TECHNICAL COMMUNICATIONS

ENG 302

LECTURE NOTE
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION:
What is Technical Communication?
Technical Communication is a combination of two words, Technical and Communication.
Technical is derived from the Greek word “tekhno” which means the art or skill or training
for a particular job1 while Communication is the act or process of using words, sounds, signs
or behaviours to express or exchange ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else2.
Technical Communication is a means to convey scientific, engineering or other technical
information. The European Association for Technical Communication defines technical
communication as the process of defining, creating and delivering information products
for the safe, efficient and effective use of products (technical systems, software, services)3.

Individuals that use a set of methods to research, document and present technical
processes or products are called technical writers or technical communicators.

These technical communicators may put the information they capture into paper
documents, web pages, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video and
other media.

What is not Technical Communication?

Technical Communication is not journalistic writing; it is not expressive writing or creative
literature. Its purpose is not to entertain, instead it is designed to inform or instruct an
audience with a specific goal in mind. Technical communication is clear, concise and
objective4.

Technical Communication is divided into two parts: We have the Written and Oral
communication.

Oral or verbal communication

This describes any type of interaction between individuals which makes use of words and
involves speaking, and listening. The sender and receiver exchange their thoughts or ideas
verbally5. Examples of oral communication include:
i. Staff meetings, business meetings and other face-to-face meetings.
ii. Personal discussions
iii. Presentations
iv. Telephone calls
v. Informal conversation
vi. Public presentations such as speeches, lectures and conferences
vii. Interviews

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Written Communication:
This type of communication involves the use of written words. Examples of written
communication are as follows:
a. For business operations:
i. Memos
ii. Technical/Progress Reports
iii. Bulletins
iv. Job descriptions
v. Employee manuals
vi. Emails and instant messages.

b. For other general/business purposes:

i. Internet Websites
ii. Letters
iii. Proposals
iv. Telegrams
v. Faxes
vi. Postcards
vii. Contracts
viii. Advertisements
ix. Brochures
x. News Releases.

For the purpose of this course, we shall focus on the following areas of technical
communication which include: Data gathering and presentation, technical correspondence,
letters of inquiry and replies, letters of application and memoranda, technical writing
illustrations, progress reports, proposals, students’ thesis or dissertation, oral and visual
presentations and computer aided technical writings.

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IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION:
Technical Communication is essential in an organisation as it serves as the best medium to
share information and keep employees well informed about or proficient in the use of
modern technology. All managerial or administrative activities involve communication. The
success of any organisation is largely recognised by the quality and quantity of information
that flows through the personnel.

Technical Communication is essential for practical applications, for learning the mechanics
in technology, for promoting technology and also for training the technologists.

Technical Communication helps to make information clear and understandable in order to

make business more productive and consumer goods more convenient. It helps to also
advance our economy by ensuring viable research and development, safeguarding design
and manufacturing and protecting consumers through accurate and informative documents.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENT

 It addresses particular readers. Knowing who the readers are, what they understand
about the subject, how well they speak English, and how they will use the document
will help you decide what kind of document to write, how to structure it, how much
detail to include, and what sentence style and vocabulary to use.
 It helps readers solve problems. For instance, you might produce a video that
explains to your company’s employees how to select their employee benefits, or a
document spelling out the company’s policy on using social media in the workplace.
 It reflects the organization’s goals and culture. For example, a state government
department that oversees vocational-education programs submits an annual report
to the state legislature in an effort to secure continued funding, as well as a lot of
technical information to the public in an effort to educate its audience. And technical
documents also reflect the organization’s culture. For example, many organizations
encourage their employees to blog about their areas of expertise to create a positive
image of the organization.
 It is produced collaboratively. No one person has all the information, skills, or time
to create a large document. You will work with subject-matter experts—the various
technical professionals—to create a better document than you could have made
working alone. You will routinely post questions to networks of friends and
associates—both inside and outside your own organization—to get answers to
technical questions.
 It uses design to increase readability. Technical communicators use design
features—such as typography, spacing, and colour—to make a document attractive
so that it creates a positive impression, helps readers navigate the document, and
helps readers understand it.
 It consists of words or images or both. Images—both static and moving—can make
a document more interesting and appealing to readers and help the writer
communicate and reinforce difficult concepts, communicate instructions and

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 descriptions of objects and processes, communicate large amounts of quantifiable
data, and communicate with non-native speakers.

THE 5C’S OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION:

 Clarity
 Correctness
 Conciseness
 Concreteness
 Comprehensiveness

Clarity: The message should be very clear so that the reader can understand it easily. An
unclear technical document can be dangerous and incur additional expenses. A carelessly
drafted building code, for example, could tempt contractors to use inferior materials or
techniques.

