The Compressible Flow of Gases

Introduction
• The compressibility of a fluid is basically a measure of the
change in density that will be produced in the fluid by a
specified change in pressure.
• Incompressible: Density variations are not important in
determining the dynamics of the fluid motion. Small
changes in density do not affect velocity and pressure.
• Equations governing fluid motion are
• Mass conservation (continuity)
• Momentum conservation
• Energy equation
• Compressible: Density variations are important in
determining the dynamics of the fluid motion.
• Gases are, in general, highly compressible.
• Changes in density do affect velocity and pressure.
• Equations governing compressibility of fluid motion are
• Mass conservation (continuity)
• Momentum conservation
• Energy conservation
• Equation of state
• When a fluid moves at speed comparable to the speed of
sound, density changes become significant and fluid is now
become compressible.
• Compressible gas flow is quite common compared to that
of incompressible type.
• Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) flow assumption should be
introduced in order to simplify the system.
• Other assumptions which will simplify the system further
include:
i. only one-dimensional flow is considered
ii. the flow is at steady-state
iii. no velocity gradient is considered within a cross section,
thus, the average velocity is the same as that of the velocity
of the flow 𝑉ത = 𝑣
iv. friction is only restricted to the wall shear
v. no shaft work, Wsf = 0
vi. fluid is considered as ideal gas with constant specific
heat.
vii. gravitational effect is negligible, therefore, no potential
energy.
SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER

• Consider a pressure pulse moving

through a tube. The pulse is a
pressure perturbation.

• Change frame
of reference:
Move with the
pulse.
Fig 2. Control volume
moving with the small Fig 1. Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct. pressure wave along a duct.
• Apply mass conservation:
∆𝜌
𝜌𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌 + ∆𝜌 𝐴 𝑐 − ∆𝑉 ⟹ ∆𝑉 = 𝑐
𝜌 + ∆𝜌
• Apply momentum conservation – For a small pressure
perturbation, consistent with observations of sound waves.
∆𝑝 ∆𝜌
( ≪1 ⟹ ≪ 1 ⟹ ∆𝑉 ≪ 𝑐)
𝑝 𝜌
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
⟹ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 𝑐 + ∆𝑉 − 𝑐
∆𝑝
• Which simplifies to ∆𝑉 =
𝜌𝑐
• Combining mass and momentum conservation,

∆𝑝 ∆𝜌
=𝑐
𝜌𝑐 𝜌 + ∆𝜌

∆𝑝 ∆𝜌
𝑐2 = 1+
∆𝜌 𝜌
∆𝜌
• For small pressure disturbances ≪ 1, thus
𝜌
2
∆𝑝
𝑐 =
∆𝜌
• Assume:
• The disturbance is small, i.e. ∆p/p ≪ 1, ∆ρ/ρ ≪ 1
• Friction and heat transfer are negligible in the control
volume. Therefore, the passing pulse is adiabatic,
reversible, and therefore isentropic.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
• We have 𝑐2 = 𝑐=
𝜕𝜌 𝑠 𝜕𝜌 𝑠
• Thus, c is a thermodynamic property of the substance.
• c is called the speed of sound because sound transmission
occurs via small pressure perturbations consistent with the
assumptions used in the derivation.
• For an ideal gas, an isentropic path follows:
𝑝𝜌−k = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
−k
𝑝 𝑝
• substituting ρ = ⟹𝑝 =const
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

𝑝1 −k 𝑝2 −k
𝑝1 = 𝑝2
𝑅𝑇1 𝑅𝑇2

𝑝1 −k 𝑝2 −k 𝑝1 𝑝2 −k 𝑇2 k
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 ⟹ =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑇1
 1−𝑘
𝑝1 1−k 𝑇2 k 𝑇2 𝑝1 𝑘
= ⟹ =
𝑝2 𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑝2

1−𝑘 1−𝑘
𝑇2𝑝2 𝑘 = 𝑇1𝑝1 𝑘

1−𝑘
𝑇𝑝 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
• Now differentiation of 𝑝𝜌−k = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 gives
𝜌−k 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑝𝑑𝜌−k = 0

