Office Technology

TAI SOLARIN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
OFFICE TECHNOLOGY
BED 215
COURSE DEVELOPER:
MARADESA WAKEEL O
Maradesawakeel21@gmail.com
BED 215: OFFICE TECHNOLOGY
The course is designed to equip students with knowledge and skills relating to efficient
functioning of the modern business office.
COURSE AIMS
The course aims at producing competent business educators who will be versed in
organisations management and acquaint them with the basic knowledge of office information
technology that will be used in decision making.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
The course expected learning contents are meant to enable you achieve the following:
1. Understand and gain in-dept knowledge of information and communication handling procedure
in the organization.
2. Acquire knowledge and skill for handling office information and communication procedure
3. Develop understanding and practical knowledge of information security in the organization.
4. Understand the basic concept of office automation.
STUDY MODULES AND UNITS

Breakdown of the modules and study units are as follows
MODULE 1:SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1: Present day office arrangements
Unit 2: Office environments
Unit 3: Types and uses of office machines
Unit 4: Information technology
MODULE 2: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEM
INFRASTRUCTURE
Unit 1: Management information system
Unit 2: Essential aspects of information systems in the organisation
Unit 3: Information system categories
MODULE 3: AUTOMATION
Unit 1: Office Automation
Unit 2: Computer Mail System
Unit 3: Sales Force Automation
MODULE 4: SYSTEM MANAGEMENT.
Unit 1: Computer Security
Unit 2: Information System Recovery Plan
Unit 3: Managing people in the organization.
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES

Every unit contains a list of references and further reading. Try as much as possible to get the
listed books and further reading materials. You are also expected to approach the internet for
further related materials. This is to widen as well as deepen the depth of understanding of this
course.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
You will find in this file all the details of the assignments you must attempt and submit to your
tutor for marking. The marks you will obtain from these assignments will count towards your
final grade. You will find further information on the assignments in the assignment file which
you will find later in the section on assignments in this courseguide.
PRESENTATION SCHUDULE
The presentation schedule which is included in your course materials gives you the important
dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and for attendance of tutorials.
Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments on due dates. You should guard
against falling behind in your work.
ASSESSMENT
Your assessment will be based on tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) and a final examination
which you will write at the end of the course.
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)
Every unit contains at least one or two assignments. You are advised to work through all the
assignments and submit them for assessment. Your tutor will assess the assignments and select
four, which will be marked and the best three will be selected which will constitute 30% of your
final grade. The tutor-marked assignments may be presented to you in a separate file. The tutor
marked assignments may be presented to you in a separate file. Just know that for every unit,
there are some tutor marked assignments for you. It is important you do them and submit for
assessment.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

At the end of the course, you will write a final examination which will constitute 70% of your
final grade. In the examination which shall last for two hours, you will be required to answer
three questions out of at least five questions that may be given to you.
COURSE MARKING GUIDE
Assignments constitute 30% and the final examination makes up the rest of the 70% making a
total of 100% course marks.
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study
materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the
lecture instead of listening to the lecture. In the same way, a lecturer might give you some
reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, and which are your text materials or set
books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you
in-class an exercise. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with the
other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning outcomes. These learning
outcomes let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit.
These learning outcomes are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you
must go back and check whether you have achieved the learning outcomes. If this is made a
habit, then you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of
the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either
from your set books or from a Reading section. The following is a practical strategy for working
through the course. If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutor’s
job is to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor to
provide it.
TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

