 1843,) says, that " a mile or two from Tara is an
ancient country, unlike those near Arica and other parts of
Peru, the bodies have for the mnost part crumbled to dust.
They are buried in a sitting position, with the arms across
the breast, and wrapped in cloths of woollen, some of which
are fine and richly coloured. As in the burial-place of
Arica, many of the skulls found here are elongated, full
two-thirds of the cerebral mass being behind the occipital
foramen."

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Incas of Peru. 161
During my residence in South Peru, particularly at Arica

and Tarapaca, I opened many huacas, and although a few
of the skulls appeared somewhat elongated, the greater num-
ber were not so; and when skulls are mnet with of peculiarly
elongated form, it may be attributed to the effect of artificial
means, as such was a common practice among the Peruvian
Indians, even as late as the sixteenth century. Condamine says
that the term " Omaguas," in the language of Peru, as that of
"Camberas" in that of Brazil, means "flat heads." This flat-
tening is effected by pressing between two plates the forehead
of the newly-born child, in order to make them resemble in
shape the full moon. Such was prohibited by the Spanish
ecclesiastical councils in 1585, by a synod held at Lima,
when a decree was passed against the Indian practice of dis-
figuring the head. This practice has, in all probability, given
rise to the opinion entertained by some, that the compressed
skulls found about the Lake of Titicaca were naturally of this
form, and not produced by artificial means.
Mr. Blake also mentions, that on the summit of a conical
hill near Tara are two large circles, one within the other,
formed by large blocks of stones, evidently carried there from
a distant part of the valley beneath, and, if without the aid of
machinery, at an immense expenditure of labour. Similar
circles of stone, like those erected by the ancient Celtme, are
not uncommon in Peru and Bolivia.
In various parts of the province of Tarapaca, on the coast,
as well as in the interior, huacas-sacred places, (aye-huaci,
" houses of the dead, or ancient Indian cemeteries,") are found,
and, with the mummies, images of gold and silver, curiously
shaped pottery, paintings, arms, tools, fishing implements,
mirrors of silver and polished stone, hatchets of copper, dried
fruits, maize, shells, fossil bones of animals, &c. &c. It is said
that the dead were preserved by embalming and keeping them
in tombs in the frozen regions of the Andes. One form ol
this ancient pottery is that of a double bottle, and, when
liquid is poured from it, a whistling noise is heard: such sounds
are said to have been used for calling the Indian from his
labour in the field. These are known as the musical jugs of the
Incas, and afford evidence of a degree of perfection in the
M

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manufacture and design of pottery which the present race do

not possess.
As the district of Tarapaca and surrounding country is so
dry and desert, and its surface charged with so much saline
materials, dead bodies have been naturally preserved for cen-
turies in various parts.
Dr. Reid,* a traveller, in his journey, in 1850, from Cobija
(the port of Bolivia) into the interior, dates his observations from
the old Peruvian frontierfortress of Lasana, which is on the skirts
of the desert ofAtacama, and notfarfrom Chuic-Chuic. He says,
"There is an extensive half-moon: in it sit men, women, and
children, from five to six hundred, all in the same attitude, and
gazing vacantly before them, some fallen down, and some
partly covered with sand. The common opinion is, that they
were bulried in this place: mine is, that they buried them-
selves, for there is no place in the vicinity where they could
have dwelt. Many women are among them, with infants at
the breast. The similar attitude of them all, and the expres-
sion of grief which is still discoverable in most of their coun-
tenances, prove that they had withdrawn hither in despair
when the Spaniards conquered and devastated their land.
They had the belief that if they died they would be removed
to a better world towards the west; on which account their
cooking utensils, found beside them, are full of maize. The
whole scene produces a deep and melancholy impression."
Two of these bodies were sent to Ratisbon. The facts given
by Dr. Reid are interesting; but his opinion that they had
gone there to die, so as to escape the conquering Spaniard,
is scarcely probable, but rather that the locality is a buaca,
or ancient Indian burial-place. Near this are deposits of
the Atacama meteoric iron, that at Toconao is in 23? 20' S.
680 10' W.
South of the silver mines of Santa Rosa (not far inland
from the port of Iquique), is a curious spot known as Las
Rayas: the sides of one of the barren hills in particular is
laid out as if for a garden, with a large double circle in the
* Clhambers' Edin. Journal, March 8, 1851.

