METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC PROCESSES

Metamorphism is the transformation of existing rocks to rocks with a different mineral

composition or texture. Metamorphism takes place at temperatures in excess of 150 °C, and often
also at elevated pressure or in the presence of chemically active fluids, but the rock remains mostly
solid during the transformation.
It can also be defined as the mineralogical and structural adjustments of solid rocks to physical
and chemical conditions differing from those under which the rocks were originally formed.
Changes produced by surface conditions such as compaction are usually excluded.

Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks are formed on Earth as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are
formed when rocks are heated to the melting point which forms magma. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from the cementing together of sediments, or from the compaction (squeezing together) of
sediments, or from the recrystallization of new mineral grains which are larger than the original
crystals. Metamorphic rocks are formed from heat and pressure changing the original or parent
rock into a completely new rock. The parent rock can be either sedimentary, igneous, or even
another metamorphic rock. The word "metamorphic" comes from Greek and means "To Change
Form".
The diagram above shows you how the rocks on Earth have been changed continually over time
from one rock type to another. This changing of rock types is called the "Rock Cycle".

Solid rock can be changed into a new rock by stresses that cause an increase in heat and pressure.
There are 3 main agents that cause metamorphism and they are the factors that cause an increase
in Temperature, Pressure, and Chemical changes.

Temperature increases can be caused by layers of sediments being buried deeper and deeper under
the surface of the Earth. As we descend into the earth the temperature increases about 25 degrees
Celsius for every kilometer that we descend. The deeper the layers are buried the hotter the
temperatures become. The great weight of these layers also causes an increase in pressure, which
in turn, causes an increase in temperature.
The descending of rock layers at subduction zones causes metamorphism in two ways; the shearing
effect of the plates sliding past each other causes the rocks coming in contact with the descending
rocks to change. Some of the descending rock will melt because of this friction. When rock melts
it is then considered igneous not metamorphic, but the rock next to the melted rock can be changed
by the heat and become a metamorphic rock

There are 3 factors that cause an increase in pressure which also causes the formation of
metamorphic rocks. These factors are;

1. The huge weight of overlying layers of sediments.

2. Stresses caused by plates colliding in the process of mountain building.
3. Stresses caused by plates sliding past each other, such as the shearing stresses at the San
Andreas fault zone in California.

Factors that cause chemical changes in rocks also contribute to the formation of metamorphic
rocks. Very hot fluids and vapors can, because of extreme pressures, fill the pores of existing rocks.
These fluids and vapors can cause chemical reactions to take place, that over time, can change the
chemical makeup of the parent rock.

Metamorphism can be instantaneous as in the shearing of rocks at plate boundaries or can take
millions of years as in the slow cooling of magma buried deep under the surface of the Earth.

There are three types of metamorphism namely

1. Contact
2. Regional and
3. Dynamic metamorphism.

Contact Metamorphism occurs when magma comes in contact with an already existing body of
rock. When this happens the existing rocks temperature rises and also becomes infiltrated with
fluid from the magma. The area affected by the contact of magma is usually small, from 1 to 10
kilometers. Contact metamorphism produces non-foliated (rocks without any cleavage) rocks such
as marble, quartzite, and hornfels.

In the diagram above magma has pushed its way into layers of limestone, quartz sandstone and
shale. The heat generated by the magma chamber has changed these sedimentary rocks into the
metamorphic rocks marble, quartzite, an hornfels.
Regional Metamorphism occurs over a much larger area. This metamorphism produces rocks
such as gneiss and schist. Regional metamorphism is caused by large geologic processes such as
mountain-building. These rocks when exposed to the surface show the unbelievable pressure that
cause the rocks to be bent and broken by the mountain building process. Regional metamorphism
usually produces foliated rocks such as gneiss and schist.

Dynamic Metamorphism also occurs because of mountain-building. These huge forces of heat
and pressure cause the rocks to be bent, folded, crushed, flattened, and sheared.

