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Sustainable Utilization of
Carbon Dioxide in Waste Management
This page intentionally left blank
Sustainable Utilization
of Carbon Dioxide in
Waste Management
Moving toward reducing environmental impact

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed
Uberbinder Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom
EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Maisa M. El Gamal
Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Suhaib M. Hameedi
Sunlit Environmental Studies & Research, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

In association with
Evan K. Paleologos
Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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I dedicate this work to my divine wife, who has provided me
with endless support over the last 40 years, and to our two
beloved daughters.
Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed
I dedicate this work to my dear husband for his endless social
and technical support and my gratitude to all my family
members for their love and prayers.
Maisa El Gamal
To my parents (the late father Mohammad Hameedi, and the
blessed mother Ghalia Jinbaz) for their wise guidance, to my
brothers and sisters for their continuous support, to my dear
wife for her generous support, and to my cheerful kids Yaman
and Tayma. I thank Prof. A.M.O. Mohamed and Dr. M. El Gamal
for giving me the chance to share their success, also to all my
teachers at school and university and to everyone who added a
positive spot to my knowledge.
Suhaib Hameedi
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

About the authors xiii 1.6 Case study 2: development of EoW

Preface xv criteria for secondary aggregates from
industrial processes 47
1.6.1 Analysis of coal combustion
1. Emerging carbon-based waste
residues (CCR) 47
management sustainable practices 1.6.2 Analysis of iron and steel slags
1.1 Introduction 1 production residues (ISSPR) 52
1.2 Waste management principles and 1.6.3 EoW criteria for reprocessed
approaches 4 aggregates derived from ISSPR 56
1.2.1 Waste management hierarchy 4 1.7 Case study 3: development of EoW
1.2.2 Emerging approaches in waste criteria for carbon capture and
management 5 utilization (CCU) products 56
1.3 Circular economy (CE) 7 1.7.1 Input materials of CCU-based
1.3.1 CE definitions 7 products 56
1.3.2 CE-based legislation 10 1.7.2 Production 58
1.3.3 CE drivers, challenges, inhibitors, 1.7.3 Economic assessment 58
and enablers 12 1.7.4 Marketing of CCU products 58
1.3.4 CE and sustainable development 12 1.7.5 EoW criteria for CCU products 59
1.3.5 CE monitoring indicators 14 1.8 Summary and concluding remarks 61
1.3.6 Carbon reprocessing 19 References 61
1.4 End-of-waste criteria 19
1.4.1 Regulatory standing of EoW
criteria 20
2. Carbon capture and utilization
1.4.2 Development of EoW leaching 2.1 Introduction 67
limit values 27 2.2 Carbon capture 69
1.4.3 Guiding principles for 2.3 Carbon capture cost 73
establishing EoW criteria 27 2.4 Carbon dioxide transport 77
1.4.4 Impact assessment 33 2.5 Carbon storage (CS) technologies 77
1.4.5 Drafting possible EoW criteria 2.6 Carbon utilization (CU) technologies 77
proposals 35 2.6.1 CU utilization options 79
1.5 Case study 1: development of EoW 2.7 Global CO2 utilization projects 86
criteria for construction and demolition 2.8 Carbon capture and utilization eco-
reprocessed waste aggregates 37 nomic evaluation 95
1.5.1 Material analysis: sources, uses, 2.9 Carbon binding capacity in carbon-
and treatment 37 based products 96
1.5.2 Quality assurance 39 2.10 Market potential of carbon-based
1.5.3 Environmental impact 41 products 99
1.5.4 Related regulations 43 2.11 Policies and regulations to support
1.5.5 Market evaluation 44 carbon capture, storage, and
1.5.6 Public perception or consumer utilizations 102
acceptance 45 2.11.1 The European Union’s current
1.5.7 EoW criteria for C&D waste 45 regulatory framework 102

vii
viii Contents

2.11.2 CCU regulatory challenges 5. Mineral carbonation

and developments 106
2.11.3 GHG accountability 108 5.1 Introduction 163
2.11.4 Barriers to the development of 5.2 Carbonation of alkaline materials 164
CCU 108 5.2.1 Natural carbonation 164
2.11.5 EU action plan for a circular 5.2.2 Accelerated carbonation 164
economy 109 5.2.3 Alkaline wastes as adsorbents 167
2.12 Summary and concluding remarks 109 5.3 Principles of accelerated carbonation
References 110 reaction 168
5.3.1 Process chemistry 168
5.3.2 Ion equilibrium in solution 169
3. Assessment of carbon dioxide
5.3.3 Carbonate precipitation 170
utilization technologies 5.3.4 Formation of solid carbonates 171
3.1 Introduction 115 5.3.5 Calcite crystal growth 171
3.2 Technical and economic assessment 116 5.3.6 Hydro-magnesite crystal
3.2.1 Goals of the technical and growth 173
economic assessment 117 5.3.7 Thermodynamic stability 175
3.2.2 Scope of the study 118 5.3.8 Solid state reaction kinetics 175
3.2.3 Inventory/record 121 5.4 Controlling parameters 176
3.2.4 Indicators/indices 124 5.4.1 Surface activation 177
3.2.5 Interpretation/explanation 125 5.4.2 Dissolution 177
3.2.6 Reporting 125 5.4.3 Carbon dioxide concentration 178
3.3 Life-cycle assessment 125 5.4.4 Reaction temperature 182
3.3.1 Goal of the study 126 5.4.5 Solution pH 182
3.3.2 Scope of the study 127 5.4.6 Liquid-to-solid ratio 182
3.3.3 Life-cycle inventory 131 5.4.7 Formation of passivating product
3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 131 layer 183
3.3.5 Life cycle sensitivity analysis 140 5.4.8 Nature of the product 183
3.3.6 Life cycle interpretation and 5.5 Useful carbonated products 183
reporting 143 5.5.1 Calcium-based carbonates 185
3.4 Summary and concluding remarks 144 5.5.2 Magnesium-based carbonates 187
References 145 5.6 Utilization of carbonated products 188
5.7 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 189
4. Carbonation reaction kinetics 5.8 Summary and concluding remarks 189
References 193
4.1 Introduction 149
4.2 Chemical reactions 149
6. Carbonation technologies
4.2.1 Solids 149
4.2.2 Carbonation of alkaline solid 6.1 Introduction 201
waste 150 6.2 Technology readiness 201
4.3 Reaction models 151 6.3 Direct gas-solid carbonation 201
4.3.1 Shrinking core model 151 6.4 Single step aqueous processes 201
4.3.2 Progressive-conversion model 151 6.5 Multistep aqueous processes 202
4.3.3 Particle-pellet model 151 6.5.1 Technologies for natural
4.4 Unreacted core shrinking model for serpentine carbonation 202
spherical particles 152 6.5.2 Technologies for alkaline waste
4.4.1 Theoretical development 152 carbonation 204
4.4.2 Determination of the 6.6 Case studies for the use of the
rate-controlling step 155 MGF process: I. cement kiln
4.4.3 Kinetic expressions for dust (CKD) 207
diffusion-limited reactions 155 6.7 Case studies for the use of MGF
4.5 Grain model 159 process: II. steel slag 207
4.6 Other approaches 161 6.7.1 Hydration process 207
4.7 Summary and concluding remarks 161 6.7.2 Carbonation process 208
References 161 6.7.3 Extent of carbonation 209
 Contents ix