Correctness: A correct document is one that adheres to the conventions of grammar,

punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and usage. Incorrect writing can confuse your readers,
make your document inaccurate and make you look unprofessional.

Conciseness: It means conveying the message by using fewest words. You can shorten most
writing by 10 to 20 percent simply by eliminating unnecessary phrases, choosing shorter
words, and using economical grammatical forms.

Comprehensiveness: A comprehensive document provides readers with a complete, self-

contained discussion that enables them to use the information safely, effectively, and
efficiently.

Concreteness: It means the message should be specific instead of general. When

communicating with clients, always use facts and figures instead of generic or irrelevant
information.

PROCESS OF WRITING TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS:

1. Planning:
- Analyze your audience
- Analyze your purpose
- Generate ideas about your subject
- Research additional
- Organise and outline your document
- Select an application, a design and a delivery method
- Devise a schedule and a budget

2. Drafting:
- Use styles and templates carefully. Draft effectively with the easiest topics
and don’t stop writing to revise.

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 3. Revising:
- Look again at your draft to see if it works, revising by yourself and with the
help of others.

4. Editing:
- Check your revised draft to improve your grammar, punctuation, style, usage,
diction and mechanics (matters such as using numbers and abbreviations).

5. Proofreading:
- Check to make sure you have type what you meant to type.

REFERENCES FOR UNIT 1

1. www.vocabulary.com
2. M. Bilal and M.Altaf (www.slideshare.net/mobile/Bilalshafique7/technical-
communication-and-report-writing)
3. www.technical-communication.org/technical-communication/defining-technical-
communication.html
4. www.study.com/academy/lesson/technical-communication-definition-purpose.html
5. www.textbook.stpauls.br/human_resources_student/page_62.htm
6. Markel M., “Practical Strategies for Technical Communication”, Bedford/St. Martin’s,
New York, 2016.

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 UNIT 2

DATA GATHERING AND PRESENTATION

Objective:
The aim of this chapter is to introduce different methods used by researchers for collection
of data and presentation.

Introduction:
Data collection or gathering is the heart of any research design irrespective of the field of
study. Any research begins with certain questions which need to be answered. Data
collection therefore is the process of gathering the desirable information carefully with least
possible distortion, so that the analysis may provide answers that are credible and stand to
logic1.

What are Data?

Data are information especially facts or numbers, collected to be examined, considered and
used to help decision-making. There are two types of data: Primary and Secondary Data.

Primary Data:
These are first hand data gathered by researchers. These data are collected on purpose
because no previous records of the data exist to be accessed by the public. Sources of
Primary data are as follows:
 Experiments,
 Surveys,
 Questionnaire,
 Interviews,
 Observations and
 Focus groups
Data from these sources are considered to be highly reliable.

Secondary Data:
These are data that have been collected and compiled by someone and are accessible to the
public. Sources of Secondary Data are as follows:
 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
 Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc.

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DATA CLASSIFICATION
There are two classes or categories of data. They are qualitative and quantitative data.

Quantitative Data
They are data that can be quantified and expressed as a number. For example, height of students of
a class, marks obtained in a test, number of new stories published on a topic, number of times a
particular word has been used in publications, etc.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include -

 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events. This entails the systematic description of
events, behaviours, and artefacts in the social setting chosen for study (Marshall & Rossman,
1989). For example, counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified
times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc).
 In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling
the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their
cooperation.
 Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the
researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous.

Qualitative Data
These are data that cannot be expressed in the form of a number. The data are collected in the form
of words and sentences. They answer the question why and how. They are open-ended and have
less structured protocols. They rely heavily on interactive interviews and they use triangulation to
increase the credibility of their findings.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories -
 In-depth interview
 Observation methods
 Document review.

Mixed Methods:
Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and quantitative research data,
techniques and methods within a single research framework.

Some of the common areas in which mixed-method approaches may be used include:–
 Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions (strategies designed to produce
behavioural changes or improve health status);
 Evaluation;
 Improving research design; and

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  Corroborating findings, data triangulation (using multiple methods to collect data) or
convergence.

Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include –

 Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions;
 Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
 Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.

Continuous
(Height, Length, Weight)
Quantitative
(Number)
Discreet
(Exact Value)

Data Nominal
(No Order)
Attribute
Qualitative Ordinal
(Categorical) (Order)
Open

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Techniques for Data Collection include:
1. Interview - An interview is meant to record and analyse people’s opinions, experiences,
beliefs and ideas on relevant topics. The respondents are required to present more detailed
information. This gives a deeper insight into the social phenomena, as compared to the
quantitative methods such as surveys and questionnaires.
Research interviews can be classified into three categories:
i. Structured approach: This means each interviewer is required to answer the same
questions in the same sequence.
ii. Semi-structured approach: The researcher proceeds with ageneral outline of
themes, which can be further expanded when needed. The questions can be asked
to different participants in different ways, keeping in view the desired context.
iii. Unstructured approach: The researcher does not follow a designated set of
questions. These are more informal, free flowing and spontaneous, in comparison to
a structured interview.