1 1 1
𝑘
𝑑𝑝 − 𝑘𝑝 𝑘 𝑑𝜌 = 0
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌

1 𝑑𝑝 1
𝑑𝑝 − 𝑘𝑝 𝑑𝜌 = 0 ⟹ − 𝑘 𝑑𝜌 = 0
𝜌 𝑝 𝜌

𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑝
= 𝑘 𝑑𝜌 𝑜𝑟 =𝑘
𝑝 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
 𝜕𝑝 𝑝
• Since speed of sound 𝑐 = then 𝑐 = 𝑘
𝜕𝜌 𝑠 𝜌
𝑝
• But ρ = so c = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇
• The above equation shows that the speed of sound or the
acoustical velocity of an ideal gas is a function of
temperature only.
• The speed of sound is actually the rate of propagation of a
pressure pulse of infinitesimal strength through a still fluid
(or thermodynamic property of fluid).
• Since Ma is given by v/c, therefore, substitute c into Ma
and squaring both sides gives;
 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑀𝑎 = ⟹ 𝑀𝑎2 =
𝑘𝑅𝑇 𝑘𝑅𝑇
• Most elementary treatments of compressible flow are
confined to the perfect gas with constant specific heats ie
ideal gas;
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑅 = 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑐𝑝
𝑘 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑐𝑣
where cp and cv are the specific heat at constant pressure
and volume respectively.
• For all real gases, cp, cv and k vary moderately with
temperature.
• Therefore, since we only rarely deal with a very large
temperature changes, it is quite reasonable to assume
constant specific heats.
• Isentropic Process: This approximation is common in
compressible flow theory.
• For a pure substance, the entropy change can be
computed using the first and the second laws of
thermodynamics:
𝑑𝑝
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ −
𝜌
 𝑝
However dh = cpdT for perfect gas. Solve for ds for 𝜌𝑇 =
𝑅

2 2 2
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑝
න 𝑑𝑠 = න cp −𝑅න
1 1 𝑇 1 𝑝

𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑇2 𝜌2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑝 ln − 𝑅 ln = 𝑐𝑣 ln − 𝑅 ln
𝑇1 𝑝1 𝑇1 𝜌1
• For isentropic flow, setting 𝑠2 = 𝑠1 and obtain the power-law
relations for an isentropic perfect gas of the form;
𝑘
𝑘
𝑝2 𝑇2 𝑘−1 𝜌2
= =
𝑝1 𝑇1 𝜌1
 Equations for Compressible Flow
• Continuity Equation is given in the form:
d𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣
+ + = 0;
𝜌 𝐴 𝑣
• Mechanical Energy Balance with Wall Friction: according to the
basic Bernoulli's equation with friction
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
𝑧1 𝑔 + + = 𝑧2 𝑔 + + + ℎ𝑓
𝜌1 2𝛼 𝜌2 2𝛼
Where the term ℎ𝑓 represents the friction generated per unit
mass of fluid.
𝑑𝑝 𝑣2
+ 𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑 + 𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 0
𝜌 2𝛼
Since the gravitational effect is negligible and α=1 thus, the
equation is reduced into:
𝑑𝑝 𝑣2
+𝑑 + 𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 0
𝜌 2
• Since
𝑢2 𝑑𝐿
𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
2 𝑟𝐻
2
𝑑𝑝 𝑣 𝑢2 𝑑𝐿
+𝑑 +𝑓 =0
𝜌 2 2 𝑟𝐻
• This describes the mechanical energy balance incorporating
the friction factor, f within the expression.
• Equation for Velocity of Sound:
• It is termed as the acoustical velocity
• The velocity of a very small compression-rarefaction wave
moving adiabatically and frictionlessly through a medium
at constant entropy/isentropic process.
• This is given by
𝜕𝑝
𝑐=
𝜕𝜌 𝑠
• with S represents the isentropic condition.
• Equation of State of Ideal Gas:
• For the application of an ideal gas in the compressible gas
flow, the density should be related to the temperature and
pressure.
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Putting the log form: ln 𝑝 = ln 𝑅 + ln 𝜌 + ln 𝑇
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑇
Differentiating: = +
𝑝 𝜌 𝑇
The temperature term of the equation is independent of the
specific heat, cp. The enthalpy, H of gas at temperature T can
be determined using 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑇
• Example: Air enters a diffuser shown in Fig. with a velocity of 200
m/s. Determine (a) the speed of sound and (b) the Mach number
at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is 30°C.
Solution: Air enters a diffuser at high speed.
The speed of sound and the Mach number
are to be determined at the diffuser inlet.
Assumption: Air at the specified conditions
behaves as an ideal gas.
Properties: Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and kair at
30°C is 1.4.
Note that the speed of sound in a gas varies
with temperature, which is given to be 30°C.
 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇

1000 𝑚2
𝑠 2
= 1.4 × 0.287 kJ/kg·K × 303 𝐾 = 349 𝑚/𝑠
1 kJ/kg
• Then the Mach number becomes
𝑣 200
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.573
𝑐 349
• The flow at the diffuser inlet is subsonic since Ma < 1.
 The Stagnation and Choke Conditions
• There can be only one stagnation condition for a given flow
this is only true for isentropic flows.
• For non-isentropic flow, every point can have its own
stagnation conditions, that is, if the flow is brought to rest
locally at every point, there will be a series of stagnation
points.
• For pressure and density, p0 and 𝜌0 are the values achieved
when the system or flow is brought isentropically to rest.
• The quantities T0 and c0 are constant in an adiabatic non-
isentropic flow.
• Stagnation conditions: Using the perfect gas equation from
1 2 𝑣2 𝑇0
𝑐𝑝𝑇 + 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑝𝑇0 ⟹ 1 + = 𝑇
2 2𝑐𝑝𝑇
𝑘𝑅 1
𝑐𝑝 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑐2
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
2 𝑇0 2 𝑇0
𝑣 (𝑘−1) 𝑣
• Substituting 1 + 1 = 𝑇 ⟹1+ = 𝑇
2 𝑐 2 2 𝑐
𝑘−1

𝑣 𝑇0 (𝑘−1)
• Since Ma= then 𝑇 =1+ 𝑀𝑎2
𝑐 2
• Similar goes for pressure, density and velocity of sound where
the equations are given as follows:
𝑘 𝑘
𝑝0 𝑇 0 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑘−1 2
𝑝 = 𝑇 = 1 + 𝑀𝑎
2
1 1
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑘−1
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 2
𝜌 = 𝑇 = 1 + 𝑀𝑎
2
1 1
𝑐0 𝑇 0 2 2
𝑘−1 2
𝑐 = 𝑇 = 1+ 2 𝑀𝑎