6.8 Case studies for the use of MGF 8. Carbonation of fly ash
processes: III. production of
sewerage pipes 210 8.1 Introduction 267
6.8.1 Modified sulfur concrete 211 8.2 Classification of fly ash 267
6.8.2 Sulfur modification 211 8.3 Sources of fly ash 268
6.8.3 Production of sulfur concrete 212 8.3.1 Coal fly ash 268
6.8.4 Balanced mix design 212 8.3.2 Municipal solid waste
6.8.5 Durability of MSC 214 incineration ash 270
6.9 Case studies for the use of MGF 8.3.3 Modern flay ash 272
process: IV. technology demonstration 8.4 Fly ash utilizations 273
in underground sewerage 8.4.1 Neutralization/treatment agent 273
environment 214 8.4.2 SO2 capture 273
6.9.1 Material composition 216 8.4.3 CO2 sequestration 273
6.9.2 Field testing conditions 216 8.4.4 Soil stabilization 273
6.9.3 Environmental impact 216 8.4.5 Cement production or
6.10 Case studies for the use of MGF cement-based materials 273
process: V. technology demonstration 8.4.6 Pastes and mortars 276
in saline and variable acidic 8.4.7 Hollow blocks 276
environments 223 8.4.8 Aggregates 276
6.10.1 Strength development 224 8.4.9 Ceramic tiles 276
6.10.2 Structural changes 225 8.4.10 Fire resistance products 276
6.10.3 Influence of aqueous 8.4.11 Adsorbents and catalysts 276
environment on strength 225 8.4.12 Filler material in polymer
6.10.4 Leachability 225 composites 277
6.11 Summary and concluding remarks 227 8.4.13 Agriculture application 277
References 228 8.5 Environmental risks 277
8.6 Carbonation methods 277
8.7 Chemical reactions of CO2
7. Laboratory carbonation methods:
sequestration by fly ash 278
testing and evaluation 8.8 Thermodynamic simulations of phase
7.1 Introduction 233 equilibria 278
7.2 Experimental methods 233 8.9 Treatment methods 280
7.2.1 Fluidized bed reactor 233 8.9.1 Direct gas carbonation 281
7.2.2 Spouted bed reactor 239 8.9.2 Direct semi-dry carbonation 283
7.2.3 High gravity rotating packed 8.9.3 Direct aqueous carbonation 286
bed 240 8.9.4 Indirect carbonation 291
7.2.4 Ultrasound method 245 8.9.5 Synthetic CaO-based solid
7.2.5 Autoclave carbonation 250 sorbents 297
7.2.6 Calcium looping 252 8.10 Summary and concluding remarks 312
7.3 CO2 experimental uptake 254 References 313
7.3.1 Mass gain method 254 Further reading 324
7.3.2 Mass curve method 254
7.3.3 Gas analyzer method 254
9. Carbonation of steel slag
7.3.4 Coulometric titration
method 256 9.1 Introduction 327
7.3.5 Pressure drop method 256 9.2 Sources and characteristics of slags 327
7.3.6 Thermogravimetric (TG) 9.3 Steel and iron slags utilizations 330
analysis 257 9.3.1 Cement production and concrete
7.4 Carbonation efficiency and ratio 260 manufacturing industries 331
7.4.1 Theoretical uptake 260 9.3.2 Pavement and road applications 331
7.4.2 Sequestration efficiency 262 9.3.3 Geotechnical applications 332
7.4.3 Sequestration ratio 262 9.3.4 Hydraulic barriers 332
7.5 Summary and concluding remarks 262 9.3.5 Agriculture application 332
References 263 9.3.6 Waste management 332
x Contents

9.3.7 Sinter ore fluxing agent 333 10.7.5 Production of xonotlite 397
9.3.8 Carbon sequestration 333 10.7.6 Production of papermaking
9.4 Environmental impact 333 fillers 398
9.4.1 Environmental problems 333 10.7.7 Ca-looping process 400
9.4.2 Mitigation measures 334 10.8 Summary and concluding remarks 406
9.5 Hydration/pretreatment 335 References 407
9.6 Carbonation 337
9.6.1 Direct carbonation 337 11. Carbonation of cement-based
9.6.2 Aqueous carbonation 337 construction waste
9.6.3 Additives 342
9.7 CO2 sequestration 342 11.1 Introduction 415
9.7.1 Theoretical methods 342 11.2 Concrete waste 416
9.7.2 Experimental methods 343 11.3 Waste concrete recycling 417
9.7.3 Sequestration efficiency 343 11.3.1 Soil amendment and
9.8 Treatment methods 343 stabilization 417
9.8.1 Direct carbonation 343 11.3.2 Improvement of plant
9.8.2 Indirect carbonation 362 growth 417
9.9 Summary and concluding remarks 365 11.3.3 Production of
References 368 geopolymers 417
11.3.4 Water treatment 417
11.3.5 Gas treatment 418
10. Carbonation of calcium carbide
11.3.6 Carbonation 418
residue
11.4 Cement types, composition, and
10.1 Introduction 373 hydration 418
10.2 Calcium carbide manufacturing 374 11.4.1 Types and composition 418
10.3 Sources of calcium carbide residue 374 11.4.2 Cement hydration 419
10.4 Utilization of calcium carbide residue 375 11.5 Carbonation mechanisms 422
10.4.1 Additive material in the 11.5.1 Carbonation of portlandite
construction industry 375 (CH) 422
10.4.2 Neutralizing/treatment agent 376 11.5.2 Carbonation of calcium-
10.4.3 New chemical products 377 silicate-hydrate (CeSeH) 423
10.4.4 Flue gas treatment 377 11.5.3 Carbonation of other
10.4.5 Soil stabilizing agent 377 phases 423
10.5 CCR disposal practice 378 11.6 Carbonation of cementitious
10.6 Precipitated calcium carbonate 379 products 425
10.6.1 Calcite polymorph 379 11.6.1 Pure brucite and
10.6.2 Aragonite polymorph 379 portlandite 425
10.6.3 Vaterite polymorph 379 11.6.2 Ordinary Portland
10.6.4 Conversion of pure calcium Cement 429
hydroxide to calcium 11.7 Carbonation of concrete cement
carbonate 379 waste 432
10.6.5 Effect of surfactants and 11.7.1 Carbonation process 432
additives on calcium 11.7.2 Waste characteristics 432
carbonate precipitation 380 11.7.3 Carbonation potential 433
10.7 Treatment processes 382 11.7.4 Controlling parameters 436
10.7.1 Mohamed and El Gamal 11.8 Supercritical CO2 carbonation of
Fluidization (MGF) direct cement concrete waste 438
carbonation process 382 11.9 Pozzolanic reactivity of carbonated
10.7.2 Indirect carbonation with concrete cement fines waste 440
ammonium chloride 11.10 Industrial concrete waste
leaching 391 recycling 441
10.7.3 Production of nano-CaCO3 392 11.11 Summary and concluding
10.7.4 Production of calcium for- remarks 443
mate [Ca(HCOO)2] 396 References 443
 Contents xi

12. Carbonation of mine tailings waste 13.3 Brine characteristics 496

13.4 Environmental issues 496
12.1 Introduction 449 13.5 Brine waste management 499
12.2 Mine tailings waste residues 450 13.6 Carbonation using solvay process 500
12.2.1 Sources 450 13.6.1 Basic process 500
12.2.2 Properties 450 13.6.2 Amine-based solvay
12.3 Natural carbonation of tailings waste process with chloride
residues 452 removal 500
12.4 Mineral carbonation 452 13.7 Carbonation of high Mg and Ca
12.4.1 Carbonation of Ca-rich brine waste 505
minerals 453 13.8 Carbonation using mixed metal
12.4.2 Carbonation of Na-rich oxides 506
minerals 453 13.8.1 Hydrotalcite 506
12.4.3 Carbonation of Mg-rich 13.8.2 Structure of hydrotalcites 506
minerals 453 13.8.3 Chloride removal using
12.4.4 Pretreatment methods 458 hydrotalcites 507
12.4.5 Single step direct aqueous 13.8.4 Carbonation and chloride
carbonation 458 removal 508
12.4.6 Two-step carbonation 458 13.9 Carbonation using alkaline industrial
12.5 Carbonation of anorthosite tailing waste 509
waste residues 461 13.9.1 Fly ash 509
12.6 Carbonation of ultramafic tailing 13.9.2 Slags 510
waste residues 461 13.9.3 Cement kiln dust 512
12.6.1 Brucite dissolution and 13.9.4 Bauxite residue 513
carbonation rates 464 13.10 Carbonation using electrodialysis 514
12.6.2 Brucite reaction 13.10.1 Conventional
mechanisms 464 electrodialysis 514
12.6.3 Chrysotile carbonation 465 13.10.2 Ion exchange membranes
12.7 Carbonation of ophiolitic complexes electrodialysis 516
tailing waste residues 468 13.10.3 Bipolar membranes
12.8 Accelerated carbonation of tailings electrodialysis (BPMED) 517
waste residues 468 13.11 Useful products 519
12.9 Red mud 471 13.11.1 Cementitious construction
12.9.1 Characteristics 471 materials 519
12.9.2 Bayer process 472 13.11.2 Industrial applications 523
12.9.3 Neutralization processes 473 13.12 Life cycle and techno-economic
12.9.4 Current utilization 473 assessments 523
12.9.5 Carbonation 474 13.13 Summary and concluding remarks 524
12.9.6 Calcification-carbonation References 524
processes 476 Further reading 528
12.10 Utilization of carbonated tailings
waste residues 478
14. Carbonation of cement kiln dust
12.10.1 Supplementary
cementitious material 478 14.1 Introduction 529
12.10.2 Source material for cement 14.2 Sources and characteristics of
clinker production 483 cement-based dust 530
12.11 Summary and concluding remarks 485 14.2.1 Cement kiln dust (CKD) 530
References 485 14.2.2 Cement bypass dust
Further reading 493 (CBPD) 531
14.3 Uses of cement kiln dust 531
13. Carbonation of brine waste 14.4 Treatment of cement kiln dust 533
14.4.1 Hydration of CKD 533
13.1 Introduction 495 14.4.2 Carbonation of CKD 535
13.2 Desalination capacity 496 14.4.3 Degree of sequestration 541
xii Contents