2. Focus Groups - refers to a group of people who have been purposefully assembled at a place
to take part in a discussion on a topic of relevance. It is a method of collecting information
by studying people’s collective views, opinions, experiences and reactions, and also to
understand the meanings implied by them (Morgan, 1998).

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 3. Questionnaire and Schedule - These are devices used to collect data through a series of
questions and other similar prompts from a group of respondents.

4. Field Observation - Through the mode of observation, the researcher gets to describe
situations as they exist, by making use of five senses, thus presenting a sketch of a situation
under study (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993).

5. Case Study - It is an in-depth investigation about a person, group, situation or occurrence. It

involves collection of data from various sources employing a mix of different methods,
whichever appropriate. Case studies are used in researches where a deep probe and
understanding of the issue is required.

6. Ethnography - It is the study of societies and cultures in a systematic way. It observes,

records and analyses people belonging to a society in their natural ‘environment’ settings or
‘fields’. The data is gathered by methods aimed to capture their regular activities and social
meanings related to them.

7. Oral History – It is the method of recording, preserving and interpreting historical

information obtained from first-hand from people, from their past experiences and
memories. People are interviewed and their accounts are documented, which are then
preserved as an aural record for future.

8. Projective Techniques – These are methods of eliciting someone’s internal ideas, values,
attitudes, needs and opinions by responding to stimuli using external objects.

DATA PRESENTATION
Once data has been collected, it has to be classified and organised in such a way that it becomes
easily readable and interpretable that is, converted to information. Data can be presented in one of
the three ways:
i. As text
ii. In tabular form
iii. In graphical form

Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the method of analysis
to be used, and the information to be emphasized. Inappropriately presented data fail to clearly
convey information to readers and reviewers.

If one wishes to compare or introduce two values at a certain time point, it is appropriate to use text
or the written language. However, a table is the most appropriate when all information requires
equal attention, and it allows readers to selectively look at information of their own interest. Graphs
allow readers to understand the overall trend in data, and intuitively understand the comparison
results between two groups. One thing to always bear in mind regardless of what method is used,
however, is the simplicity of presentation.

Text presentation
Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and trends, and
provide contextual information. Data are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences. Text

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can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize certain data. If quantitative information to be
conveyed consists of one or two numbers, it is more appropriate to use written language than tables
or graphs.

Table presentation
Tables are the most appropriate for presenting individual information, and can present both
quantitative and qualitative information.
The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information that cannot be presented with
a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed in a table. Another strength is
that information with different units can be presented together. For instance, blood pressure, heart
rate, number of drugs administered, and anesthesia time can be presented together in one table.
Finally, tables are useful for summarizing and comparing quantitative information of different
variables.

Graph presentation
Graphs are effective for presenting large amounts of data, they can be used in place of tables to
present small sets of data. A graph format that best presents information must be chosen so that
readers and reviewers can easily understand the information.

Types of Graphs
1. Scatter plot
Scatter plots present data on the x- and y-axes and are used to investigate an association between
two variables. A point represents each individual or object, and an association between two
variables can be studied by analyzing patterns across multiple points.

2. Bar Charts
A bar graph is used to indicate and compare values in a discrete category or group, and the
frequency or other measurement parameters (i.e. mean). Depending on the number of categories,
and the size or complexity of each category, bars may be created vertically or horizontally. The
height (or length) of a bar represents the amount of information in a category.
Examples include: multiple bar charts, stacked bar charts and single bar chart or graph.

3. Histogram
A histogram is a set of vertical bars whose areas are proportional to the frequencies of the classes
that they represent.

4. Ogive
An ogive is the typical shape of a cumulative frequency curve or polygon. It is generated when
cumulative frequencies are plotted against real limits of classes in a distribution. There are two types
of ogives: ‘less than’ and ‘more than’. Before differentiating between these two, let us start by
defining cumulative frequency.

5. Pie chart
A pie chart, which is used to represent nominal data (in other words, data classified in different
categories), visually represents a distribution of categories. It is generally the most appropriate

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format for representing information grouped into a small number of categories. It is also used for
data that have no other way of being represented aside from a table.

6. Line plot with whiskers

A line plot is useful for representing time-series data such as monthly precipitation and yearly
unemployment rates; in other words, it is used to study variables that are observed over time. If
data are collected at a regular interval, values in between the measurements can be estimated. In a
line graph, the x-axis represents the continuous variable, while the y-axis represents the scale and
measurement values. It is also useful to represent multiple data sets on a single line graph to
compare and analyze patterns across different data sets.