• The terms p0, 𝜌0, c0 and T0 are the stagnation values of a flow.
Fig. Effect of Mach number on the property change in duct flow.
 Choke flow
• Compressible flow also occurs with the discharge of a gas
through a nozzle consisting of a converging section that
narrows to a “throat,” possibly followed by a diverging
section or “diffuser.”
• Given that a gas in a reservoir has an absolute pressure p1
and a density ρ1; the final discharge is typically to the
atmosphere, at an absolute pressure p2.
• The transfer of gas is rapid and there is little chance of heat
transfer to the wall of the nozzle, so the flow is adiabatic.
Furthermore, friction maybe neglected, so the expansion is
isentropic, being governed by the equation:
Fig. Flow through a converging/diverging nozzle.
 1/𝑘
𝑝 𝑝1 𝑝
𝑘
= 𝑐 = 𝑘 , 𝑜𝑟 𝜌 = 𝜌1
𝜌 𝑝1 𝑝1
• In which c is a constant and k=cp/cv, the ratio of specific
heats. An ideal gas and constant specific heat are
assumed.
• For horizontal flow between the reservoir and some down
stream position where the velocity is v and the pressure is
p, Bernoulli’s equation gives:
2 2 𝑝
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑑𝑝
− +න =0
2 2 𝑝1 𝜌
 1 𝑘−1
𝑝 𝑘 𝑝
𝑑𝑝 𝑝1 𝑑𝑝 𝑘 𝑝1 𝑝 𝑘
න = න 1= −1
𝑝1 𝜌 𝜌1 𝑝1 𝑘 𝑘 − 1 𝜌1 𝑝1
𝑝
• Because the velocity v1 in the reservoir is essentially zero,
the last two equations yield a relation between the
velocity and pressure at any point in the flowing gas:
𝑘−1
2𝑘 𝑝 𝑝 𝑘
1
𝑣2 = 1−
𝑘 − 1 𝜌1 𝑝1
• Since m=ρvA at any location, where m is the mass
flowrate and A is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle,
then:
 𝑘−1 2
𝑚 2 2𝑘 𝑝 𝑘 𝑝 𝑘
= 𝑝1 𝜌1 1 −
𝐴 𝑘−1 𝑝1 𝑝1
• The mass velocity m/A is clearly a maximum at the throat,
where it has the value m/AT.
• However, the pressure at the throat is still a variable, and a
maximum of m/AT occurs with respect to p when:
𝑑 𝑚Τ𝐴 𝑇
=0
𝑑 𝑝Τ𝑝1
• After some algebra, these last two equations give the
critical pressure ratio at the throat, corresponding to the
maximum possible mass flow rate:
 𝑘
𝑝𝑐𝑇 2 𝑘−1
=
𝑝1 𝑘+1
• The corresponding velocity vcT at the throat is found to be:
2
2𝑘 𝑝1 𝑝𝑐𝑇
𝑣𝑐𝑇 = =𝑘 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑇
𝑘 + 1 𝜌1 𝜌𝑐𝑇
• in which the subscript c denotes critical conditions. That is,
the gas velocity at the throat equals the local sonic
velocity.
• Under these conditions, known as choking at the throat,
the critical mass flow rate mc is:
 𝑘+1
2 𝑘−1
𝑚𝑐 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑘𝑝1𝜌1
𝑘+1
• Air at 1 MPa and 600°C enters a
converging nozzle, shown in Fig. with
a velocity of 150 m/s. Determine the
mass flow rate through the nozzle for
a nozzle throat area of 50 cm2 when
the back pressure is (a) 0.7 MPa and
(b) 0.4 MPa.
• Assume Air is an ideal gas with
constant specific heats at room
temperature and flow through the
nozzle is steady, one-dimensional,
and isentropic. cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, R =
287 J/kgK and k = 1.4
• Solution
 Complex Flows:
Flow Past Immersed Objects and Packed
and Fluidized Beds.
 Flow Around Objects
• Flow around objects is a somewhat more complicated situation
than flow in conduits. The basis for describing flow around a
submerged object is the drag force, which is the force in the
flow direction exerted by the fluid on the solid surface.
• Laminar, transition, and turbulent flow occur for flow around
objects, albeit not in the same form as for flow in conduits.
• Newton first proposed that the drag force on a sphere for
flowing air was 2
𝑣
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜋𝑅2𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
2
• where 𝜋𝑅2 was the projected cross-sectional area of the
sphere, and v is the velocity of the air.
 𝐹𝐷 𝑣2
= 𝐶𝐷𝜌
𝐴𝑃 2
• The CD term is the drag coefficient and, in essence, plays
the same role as friction factor does for conduit flow. Ap is
the projected area.
• Dimensional analysis and experiment lead us to the
conclusion that
𝐶𝐷 = 𝜙 𝑅𝑒𝑝
• Where 𝜙 term is the sphericity and 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is the particle’s
Reynolds number is obtained by the relation
𝐷𝑝𝑣𝜌
𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
𝜇
• where 𝜇 and 𝜌 are the viscosity and density of the fluid, V
is the average velocity, and DP is the average particle
diameter.
• The behaviour of CD with particle Reynolds number for
spheres, disks, and cylinders (shown in Figure 1) shows
obvious “bend” in the curves for spheres and cylinders in
the vicinity of Rep = 106.
• These “kinks” are due to a phenomenon called boundary
layer separation, because the fluid no longer adheres to
the solid surface.
• It also have various regions.
Fig 1. Drag Coefficient versus Reynolds number
• CD and Re relate empirically as :
𝑏1
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑝
• and tabulated below; where 𝑏1 is a constant and m is a
power.
Table: Ranges, values and flow types for Spheres
• Region 1 – Rep < 2: The flow type known as Stokes’ Law
flow. Here,
2𝑅2𝑔 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓
𝑣=
9𝜇
• where R is the particle radius and 𝜌𝑓 is the fluid viscosity.
• To identify the flow regime the v from Stokes’ Law is to
substitute into the Reynolds number
𝐷𝑝3 𝑔𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓
𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
18𝜇2
• If A is taken to be
𝐴𝑒𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 1/3 𝐴3
𝐴 = 𝐷𝑝 then 𝑅𝑒 𝑝 =
𝜇2 18
• Region 2 – High Reynolds numbers (i.e., turbulent flow):
The drag coefficient value is 0.44; The velocity, v, is
𝑔 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 𝐷𝑝 1/2
𝑣 = 1.75
𝜌𝑓
• A special situation can occur in this case whereby the
fluid surrounding the particles has velocity gradients
which interfere with particle motion – hindered settling.
• The terminal settling velocity for this case is then
𝑣𝑡𝑠 = 𝑣 𝜀 𝑛
• Where 𝜀 is the porosity, defined as the volume of voids to
total volume. Exponent n is given as a function of Re, in
Table 3. Table 3