14.5 Treatment processes 541 14.5.6 Indirect carbonation 558

14.5.1 Mohamed and El Gamal flu- 14.6 Modeling of carbonation kinetics 561
idization (MGF) process 541 14.6.1 Direct carbonation 564
14.5.2 Batch carbonation process 550 14.6.2 Calcium looping cycle 567
14.5.3 Column carbonation process 550 14.7 Summary and concluding remarks 569
14.5.4 Rotating tube furnace carbo- References 571
nation process 554
14.5.5 Ultrasonic carbonation
Index 577
process 555
About the authors

Prof. Dr. Eng. Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed earned his PhD from McGill University, Canada, where he was later
employed as the Associate Director of the Geotechnical Research Centre and Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engi-
neering and Applied Mechanics. He has held many senior positions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), including
Associate Provost and Chief Academic Officer at Zayed University, Dean of Research and Graduate Studies at Abu Dhabi
University, and Research Director at the UAE University. He has 13 patents in areas of sustainable use of elemental sulfur
and alkaline solid wastes, production of sulfur cement and concrete, carbon sequestration and utilization for treatment of
solid wastes, and stabilization of sand dunes. He has authored and coauthored 20 scientific books and has published over
290 papers in refereed journals and international conference proceedings. He has been the recipient of several university
and nationwide research accolades. He is the General Managing Director of EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, UAE,
Senior Advisor, Uberbinder, Inc., Seattle, Washington, USA, and an Editorial Board Advisor for number of Scientific
Journals.
SCOPUS; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0971-6940;
Research gate profile: www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdel_Mohsen_Mohamed/scores.
Dr. Maisa M. El Gamal is currently employed by Zayed University as an Assistant Professor in the Environmental
Science Department, College of Natural and Health Sciences. She holds a Doctorate degree in Chemical Science from
Tanta University, Egypt, and a Master in Material Science from Alexandria University, Egypt. She has worked for 20 years
as a researcher with long experience in different areas like CO2 capture and storage, soil stability, sulfur concrete pro-
duction, and solid waste management. More recently, her research activities are focused on the development of novel CO2
adsorbent materials. Her record spans more than 100 publications in high impact journals, international and local con-
ferences, patents, books, and book chapters. She has dedicated the working in these research fields beside her job as a
teacher of Chemical and Environmental science and as supervisor to the students in their senior projects at Zayed
University.
SCOPUS: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5485-8510
Research gate profile: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maisa-El-Gamal
Eng. Suhaib Hameedi was granted his BSc. in chemical engineering from Mutah University-Jordan in 2005, with
practical graduation project about water treatment by electrochemical ion-exchange using natural Jordanian Zeolite. His
graduate training was in the Jordanian phosphate mines company. He joined industries through chemicals manufacturing
applications in Jordan till 2010, and water treatment applications till 2013 in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). He earned
MSc. degree in chemical engineering from the United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) in 2016 with a thesis about CO2
capture by steel-making residues. During his master’s studying, he had duties as a research assistant on the topic of CO2
capture using industrial wastes and another one about composite thermal insulators derived from different wastes. In
addition, he had duties as a teaching assistant to thermodynamics for engineering students’ course. He joined Zayed
University (ZU) in 2016 as a Researcher in environmental studies, mainly carbonation of industrial wastes. He participated
in local and international conferences through papers, posters, and oral presentations. His first participation in a patent was
accompanied by both Prof. A.M.O. Mohamed (the leading author of this tome) and Dr. M. El Gamal (the co-author).
In 2021, he started his own environmental consulting business through a free zone establishment in Sharjah Research
Technology & Innovation Park, Sharjah, the UAE under the name: Sunlit Environmental Studies & Research (FZE).
SCOPUS: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3448-5969
Research gate profile: www.researchgate.net/profile/Suhaib-Hameedi
In association with
Prof. Dr. Eng. Evan K. Paleologos is a professor and past chair of Civil Engineering at Abu Dhabi University, United
Arab Emirates. He received his PhD from the University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA. His expertise is in the flow of
water and the transport of contaminants in porous media. Prior to the UAE, he worked for the US high-level nuclear

xiii
xiv About the authors

waste management program at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, later becoming tenured associate professor at the University of
South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA, where he was also director of the graduate program in Environmental Geosciences
and faculty of the Honors College. He subsequently moved to Greece at the Technical University of Crete and while there,
he served also as Science Advisor to the Greek Minister of the Environment and Deputy Chairman of the board of EYDAP,
the city of Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company. He is co-author of four books on environmental risk analysis
and geo-environmental engineering and of over 130 refereed papers. He is the recipient of several awards in USA, Greece,
and the UAE and is currently the associate editor of two international scientific journals.
SCOPUS: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3582-2288
Research gate profile: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Evan_Paleologos
Preface

Globally, about 230 Mt of carbon dioxide (CO2) are used every year. The largest consumer is the fertilizer industry, where
130 Mt is used in urea manufacturing, followed by oil and gas, with a consumption of 70e80 Mt for enhanced oil re-
covery. Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression,
and plant growth stimulation in greenhouses. Most commercial applications today involve direct use of CO2.
New opportunities to use CO2 in the development of products and services are capturing the attention of governments,
industry and the investment community interested in mitigating climate change. In order to realize such innovations, a
better understanding and improved methodologies are needed to quantify the life-cycle climate benefits of CO2 use.
This book deals with the potential in three key categories of CO2-derived products to be utilized in engineered waste
management practices as: (a) building material from waste minerals, such as cement kiln dust, fly ash, steel slags, and
carbide lime; (b) building material from construction and demolition waste; and as (c) suitable water product from reject
brine for agricultural use. The sources and characteristics of raw materials, carbonation processes, properties of final
products, and lifecycle climate benefits of CO2 use are discussed in detail in this tome. A brief summary of the chapters
contained herein is highlighted below.
Chapter 1 describes the emerging approaches for industrial waste management concerning carbon utilization to produce
valuable products for use in public civil works. In doing so, we discuss various waste management concepts, such as zero
waste, design for the environment, sustainable materials management, cradle-to-cradle, circular economy, and end-of-
waste, all of which have the goal to eliminate waste disposal in landfills, via designing new products that are durable as
well as sustainable. Relevant waste management and new product regulations as well as the issues that hinder the
advancement of circular economy are presented. In addition, for the use of carbon capture, various aspects and issues
related to the end-of-waste criteria are expounded. The Chapter ends with three (3) case studies that demonstrate the
development of end-of-waste criteria for (a) reprocessed aggregates from the building and construction industry; (b) slags
from the iron and steel industry, and ashes from the coal-burning industry; and (c) carbon capture, storage, and utilization
products derived from CO2 mineral carbonation.
Chapter 2 discusses the carbon capture technologies, such as postconversion, pre-conversion and oxy-fuel combustion,
the emitting sources, and potentially captured quantities, the associated capture costs for technological implementation, and
the transport mechanisms and storage options in subsurface geological formations, in the oceans, or as mineral carbonate.
Carbon capture utilization (CCU) technologies, such as chemical conversion of CO2 without and with the use of hydrogen,
biological CO2 conversion by photosynthesis, electrochemical and photochemical reduction of the CO2 carbon, and
inorganic fixation of CO2 in inorganic compounds such as Ca- and Mg-carbonates are also discussed. An overview of the
global CO2 utilization projects is highlighted together with the potential binding capacities of some selected CCU products
and their economic values. The viability of both carbon capture and storage (CCS) and the CCU technologies, from the
viewpoint of market needs is addressed. Finally, current relevant policy and regulations, which would support the
development and implementation of both CCS and CCU, and recommendations for the development of new ones are
expounded.
Chapter 3 provides the background for the conduct of Techno-Economic Assessment (TEA) and lifecycle assessment
(LCA) analyses, which includes goal and scope setting, data inventory, delineation of economic indicators, analysis of
data, and modeling results, and reporting. Details are provided on how to properly define a product’s system and functional
unit, the system boundaries, the quality requirements of the collected data, the standards for benchmarking with other
products of similar performance, the maturity of the technology to be used, and the assessment indicators of a study. The
importance of information that relates to equipment, material, and energy flows, the transport needs and the waste
generated, together with their assigned prices and market volumes, the regional setting for a CCU product’s marketability
and its multifunctionality is also addressed given LCA, ISO, and the European Union’s standards. For TEA, the use of
economic indicators, such as profitability indicators and enviro-economic indicators (e.g., CapEx per ton of CO2 eq.) is