7. Three-dimensional effects
Most of the recently introduced statistical packages and graphics software have the three-
dimensional (3D) effect feature. The 3D effects can add depth and perspective to a graph. However,
since they may make reading and interpreting data more difficult, they must only be used after
careful consideration.

8. Stem and leaf diagrams

Stem and leaf diagrams or stemplots, are used to represent raw data, that is, individual
observations, without loss of information.
9. Advance Charts.
These include Box and Whiskers diagrams, Lorentz curve, time series histogram and Z charts.

REFERENCES FOR UNIT 2

1. Ahuja, R. (2015). Research methods. New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

2. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic
inquiry: a guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
3. Morgan, D. L. (1998).The focus group guide book. London: Sage Publications.
4. Sapsford, R., & Jupp, V. (2006). Data Collection and Analysis; Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
5. Parveen H. & Showkat, “Data Collection”. https://www.researchgate.net/publication
6. Kabir S. M (2016) “Methods of Data Collection”,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846997
7. http://pages.intnet.mu/cueboy/education/notes/statistics/presentationofdata.pdf&
ved=2ahUKEwiqzZbo_ZzlAhWSQ0EAHWtHCSQQFjABegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw38BC4
hGH6X9_J-Gak0m8g0
8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5453888/

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 11

 UNIT 3

TECHNICAL CORRESPONDENCE
Objective:
The essence of this chapter is to introduce the different types of correspondence in the
business industry.

INTRODUCTION:
Technical correspondence or writing is a broad term that encompasses different types of
technical documents used for specific purposes in various fields such as business, science,
engineering, industries, construction, etc. Technical document is written keeping focus on
the type of audience being targeted. The main aspects of this form of writing are given
below.

TYPES OF TECHNICAL CORRESPONDENCE

1. Internal Correspondence
Internal correspondence is a written communication between the employees, units,
departments, and branches of the same organization. Internal correspondence can either be
formal or less formal. Routine internal correspondences are usually less formal, such as
quick instructions between a supervisor and a staff, and these are normally in the form of
email.

There are other more formal types of internal correspondence which include promotion
letter, written reprimand, notice to explain, memorandum, formal requests for approval,
and letter of approval or dismissal. These types of communication are ideally printed on
paper, signed by the sender, and physically received by the recipient.

2. External Correspondence
External correspondence takes place between different organizations, or between an
organization and their individual clients. This is a form of written communication made by a
company to those who do not belong to their organization.

External correspondence is commonly made to vendors, creditors, suppliers, existing

customers, prospective clients, financial institutions, government offices, law and
accounting firms, business affiliates, sponsors or donors, and other offices that have either
direct or indirect business relationship with the company.

3. Sales Correspondence
Sales correspondence refers to sales-related communications. It is not limited to just selling
a product or service, but it also includes other activities relating to sales. Sales

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correspondence include marketing letters, offer and discount letters, sales proposals,
invoices, statement of accounts, sales reports, order confirmation, purchase orders, letters
of authorization, collection letters, and such.

For the purpose of selling, it is important to know how to write quality sales letters to be
able to communicate effectively. Also, marketing and offer letters should reflect truthful
and non-misleading information. Other kinds of sales correspondence — such as invoice,
purchase orders, and collection letters — must contain accurate information.

4. Personalized Correspondence
Personalized correspondence involved personal and emotional factors. Despite being
labeled as “personalized”, this type of correspondence can also be used for business
purposes. Examples of personalized correspondence include letters of gratitude, letters of
favours or requests, appreciation notes, letters of congratulations of commendation, and
such.

This particular type of correspondence doesn’t need to have a very formal tone. Though this
can be done via email, writing an actual, physical letter is more preferable because it has a
sense of personal touch. You may use a regular office paper for this, or perhaps a
personalized yet cheap note pads, or a greeting card for a certain purpose (e.g. Thank You
card, Congratulations card, etc).

5. Circulars
Circulars are notices that are communicated to a large number of people within the
organization. It is also referred to as office instructions or announcements. Often, general
announcements (such as changes in contact information, details about meetings with
shareholders, instructions about certain protocols, etc) are being communicated via
circulars.

IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL CORRESPONDENCE

Through technical correspondence, employees:
 Maintain good customer–client relations (follow-up letters).
 Ensure that work is accomplished on time (directive memos or e-mail).
 Provide documentation that work has been completed (progress reports).
 Generate income (sales letters, brochures, and fliers).
 Keep machinery working (user manuals).
 Ensure that correct equipment is purchased (technical descriptions).
 Participate in teleconferences or videoconferences (oral communication).
 Get a job (resumes).
 Define terminology (online help screens).
 Inform the world about a company’s products and services (Internet Web sites and
blogs).