The dates, time and locations of these tutorials will be made available to you, together with the
name, telephone number and the address of your tutor. Each assignment will be marked by your
tutor. Pay close attention to the comments your tutor might make on your assignments as these
will help in your progress. Make sure that assignments reach your tutor on or before the due
date. Your tutorials are important, therefore, try not to skip any. It is an opportunity to meet your
tutor and your fellow students. It is also an opportunity to get the help of your tutor and discuss
any difficulties you might have encountered during the course of your reading.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1: SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1: Present day office arrangements
Unit 2: Office environments
Unit 3: Types and uses of office machines
Unit 4: Information technology
MODULE 2: INFORMATIONCOMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEM
INFRASTRUCTURE
Unit 1: Management information system
Unit 2: Essential aspects of information systems in the organisation
Unit 3: Information system categories
MODULE 3: AUTOMATION
Unit 1: Office Automation
Unit 2: Computer Mail System
Unit 3: Sales Force Automation
Unit 4: Managing people in the organisation
MODULE 4: SYSTEM MANAGEMENT.
Unit 1: Computer Security
Unit 2: Information System Recovery Plan
Unit 3: Managing people in the organization.
MODULE 1: SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION
UNIT 1: PRESENT DAY OFFICE ARRANGEMENTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Define an office
2. State the functions of an office
3. Enumerate types of an office work environment.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Whether you are an employee or employer, you require a space where you will carry out or
conduct your day to day work. This space could be referred to as an office.
1.1 MAIN CONTENTS

1.1.2 Definition and Functions of an Office
The office of today represents the largest and the most exciting area for the application of
information technology. Normally, office may mean a central place where some sort of paper
work is performed by the clerks on their desks. But this definition, though sounds correct, is
incomplete. The office can be defined as:
“A place where proper records for the purpose of control information and efficient and effective
operations are prepared, handled and serviced"
Offices are generally defined in terms of functions. An office simply is a particular room or
building set aside within an organization for the purpose of performing various clerical
transactions which may range from financial, personnel, legal, medical, record keeping, to
information and data processing. If you look at this definition carefully, you will discover that
office is the administrative centre of business. The purpose of an office has been defined as the
provision of a service of communication and record (Mills & Standingford, 1962). The Office is
in many respects the brain of a business organization. The office is that part of the organization
which is devoted to the direction and co ordination of its various activities. The modern office is
what the brain is to the human body.
1.2 Functions of an Office

1. Office as information Centre - Office acts as information centre of an organization
because it is the organ that are charged with the responsibility of collecting information from
within and outside the organization.
2. Office as channel of communication- office serves as a channel through which written
communication move from top to bottom and vice visa.
3. Office as co-ordination centre - Office aids in co- ordination. The process of co-
ordination will be impossible without the office. Office provides necessary information to
various departments and as such serves a well -placed machinery for co-ordination.
4. Office acts as link with customers -Office is regarded as the channel, which links a
business organization with its customers. The enquiries, orders and complaints from customers
are taken care of by the office through direct personal contact.
5. Office acts as link between shareholders and the company-Office provides a good
linkage with shareholders by providing share certificate, share transfer, issue of dividend
warrants, issue of notice on company's meeting and answering the enquiries made by the
shareholders. It also acts as a servicing department for creditors.
1.3 Types of office

The types of offices are determined by the type of business or services which they offer or
render to their customers or clients. Again, some offices are large while some are small. In
production firms such as manufacturing, the office is meant to support the organization in its
major task of production. In business firms such as banking, insurance, and government
establishments, the office provides supporting services. While individual organizations may
have certain peculiar procedures, the fact remains that some office rules and procedures are
common to most organizations. For instance, you may wish to think of how life would look like
in an organization where information processing and record keeping are not done. Another point
you should note is that the size of an office is determined by the type of function it performs.
Basically, there are two types of office:
1. Personal/closed office
2. Open office
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

(a) Define an Office
(b) State five functions of an office
SUMMARY
An office is a room, space, where administrative works from document preparation,
information dissemination, are done. Functions of an office were also elucidated. Office serves
as information centre, Office as a channel of communication, as co-ordination centre, as link
with customers, acts as link between shareholders and the company.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
1. Amoor, S.S. (2020). Office Secretarial Standard Practices. Zaria: ABU Press.
2. Sani, A. (2015). Executive Office Practice and Procedures. Zaria: Jerry Press
3. “Organizational Structure Types and Design Strategy.” Organizational
Structure.net.:http://www.organizationalstructure.net/.
4. Pitts, J &Radebaugh (2018). Principles of Information Technology Management. New
York:Laudon & Laudon.
5. Sani, A. (2018). Entrepreneurship in Business Education.Zaria: Concept+Designs& Prints.
UNIT 2: OFFICE ENVIRONMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate between personal work space and open work space
2. State the merits and demerits of open work space
3. Identify factors to consider in planning office work space
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Work space are areas that afford us the chance to carry out the specified office functions
from day to day. There are offices that are typically used for predictable office activities like
reading, writing, and computer work. There are types of work space that supports different
official activities. Therefore, office layout refers to the way the office is arranged to facilitate the
flow of work. There are two types of office work environment. These are:
A. Closed/Personal Office
B. Open Office
2.1 MAIN CONTENT