xv
xvi Preface

explained, whereas, for LCA, indicators for global warming potential, resource depletion, human health, and biodiversity/
ecosystem service are elaborated, with examples related to the carbon mineralization technology. The chapter concludes
with the final stage of LCA studies, the interpretation step, where issues related to data quality, consistency, completeness,
and reliability are discussed together with the risk analysis of an LCA study.
Chapter 4 summarizes the carbonation reaction mechanisms and the available mathematical models that describe the
carbonation performance. A variety of models, such as shrinking core, progressive conversion, particle-pellet, and
unreacted core shrinking models are presented. The chapter further highlights the derivation steps in several case studies,
based on the determination of the limiting-step: rate-limiting or diffusion-controlling step.
Chapter 5 gives an overview of the accelerated carbonation technology (ACT). Both direct and indirect carbonation
processes used in the ACT are highlighted, emphasizing using the alkaline solid waste materials as the feed stock for the
carbonation. The principles of accelerated carbonation reaction in view of process chemistry, ion equilibrium in solution,
carbonate precipitation, formation of solid carbonates, calcite crystal growth, the thermodynamic stability of formed
products, and the modeling of reaction kinetics are discussed. Factors that affect the carbonation efficiency, such as surface
activation, flue gas characteristics, nature of the carbonation reactor, the reacting media, and the product themselves are
explained. The following carbonated products are identified and discussed in detail: (a) carbonates-based minerals (soda
ash, calcium carbonates, and bicarbonate, magnesium carbonates, iron carbonates, etc.); (b) hydroxides-based chemicals,
such as calcium and sodium hydroxides; (c) minerals, such as hydro-magnesite, calcite, halite, and dolomite, which can be
used as cementitious materials for cement-based concrete materials; (d) other minerals, such as nesquehonite, lansfordite,
dypingite, and artinite that can be used as aggregates and cementitious materials; (e) chloride-based chemicals, such as
HCl, NaOCl, or chlorine-based polymers, such as PVC; and (f) hydrogen.
The possible utilization of carbonated products, such as lower- and higher-end calcium carbonate products, mono-
dispersed nanoparticles, silica, and the whole range of carbonated solid alkaline waste materials are discussed. Finally,
LCAs are presented of several alkaline solid wastes, including ultra-fine (UF) slag, fly-ash (FA) slag, and blended hy-
draulic slag cement (BHC) in an autoclave reactor.
Chapter 6 discusses some selected carbonation processes to identify the stage at which each technology is ready for
implementation by using the nine Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Available technologies that implement the multi-
step aqueous carbonation processes are presented. These technologies are divided into two groups. The first group deals
with technologies for natural serpentine carbonation, such as the Nottingham University (NU) process (TRL3), the Åbo
Akademi (AA) process (TRL3), the Shell process (TRL7), and the US National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL)
process (TRL3). The second group deals with technologies for alkaline waste carbonation (AWC), such as The High
Gravity Carbonation (HiGCarb) pilot-scale project in Taiwan (TRL3) for basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, and the
Mohamed and El Gamal’s Fluidization (MGF) Process (TRL6) for a variety of AWC, such as cement kiln dust, fly ash, and
steel slags.
Chapter 7 presents the carbonation methods, which are used in laboratory studies for mineral carbonations, as well as
the experimental methods that are used to calculate the carbon uptakes. In addition, the maximum theoretical uptake, and
carbonation efficiency are discussed. Carbonation reactors, such as fluidized bed, spouted bed, high gravity rotating bed,
ultrasound, and autoclave are detailed. The calcium looping reactor for both calcination and carbonation is also included in
this exposition. For all the reactors, the basic operating principles, as well as the carbonation controlling parameters, are
evaluated.
Chapter 8 discusses the sources and characteristics (physical, chemical, and mineralogical) of coal ashes, municipal
solid waste incineration ashes and modern ashes, the criteria for ash utilization in the construction industry, the current
utilizations of ashes, and the associated environmental risks. It also presents the carbonation techniques (direct dry/semidry
route, direct aqueous route, and indirect route), the carbonation reaction, and the thermodynamic modeling. For each
carbonation method, examples from the literature are described. Finally, the utilization of the fly ashes to produce Ca-based
sorbents, as well as the various sintering modification processes are discussed.
Chapter 9 describes the sources and chemical and mineralogical characteristics of a variety of steel and iron slags, such
as BOF, electric-arc furnace (EAF), ladle furnace (LF), blast furnace slag (BFS), and argon oxygen decarburization (AOD)
slag. We present also the current utilization of steel and iron slags in civil engineering applications, such as in the cement
production, concrete aggregate, asphalt aggregate, road and sub-bases, and soil stabilization, as well as other miscellaneous
applications, such as steelmaking, fertilizer production, linings for waterways, daily landfill covers, railroad ballast, and
waste management. Problems associated with such utilization and their mitigation measures are provided.
 Preface xvii