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 13

REFERENCES FOR UNIT 3

1. http://foundersguide.com/5-common-types-of-business-correspondence/

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 UNIT 4

WRITING CORRESPONDENCE
Objective:
The essence of this chapter is to focus on the process of writing letters, memos and emails.

INTRODUCTION:
The process of writing correspondence is essentially like that of writing any other kind of
workplace document. When you need to correspond with others in the work place your first
task is to decide on the appropriate application.

Process of writing correspondence

i. Planning: You will need to choose the appropriate type of correspondence for
your writing situation
ii. Drafting: For letters, memos and emails, clearly state your purpose, use headings
to help your readers summarize your message, provide adequate background,
organize the discussion and highlight action items.
iii. Revising, Editing and Proofreading: Besides writing correspondence quickly, you
need to write it carefully. Revise, edit and proofread everything before you
publish or send it.

Choices and Strategies:

When writing business correspondence, follow these five suggestions for presenting
yourself as professional.
- Use the appropriate level of formality
- Communicate correctly (It should be free of grammar, punctuation, style and
spelling errors.)
- Project the “you attitude” (correspondence should convey a positive tone.)
- Avoid correspondence clichés (For example, “pursuant to our agreement”
instead of saying “as we agreed.”)
- Communicate honestly (It shows respect for your reader and for yourself)

WRITING LETTERS
Letters are still a basic means of communication between organizations, with millions
written each day. To write effective letters, you need to understand the elements of a letter,
its format, and the common types of letters sent in the business world.

Elements of a Letter:
Most letters include a heading, inside address, salutation, body, complimentary close and
signature. Some include attention line, subject line, enclosure line and copy line.

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Heading:
Most Organizations use letterhead stationery with their heading printed at the top. The pre-
printed information and the date the letter is sent make up the heading.

Inside Address:
Write the name of the Organization as it should be, include mailing address , city, state and
zip code as application. If you are writing to an individual, endeavour to put his or her
professional title. If not, use Mr or Ms (Unless you know the recipient prefers Mrs. or Miss).

Attention Line:
In the case where you don’t know the particular person to address a letter to or you don’t
know the name of the individual who holds that position in the Company, you put it in the
Attention Line.

Subject Line:
This line is optional in a letter. It contains a brief phrase that defines the subject of the
letter.

Salutation Line:
The traditional salutation is “Dear”, followed by the reader’s courtesy title and last name
and then a colon instead of a comma. For example, Dear Ms. Hawkins

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Body:
Most bodies in a letter, contain at least three paragraphs: An introductory paragraphs, a
concluding paragraph and one or more body paragraphs.

Complimentary Close:
They include: Yours sincerely, Yours very truly or Truly yours etc.

Signature:
Type your full name on the fourth line below the complimentary close; sign the letter in ink
above the printed name.

Copy Line:
If you want the primary recipient to know that other people are receiving a copy of the
letter, you include a copy line. Use the symbol C (for copy), followed by the names of the
other recipients listed in alphabetical order.

Enclosure Line:
If the envelope contains documents other than the letter, include an enclosure line that
indicates the number of enclosures. For more than one enclosure, add the number:
“Enclosures (2).” A three-page memo and a 10-page report constitute only two enclosures.
Some writers like to identify the enclosures:
- Enclosure: 2014 Placement Bulletin
- Enclosures (2): “This Year at Annex” 2014 Annual Report.

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COMMON TYPES OF LETTERS:
This section focuses on four types of letters written frequently in the workplace. They
include: letter of inquiry, response to an inquiry, claim, and adjustment.

Letter of Inquiry:
These are letters in which you ask questions. You write it to acquire information. In this
letter, you explain who you are, why you are writing and you make your questions precise
and clear. In this type of letter you explain what you plan to do with the information and
how you can compensate the reader for answering your questions.

Letter of response to an inquiry:

In this letter you respond to an inquiry letter. In it you answer the questions if you can or
cannot. You explain the reasons and offer to assist with other request.

Claim Letter:
This is a polite, reasonable complaint. For example, if you purchase a defective or falsely
advertised product or receive inadequate service, you write a claim letter. If the letter is
convincing, your chances of receiving a satisfactory settlement are good because most
organizations realize that unhappy customers are bad for business. In addition, claim letters
help companies identify weaknesses in their products or services.

Adjustment Letter:
This is a response to a claim letter. It tells the customer how you plan to handle the
situation. Your purpose is to show that your organization is air and reasonable and that you
value the customers’ business. In this letter, you express your regret; you state the
adjustment you are going to make and end on a positive note by encouraging the customer
to continue doing business with you.