Metamorphic rocks are almost always harder than sedimentary rocks. They are generally as hard
and sometimes harder than igneous rocks. They form the roots of many mountain chains and are
exposed to the surface after the softer outer layers of rocks are eroded away. Many metamorphic
rocks are found in mountainous regions today and are a good indicator that ancient mountains were
present in areas that are now low hill or even flat plains. Metamorphic rocks are divided into two
categories- Foliates and Non-foliates.

Foliates are composed of large amounts of micas and chlorites. These minerals have very distinct
cleavage. Foliated metamorphic rocks will split along cleavage lines that are parallel to the
minerals that make up the rock. Slate, as an example, will split into thin sheets. Foliate comes from
the Latin word that means sheets, as in the sheets of paper in a book.

Silt and clay can become deposited and compressed into the sedimentary rock shale. The layers
of shale can become buried deeper and deeper by the process of deposition.

Deposition is the laying down of rock forming material by any natural agent (wind, water, glaciers)
over time. Because these layers are buried, temperatures and pressures become greater and greater
until the shale is changed into slate. Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock with perfect cleavage
that allows it to split into thin sheets. Slate usually has a light to dark brown streak. Slate is
produced by low grade metamorphism, which is caused by relatively low temperatures and
pressures.

Slate has been used by man in a variety of ways over the years. One use for slate was in the making
of headstones or grave markers. Slate is not very hard and can be carved easily. The problem with
slate though is its perfect cleavage. The slate headstones would crack and split along these cleavage
planes as water would seep into the cracks and freeze which would lead to expansion. This freeze-
thaw, freeze-thaw over time would split the headstone. Today headstones are made of a variety of
rocks, with granite and marble being two of the most widely used rocks. Slate was also used for
chalk boards. The black color was good as a background and the rock cleaned easily with water.
Today it is not very advantageous to use this rock because of its weight and the splitting and
cracking over time.

Schist is a medium grade metamorphic rock. This means that it has been subjected to more heat
and pressure than slate, which is a low grade metamorphic rock and therefore, schist is a more
coarse grained rock. The individual grains of minerals can be seen by the naked eye. Many of the
original minerals have been altered into flakes. Because it has been squeezed harder than slate it
is often found folded and crumpled. Schists are usually named by the main minerals that they are
formed from. Bitotite mica schist, hornblende schist, garnet mica schist, and talc schist are some
examples of this.

Gneiss is a high grade metamorphic rock. This means that gneiss has been subjected to more heat
and pressure than schist. Gneiss is coarser than schist and has distinct banding. This banding has
alternating layers that are composed of different minerals. The minerals that compose gneiss are
the same as granite. Feldspar is the most important mineral that makes up gneiss along with mica
and quartz. Gneiss can be formed from a sedimentary rock such as sandstone or shale, or it can be
formed from the metamorphism of the igneouse rock grantite. Gneiss can be used by man as paving
and building stone.

Non-Foliates are metamorphic rocks that have no cleavage at all. Quartzite and marble are two
examples of non-foliates.

Quartzite is composed of sandstone that has been metamorphosed. Quartzite is much harder than
the parent rock sandstone. It forms from sandstone that has come into contact with deeply buried
magmas. Quartzite looks similar to its parent rock. The best way to tell quartzite from sandstone
is to break the rocks. Sandstone will shatter into many individual grains of sand while quartzite
will break across the grains.

Marble is metamorphosed limestone or dolomite. Both limestone and dolomite have a large
concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Marble has many different sizes of crystals. Marble
has many color variances due to the impurities present at formation. Some of the different colors
of marble are white, red, black, mottled and banded, gray, pink, and green.

Marble is much harder than its parent rock. This allows it to take a polish which makes it a good
material for use as a building material, making sink tops, bathtubs, and a carving stone for artists.
Today, headstones are made from marble and granite because both of these rocks weather very
slowly and carve well with sharp edges.