In Chapter 10, the background information is provided about the manufacturing of calcium carbide, the sources of
calcium carbide residue (CCR), the chemical and mineralogical properties of CCR, the current as well as the potential
utilization of CCR and its disposal practices, and the different treatment techniques for carbon sequestration and production
of viable products for various industrial applications. CCR utilization ranges from the construction industry to civil works
and to the waste management industry, whereas future trends include the production of high value-added products, such as
xonotlite and calcium formate. In addition, the production of CaO-based sorbents using CCR is presented. The Ca-looping
processes, as well as the factors that impact thermal stability of the produced synthetic sorbents are addressed. Modification
processes, such as hydration treatment, thermal pretreatment, material modification, and incorporation of inert support
materials are evaluated with specific examples, which include briquette, foaming, co-pyrolysis, and carbon templating.
Chapter 11 addresses the concept of cement/concrete carbon cycle and summarizes the utilization studies of such type
of materials through the mineral carbonation of different types of cement-base construction wastes. Attention is paid to the
use of concrete cement fines waste (CCFW) in cement and concrete production.
Chapter 12 introduces mine tailing waste residues and their sources and properties. It also highlights the carbonation of
such residues done with or without pre-treatment through single or multiple step(s). It provides detailed descriptions of the
anorthosite, ultramafic, and ophiolitic complexes tailing waste residues, and of the red mud with demonstration of its
processes, such of the Bayer calcination-carbonation. Finally, the reader finds here the practical applications of these
carbonated tailings wastes residues.
Chapter 13 concentrates on brine water, which results from desalination operations. Brine has serious impacts on the
environment both on land and on marine life. The chapter presents the common treatment Solvay process, which employs
ammonia during the reaction of CO2 with brine water, and the modifications of this process proposed by different re-
searchers. Major carbonation processes are presented for the use of alkaline industrial wastes, such as fly ash, slags, cement
kiln dust, and bauxite residue. Practical examples are presented to emphasize the benefits of the final products by the
carbonation of brine waste in construction materials and chloride/chlorine-based substances, such as HCl, NaOCl, and
PVC polymer.
In Chapter 14, the sources and characteristics of various types of ashes and wastes produced in the cement industry,
such as CKD, cement bypass dust, ordinary Portland cement, and recycled concrete aggregate are described. Current CKD
utilization in civil works, geotechnical applications, roads and pavement structures, treatment of hazardous wastes, waste
containment barriers, permeable reactive barriers for groundwater remediation, and wastewater neutralization are dis-
cussed. Finally, the potential use of CKD for carbon sequestration is evaluated.
The authors of this work hope that this book would provide a roadmap and motivation toward the sustainable utilization
of carbon dioxide in waste management in order to mitigate global warming. Potential applications of CO2 are not limited
to a particular scientific field or industry, and they also constitute a demonstration of the multidisciplinary and interdis-
ciplinary nature of the research needed to further develop carbon sequestration technologies.
A.M.O. Mohamed
M.M. El Gamal
S. Hameedi
Another random document with
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keep the Bahama shore aboard, Shoals of a great Extent, sprinkled
with rocky Islands so low, there is very little Safety to those unhappy
Men who are cast away upon them; yet at several, there are
anchoring Places, and fresh Water found.
They meet the Wind in Summer, for the greatest part of the
Channel, Easterly; which with a counter Current in shore, pushes
them through easily; much the better way for any sudden Attack
upon the Havana (a glorious Attempt in time of War) because they
cannot discover you, like as in the other Path from Jamaica, where
by Beacons, they can gain an Intelligence of 150 Leagues in a very
short Space of time, and so be the better prepared.
In order to the laying down my Sentiment on the Florida Current, I
shall premise the Facts and Observations of our Pilots in relation to
this Gulph, and that of Mexico, which have a Dependency as to the
Cause of it, with each other.
1. This Stream goes constantly out to the Northward in mid
Channel, its Force having some respect (like Tides in other
Channels) to the Moon and to the Winds; with a counter Current, or
at least a Stillness of the Water in shore, that will enable a Ship to
turn through, be the middle Stream never so strong; the same as in
the Strait of Gibraltar, where tho’ the Current is continually into the
Mediterranean, Ships may work through, keeping the Shore aboard.
2. The Current which goes out here, sets for the most part into the
Gulph of Mexico, between the two Capes of Corientes and Catoche,
with counter Currents in shore; tho’ not always so, the Pilots having
observed them strong to the East, new, and full Moons.
3. As to the Bay of Mexico it self, there are every where Currents
round it various and uncertain, as to the Point they run on, or time of
Continuance, especially on the Apalachian Side where it is safest
stopping in the Night, and up Anchor only, in the Day. That these
Currents are less discernible the farther from shore, and for the most
part, bend to the Trend of the Lands; that is, when you have rounded
Cape Catoche, it sets Westward, open with Campechy Bay to the
Southward: From Vera Cruz in 19°° to the Latitude of 28°° it runs to
the Northward, and thence round the Bay to the Eastward; more
perceptible, I say, the nearer shore, because bounded, and makes
the Tides in the Rivers.
4. The Rivers of Georgia, and Carolina (next Coast to Florida
Northward) have as regular Tides as the Thames. So again, in the
Bay of Honduras Southward, whose Reflux, it must be taken notice,
makes a Northern Current.
Now to sum up all, in order to account for the Current of Florida,
which seems to me only this, that more of the Flood is propagated
into the Bay of Mexico, by that Passage made from the West End of
Cuba, and Shore of Yucatan; and more of the Ebb by the Chanel of
Florida, and for these Reasons.
The Gulph of Mexico receives many and large Rivers, whose
Mouths together carry some proportion with the Chanel of Florida;
and consider’d as a little Mediterranean Sea, the Flood in it must
have a more remarkable and strong Ebb: which shews it self rather
here, first, because the Make of the Lands gives a freer Opening and
Tendency of the Waters that way. Second, The Length and
Contraction of the Channel, makes it more visible and constant, and
is the Continuance of those River-Streams (that disembogue in the
Bay) even till it meets with the Tide to the Northward, which checks,
like as at them, and produces a counter Current along shore: for we
may observe, that altho’ the Current goes constantly out in the
Channel, yet at the Isle of Providence contiguous to it almost, the
Tides are alternate and regular. Third, The Winds at East are more
favourable to the Exit than the Trade, which sets in directly at the
other Passage, and while it helps the Flood there, is at the same
time an Obstacle to its Return; to which assists also that Northern
Current from the Bay of Honduras; nor will it be so perceptible there,
because what Reflux is, opens to a wider Sea immediately, and
probably had been the same at Florida, if the Gulph of Mexico had
open’d without such Restraint to the main Ocean directly.
On this Supposition, the Variety and Uncertainty of Currents in the
Bay, and the greater or less Rapidity in the Chanel, will depend
much on the Winds without; and as they are dry or wet Seasons at
Land, new and full Moons should influence the Strength of the
Stream; and hard Gales concurring at N. or N E. among the
Bahamas, should slacken it there, and promote an Eastern Current
at the other Passage.
 JAMAICA.
Jamaica, called St. Jago by Columbus, and was altered by King
James II. it being a Compound of his Name, and Ca an Island. The
chief Town is called St. Jago de la Vega (by the English, Spanish-
Town.) Here the Governor resides; Courts are held, and the
Assembly (chose as at Barbados) meet to enact Laws for the civil
Government of the Island; which consequently draws the greatest
Resort of People, on account either of Business or Pleasure.
It was built about 1590, plunder’d by some English Privateers
under one Jackson, in 1638, and in 1657 the whole Island was
reduced by Pen and Venables: The favourite Families of those Days,
(Bradshaws, Iretons, Axtells,) I believe, sharing the Estates; so warm
a Climate with Hurricanes, Earthquakes, and dry Belly-achs, was a
due Preparation. This Town of St. Jago is irregular, and low built, to
secure it against Storms; even the Governor’s, or what they call the
King’s House, is but a Ground Floor, and makes one side of a
Quadrangle, with a Parade, where all Gentlemen meet to transact
their Business; the Merchants and Factors for distant Planters, and
the Officers civil and military, do together make a considerable
Number, dividing in the Evenings to Parties of Dancing, Gaming, or
Drinking, and generally to a publick House, to avoid the Obligation of
Returns and Treats, very costly in this Country.
Kingston, at the upper End of Port-Royal Harbour, the Place of
lading and unlading almost all Ships to and from the Island; is in my
eye, preferable to the former. The Streets are wide, and more
regular, to face the Sea-Breezes, and the cross Streets at right
Angles, that the Air may have as little Interruption as possible; a
Convenience that cannot be too much meditated in so hot a Climate:
for the Land-Breezes failing betimes in the Morning, you have it
excessively hot; all Creatures languish and faint till the Sea one
succeeds, which will not be till ten a clock, sometimes eleven, or