WRITING MEMOS
A Memo or Memorandum is a communication note that records events or observations on a
topic. They are typically used within a business environment as an interoffice tool and can
serve many purposes. According to Merriam-Webster, they are brief written message or
report from one person or department in a company or organization to another.

Importance of Memos:
1. Memos are used primarily as a formal, physical means of efficient communication
from a department to staff members.
2. They are almost always for internal communication and only rarely sent to clients or
the public.
3. They bring attention to problems and solve problems.
4. They are used to record and relay information and also to make brief appeals.

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 5. They inform readers about new information like policy changes, price increases or by
persuading the readers to take an action such as attend a meeting or change a
current production procedure.
6. They serve as evidence in the case of a dispute.
7. They are easier to use, cheaper and faster to distribute and easier to store.
8. They are used in the field of business to build good relationships.
9. They are also used to pass across basic information such as meeting times or due
dates.

TYPES OF MEMOS

1. Directive Memos:
These are written to give directives. They state policy or procedures readers or co-
workers should follow. They also provide instructions or directions on how to
proceed given a certain circumstance. For example you can give a directive on how
employees should seek their reimbursement for expenses related with business
travel to a conference etc.

2. Status Memos or Progress Report:

This Memo explains the status or progress of a particular assignment or project to a
supervisor. A status memo will include the progress report to date and what is left to
be done.

3. Field Report and Trip Report Memos:

In this memo, the employee outlines or describes the event and outcome of the field
test or trip embarked upon. It summarizes the purpose of the trip you went for, the
lessons learnt and how it can be useful to the organization. These memos may also
be used to document expenses related to the trip. They are usually sent to the
supervisor after an employee returns from a business venture. The structure used
for this type of memo is listed below:
• Purpose statement
• Summary
• Discussion
• Action/Recommendation

4. Response Memos:
These memos are written in response to an inquiry. They provide the audience with
desired information and are usually in four parts namely: Purpose of statement,
summary, discussion and action.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 19

 5. Meeting Minutes Memos:
This is where key information and decisions made during a formal organization
meeting are recorded.

Other types of Business Memos include:

• Operational Memos
• Environmental Memos
• Form Memos
• Dress Code Memos
• Financial Memos and
• Cover Memos

COMPONENTS OF A MEMO
Heading Components:
The heading components consist of the Sender, the addressee, the subject and date. For
example:

Purpose/Overview Components:
This comes after the heading. It briefly explains the memos content. It introduces the
purpose of the memo such as to present an idea or respond to an assignment that you were
given. It gives the readers the basic idea of what the memo is about so they could decide
whether they should read the memo immediately or later.

Context and Background Section:

This section gives the summary/background information being presented. It presents the
facts that the readers need to know to understand the memo. It also helps the readers to
put the memo into context with what is going on in the business.

Task, Resolution and Discussion

The main section of the memo is the discussion, which conveys the detailed version of the
writer’s message. It explains the task that would be performed in response to the context. It
gives the reader an idea of the next steps you would be taking.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 20

Conclusion
The writer ends this discussion with a conclusion, or statement of the meaning of the facts.
It tells the reader what you hope he gained from the reading. It also helps the reader know
that you welcome questions or comments for discussion.

Recommendation
A recommendation is the writer’s statement of what he would like the reader to do next.

HOW TO WRITE A MEMO

1. Type Memorandum at the top of the page
2. Address the recipient properly for example, To: All Employees
3. Add additional recipients in the CC line. For example, CC: Dr Hilary Owamah.
4. Write your name in the FROM line.
5. Include the Date.
6. Choose a specific date for the subject line.
7. Format the heading properly.
8. Write the Purpose of the Memo
9. Introduce the problem or issue in the first paragraph, briefly giving the context
behind the action. For example: “As of July, 2019, DELSU will be implementing new
policies regarding Student’s conduct during examination…”
10. Give context for the issue at hand. State for example the reason why the policy is
being implemented.
11. Give a short summary of the actions that will be implemented. You can include
graphics, lists or charts for long memos.
12. Suggest the actions that the reader should take. For example, “All students must
abide by this new policy on student’s conduct during examination…”
13. Close the memo with a positive and warm summary.

After writing your memo, don’t forget to format it properly, proofread and use your memo
letterhead.

REFERENCES FOR UNIT 4

1. Technical Communication by Mike Markel 11 Edition Bedford/St Martin’s 2015.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 21

 UNIT 5

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

Objective:
The essence of this unit is to learn about the various types of technical reports, their
functions and the steps required in a writing technical reports.

INTRODUCTION:
A technical report is the normal culmination of an experiment. A brilliant experiment may
be conceived, performed and analysed, but if it is not communicated it may as well never
have been done.

What is Technical Report?