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Incas of Perw&. 163
centre, and paths branclhing off dividing the ground into com-
partments. The loose stones having been carefully picked
off the paths, which are rendered hard apparently by the
feet of people, it is supposed that Indian rites and ceremonies
were, and may still be, perforined here. In the vicinity is
the representation of a llama, produced by taking away the
loose dark stones from the side of the mountain inside the
outline: these representations are called " Pintados de los
Indios," or Indian pictography, and may be seen from a long
distance. South of La Nueva Noria, where the crude native
nitrate of soda is dug and refined, is a range of hills known
as Los Pintados, from the numerous figures of llamas, squares,
circles, and other forms which are found covering their sides
for the space of a league. This is the largest collection
of "pintados" in Tarapaca. The opinion is, that the for-
mation of them was known to the " Indios Gentiles," or
Indians, before the conquest. In the Quebrada de los
Pintados, or the pictured valley, many leagues S. E. of the
last mentioned, I examined representations of Indians, male
and female, llamas, dogs, and other curious forms, on the
side of the desert ravine; some of the figures being 20 to
30 feet high, cut in the sandy marl, the lines being 12 to 18
inches broad, and 6 to 8 deep. I then thought (1826) these
delineations were made by the Indians for amusement, but
now think their existence may be attributed to some other
motive, perhaps to mark the vicinity of their burial-places.
Indian pictography, symbolic and representative devices, is
common to the tribes of the New World. In North America
they are cut in rocks, trees, or painted on skins.
At the passes in the Andes of Pacheta* and Pichuta,
above Camifia, the Indian who goes by there will bring a
stone, even from a distance, in order to add another to the
pile: these piles of stones are not uncommon in the Andes
and other parts of S. America.
* From "Apachitas," or " Cotararayrrumi" (Quichua),and were adored

,s gods. -The Indian who had surmounted a difficult hill, and arrived at
he pass, was thankful to Pacha-camak, and cried out, " Apachecta,"
or " To him who has given me strength."
M 2

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164 Mr. Bollaert's Observations on the Incas of Peru.
The ancient Indians worked mines of gold, silver, and other

metals. These mining operations probably prepared them for
other works of engineering skill. Their aqueducts are great
works, as may be seen at Pica, in the province of Tarapaca,
where there are socabones, or tunnels, of three thousand yards
in length, driven through sandstone mountains to convey water
for irrigation, for which they are still used. These tunnels
are 4 feet wide and 6 feet high: at every 100 yards is a lum-
brera, or ventilating shaft, as in our own railway tunnels. The
water so conveyed is collected into cochas, or reservoirs, from
which it is distributed to the chacras, or farms and vineyards.

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Observations on the History of the Incas of Peru, on the Indians of South Peru, and on

Some Indian Remains in the Province of Tarapaca

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3014140

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HISTORY OF THE INCAS OF PERU,

THE INDIANS OF SOUTH PERU,

Read 12th May 1852.

THE origin of the term Peru is involved in some obscurity.

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power, as well as afterwards, to banish to this valley those

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4. An elevated district follows, where, for the first time,

* See " Observations on the Geography of Souithern Peru." By W.

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Bolivia, or Upper Peru, is from 90 S. to 250 30' S. It has

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government, can only be traced to about A.D. 1100, which

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with them. Mr. Sidney, in his work on the Australian Colo-

* The natives of Esmeraldas, Rio Verde, and Atacames, are Zambos,

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Mississippi and north of Mexico, the civilization of Anahuac,

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brothers, jealous of his power, devised a scheme to destroy

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I. Inca, Manco Capac-Ccapac Apu, king or ruler-is said

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and all the tribes from Huaycha to Callamarca, Mayta Capac,

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whence be descended to this coast, subjecting those of the

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VIII. Inca Vira-cocha-from the fair phantom king he said

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valleys of Runahuac, Huarca, Malla, and Chilca, 12? 30' S.,

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Huacrachuca, Chuchapuya, 60 15' S., Muyapampa, Ascayuma,

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were brought to him of the appearance of the Spaniards on

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dians, one, 127, the other, 109; and, on his examining

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result. After a fearful struggle they may re-conquer their

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Gardens of the temple of the sun, the Coricancha or plaza

The following summary on the subject of Peruvian monu-

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barracks or monkish establishments, evidences of the taste,

We will now turn to the south part of Peru. I have io

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with dried fish (charquicillo) across the desert to San Pedro de

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The ancient Peruvians used strings of the pods of capsi-

Chicha de maiz is like sweet-wort, made also from barley