later, and may be esteemed the Life of the Island, dispelling those
impure Vapors, continually exhaled from the Mountains, and
refreshing and rowsing the animal Nature, from Backgammon or
Loitering, to Business.
The Harbour is spacious here, and the Ships lie Land-locked; but
the Peninsula that covers them from the Sea being low and narrow,
they are not so safe against Storms as one would imagine.
From hence to Spanish-Town, when called on any Law-suit or
Business, they take Boat to Passage-Fort on the other side, a small
River at the Bottom of the Harbour, where are three or four Houses
that furnish Passengers for the Journey (6 Miles) at 20s. a Coach, or
5s. a Horse, and are rarely without Customers; the Calls in Traffick
are so frequent.
Port-Royal, which makes up with the former two, all the Towns of
Note on the whole Island, is on the Starboard Entrance of the
Harbour. The Road before it is reckoned good holding Ground, and
fenced from Southerly Winds, by sandy Kays without. The Town it
self stands on such a sandy Kay, not much above the Surface of the
Water, and contains no more Ground than holds the Buildings, and
the Fort contiguous with it on the outer Point; which, with a Line, or
Rampart of Guns to the Sea, (together about 100) is their chief
Defence. Under the Fort is a little Nook, or Bay, called Chocolato
Hole, where we have a Hulk lies for cleaning Ships.
Port-Royal has suffered remarkably every ten years, for thirty past.
In 1692, an Earthquake sunk above half the Town; the Rubbish of
those Buildings being still seen under Water, in the shallow Channel
that now continues to divide it from the Main. In 1702, it was burnt
down. In 1712, August 28th, happened a dreadful Hurricane. And
now, August 28th, 1722, a more dreadful one, that besides the
Damage it spread over most parts of the Island, did here in particular
split the Castle, lay the Church and two thirds of the Town flat,
burying three or four hundred People in the Ruins; but the Terror and
Desolation may deserve a more particular Description.
Forsan hæc olim meminisse juvabit.
 HURRICANES:
The West-Indians agree, that August and September is the Season
to expect them. They are incredible Tempests of Wind, whose Fury,
neither Ships, Masts, Trees, or Buildings can resist. They come a
Day or two before the full or new Moon next the Autumnal Equinox,
and give Warning by a preceding unusual Swell of Water. They are
of no great Extent, but blow within a Chanel as it were, one Island
feeling it, when the next (within 20 Leagues perhaps) has no Share;
and are, if not peculiar, rarely met with out of the West-Indies.
The Cause, as guessed at, is Plenty of elastic Vapors on the Terra
Firma (whence they all blow) with which conspire at this time of year,
the united Force of the Sun and Moon, to give their Explosion a
greater Force; to this also may contribute, subterraneous Heats and
Mountains: and if such different Effluvias as constitute the Matter of a
Hurricane, can be supplied to the Chanel it blows in, crescit eundo.
This Opinion seems confirmed, first, from the Points of the
Compass they blow on (S E. and S S E.) and never without side the
Continent at Cape Roque; for that Length the uninterrupted Trade-
Wind is a Barrier, and from which these Storms, by the Position of
Lands and Mountains, are necessarily a Deflection. Second,
Æquinoctial Gales, we know, are every where observed to happen,
and ascribed to the greater Agitation of Air, by Heat in a greater Orb;
when therefore the Northern Suns have so long together been
attracting, and at the same time chopping, and opening the Earth for
a freer Emission of nitrous, sulphurous, and elastic Particles, no
wonder the conjoined Forces of the Planets there, should now and
then put them in execution.
The present Hurricane was a Week after our Arrival; began at
eight in the Morning, two Days before the Change of the Moon, gave
at least 48 Hours notice, by a noisy breaking of the Waves upon the
Kays, very disproportioned to the Breeze, a continued Swell, without
Reflux of the Water; and the two Nights preceding, prodigious
Lightnings and Thunder; which all the old experienced Men foretold
would be a Hurricane; or that one already had happened at no great
distance.
I was ashore at Port-Royal, and found all the Pilots returned from
the Windward part of the Island, (where they customarily attend the
coming down of Ships,) and observing upon the unusual
Intumescence of the Water, so great the Day before, and beat so
high, that our Boats could not possibly put on shore at Gun Kay to
take the Men off that were set there, to the Number of twenty, for
trimming up our Cask; themselves making Signals not to attempt it.
Betimes next Morning, the Wind began in Flurrys at N E. and flew
quickly round to S E. and S S E. where it continued the Stress of the
Storm, bringing such Quantities of Water, that our little Island was
overflowed 4 foot at least; so that what with the fierce driving of
Shingles (wooden Staves used instead of Tiling upon their Houses)
about our Ears, and the Water floating their Boats, empty
Hogsheads, and Lumber about the Streets, those without doors were
every Moment in danger of being knocked on the Head, or carried
away by the Stream. Within it was worse, for the Waters sapping the
Foundations, gave continual and just Apprehensions of the Houses
falling, as in effect half of them did, and buried their Inhabitants: Nor
indeed after the Storm had began, was it safe to open a Door,
especially such as faced the Wind, lest it should carry the Roofs off;
and escaping thence, there was no place of Retreat, we remaining in
a very melancholly Scituation both from Wind and Water. The Perils
of false Brethren was nothing to it.
It may be worth notice, what became of the Purser in this common
Danger; I was regardless at first, as suspecting more of Timidity in
the People, till finding my self left alone Proprietor of a shaking old
House, the Streets full of Water and Drift, with Shingles flying about
like Arrows; I began to meditate a little more seriously upon my
Safety, and would have compounded all my Credit in the Victualling,
my Hoops, and Bags, for one Acre (as Gonzalo says in the Tempest)
of barren Ground, long Heath, or brown Furze, to have trod dry
upon.
Our Neighbours had retreated towards the Church, as the
strongest Building, and highest Ground, which I was luckily too late
to recover; but endeavouring to stem upwards for a safer Station,
was taken into a House in the lower Street, with an old Woman
wading in the same manner from her ruined Habitation.
We were no sooner in, but new Fears of this also falling, thrust us
into the Yard (the Water then at eleven a clock, breast high) where
we helped one another upon a low Brick-built Out-house, that being
more out of the Wind, and surrounded with others, kept the Waters
still. The unhappiness of those who suffered in stronger, was their
facing the Wind, which brought the Sea upon them with violence. A
Platform of one and twenty Guns and Mortars were drove some of
them to the Market-place; the two Lines of Houses next the Sea, with
the Church, were undermined and levelled with the Torrent, and in
their ruin was our Safety; for altho’ we had a greater Depth, they
were by such a Bank made motionless. The whole Rise of the Water
was computed at 16 or 18 foot, very admirable at a Place where it is
not ordinarily observed to flow above one or two.
At 5 in the Evening the Waters abated, and with so quick a Retreat
as to leave the Streets dry before 6; when every one was
congratulating his own Safety in Condolancies upon the Loss of their
Friends. Of 50 Sail in this Harbour, only 4 Men-of-War and 2
Merchant-Ships rid it out, but with all their Masts and Booms blown
away. All the Men we left at Gun Kay were washed off and perished,
except one Indian that drove into Harbour upon a broken Gallows
that had been there erected. Wrecks, and drowned Men were every
where seen along shore; general Complaints of Loss at Land (least
at St. Jago) which made it a melancholy Scene, and to finish the
Misfortune, the Slackness of the Sea-Breezes, Calms, and Lightning,
stagnating Waters, Broods of Insects thence, and a Shock or two of
Earthquake that succeeded to the Hurricane, combined to spread a
baneful Influence, and brought on a contagious Distemper, fatal for
some Months through the Island. There being no Volcanos, the
Earthquakes felt here are always after great Rains, on a parched
Earth that admits their Penetration; and possibly nigher the Coast, as
at Port-Royal, may be from the Sea in a long Process of time
undermining in some manner a loose Earth, or finding in its deep
Recesses new Caverns; or subterranean Heats working towards
them, the dreadful Contest shocks.
In December following, for we were detained some Months in the
Repair of Damages received, another or two Shocks were felt; and
at the End of the Month, as their proper Season, came on what they
call fiery Breezes, strong Gales from Sea, that hold out often against
the Land-Breezes, six or seven Days together; they are pre-signified
by a hazy Horizon, and portentous of a wholesome Season.
Norths, are counter to these; they blow at uncertain Periods,
strong and cool from the Mountains; the People shut their Doors,
and button up close against it, and the Impurities the Air has been
experienced to be loaded with from that Quarter. We had one of
these Gales the latter End of September, and two Days after, quick
Shocks of Thunder and Lightning, which split a Sloop’s Mast, and
the Flag-Staff at the Castle in pieces.
On Christmas-Day we had a Meteor in this Horizon, that appeared
to be a Ball of Fire, trailed along to a quarter of the Compass, from N
N E. dropping Balls in the Track, that were suddenly extinguished.
The same I believe we call Falling-Stars, unless larger, and a more
transverse Descent. Astronomers suppose them sulphurous Bodies,
set on fire by the Sun, tho’ eclipsed till he is set.
To Return to the Island: The English Gentlemen are preferable to
the Women; for the most part, of a genteel Education, and emulous
in a Magnificence of Living, but true Republicans in the Disposition; a
Stranger unconcerned in Business, very difficultly tasting any other
Hospitality than his Landlady’s.