A technical report is a document that describes the process, progress or results of a
technical or scientific research. It is a formal report designed to convey technical
information. It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Unlike
other scientific literature such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academia
conferences, technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review
before publication.

Types of Technical Reports

1. Technical Background Report:
This type of technical report provides background on a topic for example, solar
energy, global warming, CD ROM technology etc. The information on the topic is not
just for anybody who might be interested in the topic, but for some individuals or
group that has specific needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information.

2. Feasibility and Evaluation Reports:

A feasibility report tells whether a project is feasible, that is, whether it is practical
and technologically possible. It answers the question “should we implement Plan X?”
An evaluation or assessment report studies something in terms of its worth or value
for example, a college might investigate the feasibility of giving every student an
email address and putting many of the college functions online. The same college
might also seek recommendations on the best hardware and software to use.

3. Recommendation:
A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives and recommends one
or if necessary, none.

4. Primary Research Report:

This refers to the actual work someone does in a laboratory or in the field – n other
words, experiments and surveys. This type of report is commonly called “Lab
Report”. In this type of report you not only present your data and draw conclusions
about it, but also explain your methodology, describing the equipment and facilities
you used and give some background on the problem.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 22

 5. Technical Specifications:
In this type of report, you discuss some new product design in terms of its
construction, materials, functions, features, operation, and market potentials.

6. Technical Proposals/Business Plans:

These are proposals for starting a new business. It consists of a formal statement of
the business goals and the plan for achieving them.

7. Policies and Procedures for Organizations:

These documents contain rules and regulations for both the organization and its
members.

TECHNICAL REPORT STRUCTURE

A technical report should contain the following sections;

Section Details
Title Page Must include the title of the report. Reports for assessment,
where the word length has been specified, will often also require
the summary word count and the main text word count
Summary A short summary of the whole report including important
features, results and conclusions
Contents Numbers and lists all section and subsection headings with page
Numbers
Introduction States the objectives of the report and comments on the way the
topic of the report is to be treated. Leads straight into the report
itself.
Body of the Report Divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections
separate the different main ideas in a logical order

Conclusions A short, logical summing up of the theme(s) developed in the

main text
References Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in
the text (including any lecture notes and URL addresses of any
websites used)
Bibliography Other published sources of material, including websites, not
referred to in the text but useful for background or further
reading.
Acknowledgements List of people who helped you research or prepare the report,
including your proofreaders
Appendices (if Any further material which is essential for full understanding of
appropriate) your report (e.g. large scale diagrams, computer code, raw data,
specifications) but not required by a casual reader

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 23

STEPS TO WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT
1. Decide on the Terms of Reference:

To decide on the terms of reference for your report, read your instructions and any other
information you've been given about the report, and think about the purpose of the report:

 What is it about?
 What exactly is needed?
 Why is it needed?
 When do I need to do it?
 Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?

This will help you draft your Terms of reference.

2. Decide on the Procedure:

This means planning your investigation or research, and how you'll write the report. Ask
yourself:

 What information do I need?

 Do I need to do any background reading?
 What articles or documents do I need?
 Do I need to contact the library for assistance?
 Do I need to interview or observe people?
 Do I have to record data?
 How will I go about this?

Answering these questions will help you draft the procedure section of your report, which
outlines the steps you've taken to carry out the investigation.

3. Find the Information

The next step is to find the information you need for your report. To do this you may need
to read written material, observe people or activities, and/or talk to people.

Make sure the information you find is relevant and appropriate. Check the assessment
requirements and guidelines and the marking schedule to make sure you're on the right
track. If you're not sure how the marks will be assigned contact your lecturer.

What you find out will form the basis, or main body, of your report – the findings.

4. Decide on the Structure

Reports generally have a similar structure, but some details may differ. How they differ
usually depends on:

 The type of report – if it is a research report, laboratory report, business report,

investigative report, etc.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 24

  How formal the report has to be?
 The length of the report.

Depending on the type of report, the structure can include:

 A title page.
 Executive summary.
 Contents.
 An introduction.
 Terms of reference.
 Procedure.
 Findings.
 Conclusions.
 Recommendations.
 References/Bibliography.
 Appendices.
 The sections, of a report usually have headings and subheadings, which are usually
numbered

5. Draft the first part of your report

Once you have your structure, write down the headings and start to fill these in with the
information you have gathered so far. By now you should be able to draft the terms of
reference, procedure and findings, and start to work out what will go in the report’s
appendix.

Findings: The findings are result of your reading, observations, interviews and investigation.
They form the basis of your report. Depending on the type of report you are writing, you
may also wish to include photos, tables or graphs to make your report more readable
and/or easier to follow.

6. Analyse your findings and draw conclusions

The conclusion is where you analyse your findings and interpret what you have found. To do
this, read through your findings and ask yourself:

 What have I found?