Table 2: A Related to Rep

• Example:
Particles of a mineral (DP = 1 x 10-4 m; ρ = 4000 kg/m3) are
settling in an organic liquid (ρ = 1600 kg/m3; μ = 1 x 10-3
kg/m sec). The volume fraction of solids is 0.3. What is the
terminal settling velocity for the particles?
 Flow Through Packed Beds
• Flow through packed beds occurs in several areas of
chemical engineering.
• Examples are the flow of gas through a tubular reactor
containing catalyst particles, and the flow of water
through cylinders packed with ion-exchange resin in order
to produce deionized water.
• The flow of oil through porous rock formations is a closely
related phenomenon.
• In all cases, it is usually necessary for a certain flow rate
to be able to predict the corresponding pressure drop,
especially if the particles are small.
• Pressure drop is required for the liquid or the gas to flow
through the column at a specified flow rate.
• A friction factor correlation attributed to Ergun is used
150
𝑓𝑝 = + 1.75 − Ergun Equation
𝑅𝑒𝑝
• 𝑓𝑝 – friction factor for the packed bed, and Re𝑝 Reynolds
number
 ∆𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝜀3 𝐷𝑝𝑣𝑠𝜌
𝑓𝑝 = 2 𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
𝐿 𝜌𝑣𝑠 1 − 𝜀 1−𝜀 𝜇
• ∆p: Pressure Drop
• L: Length of the Bed
• Dp: Equivalent spherical diameter of the particle defined
by
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Dp = 6
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
• ρ: Density of the fluid
• µ: Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
• vs: Superficial velocity (vs = Q/A where Q is the volumetric
flow rate of the fluid and A is the cross-sectional area of
the bed)
• ε: Void fraction of the bed (ε is the ratio of the void volume
to the total volume of the bed)
• The concept of the interstitial velocity vi, which is the
average velocity that prevails in the pores of the column
𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑖 = may be used.
𝜀
• For very viscous fluids 𝑅𝑒𝑝 ≤ 1, Ergun Equation becomes
150
𝑓𝑝 = − Kozeny−Carman equation
𝑅𝑒𝑝
• When viscous effects are not as important as inertia
• 𝑅𝑒𝑝 ≥ 1000 then
𝑓𝑝 = 1.75 − Burke−Plummer equation