Bitts of 7½d
Dinner 5
A Bottle of Small-Beer 1
A Bottle of Ale 4
Coffee per Dish 1
 A Quart of Rum Punch 4
Lodging per Night 8
Ordinaries are filled with a Mixture of Land and Seafaring People,
who have three or four sorts of Cookery at Dinner, and each a Pint of
Madeira, with a Desart of Guavas, and other insipid or ill-tasted Fruit.
One of our Dishes is frequently Turtle, much esteemed in this part of
the World, and are supplied to the Market here by Sloops, and sold
at a Bitt a Pound, like other Flesh; now also increased to a tolerable
Plenty, by the Planters having set apart Servants, Pens, and
Pasture-Grounds, for rearing up all kinds of Domestick Animals, in
which of late Years they have found their account; our Ships
Companies being victualled here twice a Week with fresh Beef,
during a stay of 6 Months; and an Hospital on shore provided with
lighter Food.
Bartering is the easiest way of Living on shore; or rather, no Man
can live long without it: Madeira Wines, refined Sugars, Linnens, and
Necessaries of almost all kinds, selling from 100l. to 150 per Cent.
Advance. Their Rum to you, 3 Bitts per Gallon; Sugars, from 4 to 7
Dollars a hundred, both superior to Barbados. Other Commodities
are Ginger, Piemento, Cocoa, Indigo, Cotton, Tortoise-shell, Dyers
Wood, Cedar, Mohogany, and Manchineel-woods, and allow 35 per
Cent. Advance on Money.
The Cræoles (those born here) which are properly the Natives of
the Island, the ancient ones being all extirpated, or fled the Cruelty of
the Spaniard, before our Possession, are a spurious Race; the first
Change by a Black and White, they call Mulatto; the second a
Mustee, and the third a Castee; the Faces, like a Coat of Arms,
discovering their Distinction. They are half Negrish in their Manners,
proceeding from the promiscuous and confined Conversation with
their Relations, the Servants at the Plantations, and have a
Language equally pleasant, a kind of Gypsy Gibberish, that runs
smoothest in Swearing.
The English Subjects are computed at 7 or 8000, the Negroes at
80000; a Disproportion, that together with the Severity of their
Patrons, renders the whole Colony unsafe; many hundreds of them
have at different times run to the Mountains, where they associate
and commit little Robberies upon the defenceless and nearest
Plantations; and which I imagine they would not have done, but for
the Cruelty of their Usage, because they subsist very hard and with
Danger, by reason of Parties continually sending out by the
Government against them, who have 5l. a Head for every one killed,
and their Ears are a sufficient Warrant, for the next Justice to pay it;
if the Negro be brought in a Prisoner, he is tormented and burnt
alive. Our latest Advices from Jamaica concerning them is, that they
have chose a King, daily increase, have some inaccessible Places of
Retreat, and are suspected of being encouraged and supplied with
Powder and Arms from Cuba.
The natural Remedy against this Evil, is an Increase of Hands.
They have large Savannahs both on the North and South Sides,
supposed formerly to have been Fields of Indian Wheat, that afford
good Pasturage, and breed up a great number of Cattle with a great
Waste of Land, still left capable of large Improvements into Sugar
Plantations or Tillage; but here lies the Objection to any further
Encouragement. If the present Proprietors can export 11000
Hogsheads of Sugar annually, and the Price with that number is kept
low at Market, whoever contributes towards making 11000 more, is
depreciating his own Estate, lending a Hand to ruin himself. Tillage
and Grazing, tho’ not employing the Land to 1/10 Part its Value in
such Colonies, would yet interfere with the present Interest also, by
lowering the Price of Provisions; wherefore the Security from such
Augmentation of People (the Merchants being Judges) give place to
Profit, a Neglect that must be reaped in the End, by Undertakers of
more generous Sentiments. This convinces me, that altho’ Trade be
Wealth and Power to a Nation, yet if it cannot be put under
Restrictions, controlled by a superior and disinterested Power, that
Excess and Irregularity will be an Oppression to many, and counter-
balance the publick Advantages by increasing the Difficulties of
Subsistence, and with it, Men’s Dissaffection.
Here is a distant Evil; the Cure of which lies in an Expence that no
body likes; nor for such Dislike will ever blame himself in time of
Danger. The Merchant and Planter think, if less Sugars were made,
it would be better, provided (every one means) the bad Crop do not
happen upon their own Plantations, and this for the same Reason,
the Dutch and other Companies burn their Spice, India Goods,
Tobacco, &c. viz. to keep up a Price; for rendering things common or
cheap, or assisting towards the same Liberty, would border too much
on the christian Precepts.
The Sloop-Trade hence to the Spanish West-Indies, under the
Protection of our Men-of-War, has been reckoned at 200000l. per
Ann. In 1702, Orders came to the Governor to hinder it, on account
of a Treaty between us and the Dutch for that purpose, who have
since gone into it themselves from Curisao; and in 1716, a yet
greater Obstruction was put, by the peculiar Privileges of the
Assiento Factors; however, they continue on, and complain of no
other Illegalities, than the Spanish Seizures, of late years very
frequent, and together with the Decay of this Branch of Trade, their
Want of Spanish Wrecks, Privateering, and Fall of Sugars, makes
the Island not so flourishing as in times past.
Sir Nicholas Laws a Cræole, gives way as Governor, to the Duke
of Portland, who arrived in that Quality (with his Dutchess and
Family) about the middle of January this Year. He had put in to
Barbadoes in the Passage, and met a generous Reception.
Here they have doubled the Salary, a Compliment to his Nobility,
and that too little, it’s said, for his splendid and magnificent way of
Living. His Table singly, has already rise the Price of Fowls, from 4 to
6 Bitts.