 What's significant or important about my findings?
 What do my findings suggest?

For example, your conclusion may describe how the information you collected explains why
the situation occurred, what this means for the organisation, and what will happen if the
situation continues (or doesn't continue).

Don’t include any new information in the conclusion.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 25

7. Make Recommendations

Recommendations are what you think the solution to the problem is and/or what you think
should happen next. To help you decide what to recommend:

 Reread your findings and conclusions.

 Think about what you want the person who asked for the report should to do or not
do; what actions should they carry out?
 Check that your recommendations are practical and are based logically on your
conclusions.
 Ensure you include enough detail for the reader to know what needs to be done and
who should do it.

Your recommendations should be written as a numbered list, and ordered from most to
least important.

8. Draft the Executive Summary and Table of Content

Some reports require an executive summary and/or list of contents. Even though these two
sections come near the beginning of the report you won't be able to do them until you have
finished it, and have your structure and recommendations finalised.

An executive summary is usually about 100 words long. It tells the readers what the report
is about, and summarise the recommendations.

9. Compile a Reference List

This is a list of all the sources you've referred to in the report and uses APA referencing.

APA referencing is the abbreviation of the American Psychological Association referencing. It

is based on the style of academic writing favoured by the APA. It uses a reference list and in-
text citations to acknowledge and identify sources.

10. Revise your Draft Report using a Checklist

It is always important to revise your work. Things you need to check are as follows:

 Check the assignment question, the instructions/guidelines and the marking

schedule to make sure.
 Check that the required sections are included, and are in the correct order.
 Check that your information is accurate, with no gaps.
 Check if the information your provided support your conclusions and
recommendations mostly if your argument is logical.
 Check that all terms, symbols and abbreviations used have been explained.
 Check that any diagrams, tables, graphs and illustrations are numbered and labelled.
 Check that the formatting is correct, including your numbering, headings, are
consistent throughout the report.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 26

  Check that the report reads well, and your writing is as clear and effective as
possible.

You might need to prepare several drafts before you are satisfied. If possible, get someone
else to check your report.

COURSE TERM PAPER PROJECT (10 Marks)

Write a term paper on the causes and probable solution to building collapse in the Niger
Delta region.

REFERENCES FOR UNIT 5

1. www.tu-
chemnitz.de/phil/english/sections/linguist/independent/kursmaterialien/TechComm
/acchtml/techreps.html
2. Technical Communication by Mike Markel 11 Edition Bedford/St Martin’s 2015.
3. www.openpolytechnic.ac.nz/current-students/study-tips-and-
techniques/assignments/how-to-write-a-report/

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 27

 UNIT 6
Writing a Term Paper

Understanding What a Term Paper is.

What is a Term Paper?

According to Wikipedia, a term paper definition is ‘any type of research-intensive paper

authored by students over the course of an academic term. Simply put, a term paper is a
major writing assignment, in an academic setting, that is used to track and evaluate the
students' knowledge about the course. It must be well written, organized and well
researched as it reflects your knowledge of a certain course.

Term Paper Process

 Select your topic

 Research your topic thoroughly

 Prepare your term paper outline

 Write your paper

 Prepare your cover page

 Edit and proof read the final copy

Term Paper Outline

 Cover page: It contains the Term Paper Title, your name, course number, your
teacher’s name and the date of the deadline.

 Abstract: Usually less than a page long, the abstract describes your paper. It lets the
readers know where the paper is headed, the issue at hand and why the subject was
interesting or important enough that you decided to write about it.

 Introduction: this is the overall purpose or thesis statement. It is used to acquaint

anyone reading the paper with the argument being explored. The introduction
should begin with a statement on the topic to be discussed. Give current social
events that are linked or explain the significance of the problem at hand. Write
about how you plan to resolve the issue. Explain your research methodologies and
any procedures that were used for implementing them.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 28

  Body: The body of your text should contain the synthesis of your research. Provide
information about the topic so that the reader can further understand what is being
discussed. Don’t forget certain positions pertaining to the issue and the analysis of
the research you have done. This section is typically divided into multiple headings
and subheadings, each linked with various components of the topic.

Heading One: History of the argument. Background history

Heading Two: Extent of the problem being explored

Heading Three: Effects of the problem being explored

Heading Four: Potential solutions

Explain why your research has led you to believe certain things about your subject.
How has your view changed from when you began the project? Has it stayed the
same, and why? Tie everything you’ve been explaining into what you started saying
in your introduction.

 Conclusion: End with a summary and a conclusion about the topic in question.
Summarize all the points made and respond to the thesis statement.

 Reference list: List all of your sources used in research and in the text. Remember to
list in alphabetical order and following the required citation format.

ENG 302 Tech Communication Lecture Note Page 29