2.1.2 CLOSED OFFICE/PERSONAL WORK SPACE
1. Personal Workspace
A closed office is a type of office system whereby different rooms are given to various
divisions of a department in an organization such that each staff has his own office. It is the
opposite of the open plan office. The closed office can also be called a private or partitioned
office.
Below is a pictorial view of what a personal work space should look like
Fig 1.2a, diagram of a personal work space

Advantages of a closed office
1. There is tremendous privacy. This is one of the major advantages of the closed office. Since
each staff has his or her own office, there is a lot of privacy for staff members.
2. With privacy comes a lot of concentration. Another advantage of the closed office is that
workers are able to concentrate on their task without any distraction.
3. The closed office helps to reduce gossips among staff. This is possible because staff members
do not share a common office and cannot easily discuss certain unnecessary things among
themselves. One of which includes gossips.
4. The closed office is quite good for the general health of workers.
Disadvantages of the closed office

1. Supervision can sometimes be quite difficult.
2. Communication among staff members is not very effective because of how separated workers
are from one another.
3. Unlike open plan offices, closed offices are quite expensive to construct and to run.
4. Closed offices can sometimes lead to workers being unproductive as the privacy that closed
offices give them has the tendency of making them lazy.
5. Closed offices can be huge space consumers.
2.2 OPEN OFFICE/WORK SPACE:
An open plan office is one in which more than one person share the same room. An open
office is suitable for activities which demand frequent communication, and routine activities
which need little concentration. An Open office work space should look like this:
Fig 2.1. Diagram of an open work space

Advantages of Open office
1. There is maximum utilization of space as there will be no wastage of space by erecting walls or
partitions.
2. There is easy supervision and less number of supervisors will be able to do the job.
3. There is free and quicker inter-communication among the members of the staff.
4. The entire layout shall be flexible and adjustable from time to time.
Disadvantages of Open office
1. The entire area becomes crowded and a jumbled-up affair
2. There will be considerable noise even if every individual makes minimum of talking or
movement or use of machines like telephone, typewriter, etc
2.3 TEAM WORK SPACE

A semi-enclosed work space is an office space for two to eight people (employees). It is
suitable for teamwork with demands for frequent internal communication and a medium level of
concentration.
2.4 CUBICLE WORK SPACE

A semi-enclosed work space for one person (employee).It is very suitable for activities that
require medium concentration and a reasonably low level of interaction. This is employed by
really small offices that hope to manage work space and still get the best out of it.
2.5 PLANNING AN OFFICE ENVIRONMENT
The following factors are taken into consideration in planning the environment of an office
1. Business needs: Office environment should provide an environment suitable for the business of
the organization. For example, the layout of a bank will be different from that of an accounting
firm
2. Space Availability: Planning an office environment will depend on quality and type of office
space available for use.
3. Accommodation Standards: Organizations often have a policy on the minimum standard of
accommodation for each staff grade. Administration staff may work in open plan offices
whereas managers may have individual offices on seniority basis.
4. Statutory Requirement: Legal requirements, as contained in relevant legislations, affect the
planning of office work space.
1. Briefly explain personal work space

2. enumerate four merits of open work space
3. Identify three factors to consider in planning work space environment.
CONCLUSION
The contents of this unit are to help you understand the office environment and the factors
to be considered in planning the work space environment.
SUMMARY
This unit discussed open plan office as one in which more than one person share the same
room. An open work space is for more than ten people at a time. Comparison was made between
personal work space and open work space in terms of their merit and demerits. Finally, factors
to be considered in planning work space/office were discussed.
REFERENCE/FURTHERS READING
3. “Organizational Structure Types and Design Strategy.”
OrganizationalStructure.net.:http://www.organizationalstructure.net/.
4. Pitts, J &Radebaugh (2018). Principles of Information Technology Management. New York:
Laudon & Laudon.
5. Sani, A. (2018). Entrepreneurship in Business Education.Zaria:Concept+Designs& Prints.
UNIT 3: TYPES AND USES OF OFFICE MACHINES/EQUIPMENTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Identify types of office equipment
b. State the usefulness of office equipment.
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Office equipment used vary from one office to another. Office equipment are used to
improve and ease mobility in and around the office environment. The usefulness of office
equipment will be looked at in this unit as well as the types of office equipment.
3.1 MAIN CONTENT