The Jamaica Chronology.

A. D.
Columbus discovered the Island May
1494
3d.
Sir Anth. Shirley routed the Spaniard 1596
Pen and Venables did the same 1655
Geo. Fortescue Sedwick Doyley 1660
Ld. Windsor, Governor 1662
Sir Charles Littleton 1663
 Sir Thomas Muddiford 1664
Col. Thomas Linch, President 1671
Lord Vaughan, Governor 1675
E. of Carlisle 1679
Sir Henry Morgan 1680
Sir Thomas Linch 1682
Hender Molesworth 1684
D. of Albemarle 1687
Sir Francis Watson, President 1688
E. of Inchiquin, Governor 1690
Earthquake June 7th 1692
John White, President 1692
Col. John Bowden 1692
Sir William Beeston, Governor 1693
French landed at Withy-Wood 1694
William Selwin, Governor 1702
Col. Peter Beckford, President 1703
Col. Tho. Handaside, Governor 1704
Ld. Archibald Hamilton 1711
A Hurricane, August 28th 1712
Peter Haywood, Governor 1716
Sir Nicholas Laws 1718
A Hurricane August 28th 1722
D. of Portland, Governor 1722

The Pelican is a great Curiosity among their Birds, as the Alligator

in their watry Tribe; it is a common Water-Fowl, that is all day picking
up his Living at Sea, and roosts at Night on high Rocks and Clifts,
sitting with his Head to the Wind; his Body when skinned, is as large
as an ordinary Goose, the Wings will extend to 7 or 8 feet, a short
Tail, the Bill 14 Inches long, very hard, and increasing broader
towards the End, where it crooks like a Parrot’s; their Necks are a
foot and half, with a bay-colour’d Hair instead of Feathers on the
back side of them, and from about half way there are membranous
Bags or Pouches, which stretch thence to the Extremities of their
under Bills, capable, when separated, of holding a couple of Pounds
of Tobacco: in these they reserve their Prey when gorged with
eating, and in these they are said to transport their young ones,
when Danger or Instinct prompts them to change Places. They
appear slow and heavy Birds flying, but have a piercing Sight to
discern their Prey (the little fishy Fry below) from a considerable
Height in Air, whence they fall like a Stone, and catch, or dive after
them.
We killed three or four, and in opening their Bodies, met the same
Observations, viz.
1. They had double Ventricles, that together reached the length of
their Bodies; to the Bottom of which, were connected the Small-Guts,
about twice as thick as a Goose-quill.
2. In the first Ventricle or Craw, the Fish they had swallowed (70,
80, or 100) the Bigness of smaller Sprats, lay whole and unaltered.
3. In the lower Ventricle, those little Fish changing to a paler
Colour, were nigh the Fund of it mashed and macerated, and (what
was principally meant by reciting any Observations) here also the
Mass or Pulp had an intimate Mixture of numbers of slender, lively
Worms in it; which to me, was a Matter of Speculation, for finding no
such Insects in the small Fish above, which I suspected at first might
have been their Prey, I concluded it here to be the common Accident
of Concoction, a certain Consequence of Heat and Putrefaction,
which are conquered by farther Digestion, and pass into insensibility
again; for the Small-guts, after a little Distance from the Stomach,
had none, or rather made part of a yellow, chylous Substance.
Quære? whether other, or all Creatures have not such a Principle
of Concoction, more or less discernible in some, than others, there;
tho’ imperceptible, and differently shaped and coloured, as is the
Nature of the Food swallowed, and the Strength and Heat of the
Animal swallowing. Vercellonius supposes the Thyroide Gland in
Man, to be a little Nidus of verminous Eggs, generated there, and
transmitted through subtle Ducts to the Oesophagus and Stomach,
to impart a vital Character to the Chyle.
 I should have proceeded here to some other natural Curiosities,
but omit it, as being already more accurately done by Sir Hans
Sloan, in 2 Vol. 4to.
The Weymouth and Swallow having now fixed their Jury-masts,
and finished their Repairs, weighed from Port-Royal on New-year’s
Day, anchoring out at the Kays, where we stayed till the 7th of
February, and then left the Island.
There are two Passages used for returning hence to Europe;
heavy Sailers, and Fleets, use the Gulph of Florida, because
assisted by a constant Current to the Northward, (already spoke to;)
lighter, and well-manned Ships, that called the Windward Passage;
First, as the safest and shortest Navigation, all the Difficulty being,
plying to the East End of Jamaica; for which, Secondly, there
succeeds generally a Windward Current, on new or full Moons; or a
Course of fiery Breezes, bringing in a fuller Sea, and therefore the
Reflux more perceptible. Thirdly, keeping nigh shore, the Land-
breezes sometimes favour the Design.
We chose this way in our Return home, and with half Masts
worked to Windward of Port Morant, in six or seven Days, a Distance
of 12 Leagues, where the Passage is in a manner gained, because
the Lee of Hispaniola makes a smooth Water, and deflects the
Trade-Wind often, in Flaws to advantage. We indeed met Calms for
three or four Days, but on the 17th, got sight of the little Island
Navasia, which the Jamaicans use in Boats, to kill Guanas, an
amphibious Creature that breed in abundance at the Roots of old
Trees, some of them 3 foot long, a Lizard Shape, with sharp, black,
and green Scales; the Flesh firm, white, and as Sailors say, makes
good Broth.
The same Evening we anchored in Donna Maria Bay, at the West
End of Hispaniola, the usual Stop, especially of the King’s Ships in
those Parts, for Wood and Water: We filled our Cask at a Valley, a
Mile Southward of the two brown Clifts, very good Water, but on
some Winds the Sea gets over the Bar. There are two other Places
used, nigher those Clifts, and not so easily overflown. Here we
bought some jerked Hog’s Flesh from two or three French Hunters,
belonging to Petit Guavas.
At leaving the Bay, a strong S W. Wind soon set us between the
Capes St. Nicholas and Maize; when we came into small Winds, and
a Current in our favour, the old Bahama Strait, and Islands dispers’d
here, showing this wherever they contract the Waters, and lessens
again, as we open to a larger Sea.
The 26th, nigh the Island of Heneago, recovered the true Trade-
Wind, E. half N. The 28th, saw the Rocks called Hogstys by our
Observations in 21°° 38 something farther to the Northward than
they are set down in the Charts. At Noon, came round Aclin’s Kays
(pretty high out of the Water) and before Night, made Crooked or
Well-Island. The last, and from which we took our Departure, was
Watlin’s Kay, 24°° N. where we may farther remark, that the Trade-
Wind continued with us to the Latitude of 32°° but faint and weak,
from 27°°; caused, I presume, from the Contest between the Variable
and that, as I have already guessed the N E. and S E. Trade does in
other Places.
From 26 to 37°° Degrees of Latitude, (as far N. as Virginia) we
found every Day large Quantities of what they call Gulph-weed,
floating about the Ship, and lessening in proportion to the Distance; it
is so called, from a Conviction of its being thrown from the Shoals of
Florida; and by being found three or four hundred Leagues N E. a-
trend with the Continent, argues I think, a Continuance (tho’
insensible) of some Current, or that it is longer, or more to the
Northward than Southward in those Latitudes; and contrarily, in
higher North Latitudes the Seas nigh the Continent have a Tendency
Southward, demonstrated in those Islands of Ice, that drive all
Summer from the North West, along the Coast of Newfoundland,
even as far as New-England.
To the Northward of Bermudas, the Winds grew variable, and as
we advanced, stronger; A never-failing Gale (N W. to S W.) blowing
from the American Coast at this Length and onward, to 60°° of
Latitude, and tho’ not invariable like the Trade, yet a Constancy of ¾
or 4/5 of the year, shews it on the same Principle with them; Ours was
a very hard Gale at N W. which put us to a reefed Fore-sail for a
Fortnight, so great a Sea following, that we could not help dipping it
up by Tuns sometimes at our Stern. We arrived in England, April,
1723.

F I N I S .
 AN

ABSTRACT
Of the foregoing

V O YA G E .
A. Anchored, or arrived at.

W. Weighed, or went from.

W. F rom Spithead, about the same time with

1720/1

Commadore Matthews, who commanded a Squadron Feb.

5th.
of 4 Sail to India, on the like Service; the Suppression
of Pyrates.
A. At Madeira. In our Approach to the Island (for 30 or Mar.
40 Leagues) met abundance of Sea-weed floating; 10.
here also we overtook Commadore Matthews; two of
his Squadron by hard Gales of Wind, had damaged
their Masts, and left him at Sea.
W. Thence; and presently at Sea, found the Trade-Wind Mar.
fresh. 18.

We made the Cape De Verd Islands, and on the 30th, 27.

parted with the Weymouth, bound in with the
 Governor and Factors for Gambia River. Meeting after
this, Calms, or small Breezes, (common near this
Land) we took up several Turtle, who love sleeping on
a smooth Surface.
A. At Sierraleon, the next noted River and Factory from 1721.
Gambia; and on the 18th, visited Seignior Joseph, a April 7.
generous and good-natur’d christian Negro, who had
lately removed his People some Miles up the River.
With his old Buildings wooded our Ship.
W. Sierraleon. The Winds 2 or 3 Points within the Land, 28.
always favourable for sailing to the Westward, which
is therefore called down the Coast.
A. Off the Mouth of Sesthos River; a Bar before it, but May
commodious enough for watering. Here may be 10.
purchased considerable Quantities of Rice; the River
abounds with Fish; and you are tolerably supplied with
Goats and Fowls, or you imagine so from the great
Scarcity that appears at most other Places, from
Sierraleon to Whydah.
W. Thence, and sailed several Days along the Coast, May
low like Holland, anchoring now and then. The 30th, 18.
came before Bassam or Bassau. The 31st, before
Assinee, passing by that unfathomable Place called
the Bottomless Pit[38]; the Natives every where
appearing shy of Correspondence, until we came upon
the Gold Coast.
A. Cape Appollonia, the Land grows higher here, and June 2.
the Natives more alert and prompt at Trade.
A. Axim, the first European Factory, belonging to the 6.
Dutch.
A. Cape Tres Puntas; the Fort formerly was the 7.
Brandenburghers, who deserting it, it’s now in the