3.1.2 OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Office equipment consists of the assets and basic items required for the smooth running of
the office. They include tools, machinery and furniture.
Usefulness of Office Equipment/Machines
a. Improve the quality of work
b. Aid or speed up the performance of routine functions
c. Saves space
d. Help to simplify the work of employee
3.2 Types of Office Machines

The main types of machines you are likely to meet in most offices are:
Manual office equipment - stapler, perforator, paper shredder, filing cabinet, binding machine,
paper cutter, manual typewriter
1. Stapler: For holding documents together
2. Perforator: used for punching holes in documents
3. Paper shredder: used in shredding unneeded documents to protect against leakage of content in
the process of disposal.
4. Filing cabinet: For storage of folders and protection of documents from fire outbreak, theft
among others.
5. Binding Machine: used for putting sheets of a document or content of a file together
6. Paper cutter: A manual equipment used to trim paper to a required size.
7. Manual typewriter: used for typing documents. Its use is fast becoming obsolete
Electronic office equipment–photocopier, facsimile (fax) machines, calculating machine,
scanner, computer
a. Photocopier: This is a machine used to make copies from original documents. The original
document may be handwritten, printed or typewritten. Photocopiers are used to
prepare extra copies of documents.
b. Facsimile (Fax) Machine: This machine scans printed, typewritten texts and images and
transmits them through telephone lines to a receiving fax machine that converts the electronic
signals back to the original text or image. The machine converts printed material or images into
electronic signals. Suitable for transmission through telephone lines, cables or satellite networks,
facsimile machines could store messages and transmit them later at a time when transmission
costs are cheaper.
c. Calculating Machine: This is used mainly in the office for calculations and complex
computations.
d. Scanners: used for scanning images of documents to computers for printing, storage, display or
communication via the internet.
e. Computers: Perhaps the most common equipment in modern offices, it is used for data and
word processing, document storage, communication, presentation etc.
3.3 Types of Computers used in any office environment:
1. Personal Computer (PC): Initially produced by IBM in 1981, for executing a single task by a
single user at the time. Today, a single person can execute many tasks simultaneously
(multitasking).
2. Apple Macintosh (Mac): They are computers made by the Apple company and are usually
produced for personal use.
3. Laptop computer (notebook): it consists of LCD display and a small keyboard. Although they
are relatively small computers, they still perform the same functions as personal computers.
4. Personal Digital Assistant - PDA (Palm): These are small computers that can fit into pocket or
the user's palm. It is developed for performing basic personal/business functions like:
a. Maintaining the address book,
b. Accessing and browsing the Internet,
c. Sending/receiving e-mails, etc. and so on.
CONCLUSION
Office equipment are actually used to improve and ease mobility in and around the office
environment. Office machines are used because: they improve the quality of work, aid or speed
up the performance of routine office functions, saves space. Help to simplify the work of
employees.
SUMMARY
Office equipment used varies from one office to another. In this unit, types and usefulness
of office equipment were examined. Office equipment include perforator, filing cabinet,
computer, binding machine.
York: Laudon & Laudon.
5. Sani, A. (2018). Entrepreneurship in Business Education. Zaria: Concept+Designs& Prints.
UNIT 4: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to
1. Know and identify how information technology can become a vital and integral part of every
official and business plan.
2. List any three ways in which IT is used.
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is broken down into two parts. The first part looks at information technology
perspective, benefits of information technology as well as categories of information processing
task and IT tools used. The second part concerns methodologies and formats in which they are
made use of. It is important that we view this unit this way because of information technology in
any office cannot be over-emphasized as it can be seen in our present day office.
4.1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
The office is that part of an organization or business that handles the information dealing
with operation, accounting, payroll, billing, because office labor practically consists of activities
such as document preparation, filing, performing simple computations, checking information,
intra-office communication and external communication.
The term information technology (IT) has varying interpretations. Macmillan Dictionary of
Information Technology defines IT as the acquisition , processing, storage, and dissemination of
vocal, pictorial, textual, and numerical information by a micro-electronics-based combination of
computing and telecommunications. Two points are worth consideration about this definition:
1. The new information technology is seen as involving the formulating, recording, and processing
and not just transmitting of information. These are elements in the communication process
which can be separated (both analytically and in practice) but in the context of human
communication they tend to be intertwined.
2. Modern information technology deals with a wide variety of ways of representing information.
It covers not only the textual (i.e Cognitive, propositional, and verbalized forms, we often think
under the head information) but also numerical, visual, and auditory representations.
UNESCO defines information technology as scientific, technological, and engineering
disciplines and the management techniques used in information handling and processing
information, their applications, computers and their interactions with man and machine and
associated social, economic, and cultural matters.
It is important to bear in mind that information technology is not just concerned with new pieces
of equipment but with much broader spectrum of information activities. Information technology
encompasses such different things as book, print, reprography, the telephone network,
broadcasting and computers.
Information Technology (IT) can be said to be any computer- based tool that people use to
work with to support the information and information processing data needs of an organization.
It also involves other equipment and information transmission systems like facsimiles, telex, e-
mail, teleconferencing, GSM, telecommuting
Information Technology (IT) has become a vital and integral part of every official and
business plan, of organization; from multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe
systems and databases to small businesses that own a single computer in a small office.
IT can be used in the following ways:
1. Information processing tasks, e.g. office automation
2. To support management decision making e.g. use of DTP, research and training
3. To support information sharing through use of network, e.g. telecommuting and
teleconferencing
4. To support innovation e.g. producing automation (i.e. Computer-Aided Manufacture (CAM),
engineering analysis and design, system development, e-marketing.
The activities in the office can be described as:

a. A set of activities resulting from requests for service, each with a specific precedence that
requires a supporting file system.
b. A set of people carrying out specific tasks, communicating with and referencing a supporting
file system.
c. A gigantic database with users accessing and manipulating data.
The virtual office has no boundary.

The application of Information technology. It actually modernizes the office environment,
making communication and other office duties easy and creating a need for business minded
individuals who can use the latest technologies to connect, support, and coordinate workers in
remote locations in and around the office environment.
Ideally an online Office Management program should be designed for you (students)at under
graduate levels to:
a. Be able to develop technical, interpersonal, administrative and communication skills through
modern administrative assistant training.
b. To become familiar with present-day hardware devices and technologies such as smart phones
and tablets and software, mobile computing; cloud computing and document sharing.
Fig3.1a,A traditional office environment Fig3. 1b, A typical office environment

improved by technology.
Most software and information technology companies seek to employ those having strong
programming skills, system analysis skills, software testing skills, debugging (error detection)
skills.It is easier to acquire practical skills required to become a software developer from the
university. This degree encompasses the complete process of software development from
software design and development to final testing. In this stage, the individual’s logical and
critical reasoning/thinking abilities are important to become a software professional.
Computers are being improved upon so that they can ease mobility in and around the office
environment, giving rise to the introduction of laptops. The use of laptops, often with printers,
scanners, fax machines and other office equipment, makes possible a better result.
In this stage, the individual’s logical and critical reasoning/thinking abilities are important to
become a software professional.
Computers are being improved upon so that they can ease mobility in and around the office
environment, giving rise to the introduction of laptops. The use of laptops, often with printers,
scanners, fax machines and other office equipment, makes possible a better result.
4.2 Benefits of Information Technology
Some benefits that can arise from the crafting information technology in an office environment
include
1. Ease in disseminating information.

2. Communication between individuals in the office becomes faster.
3. Protection and proper documentation are made possible as the system ensures that data is
structured and standardized
4. Using infra-red printing and wireless networking cards enables staff to print their work fast
and connect to each other’s network, especially with the use of e-mail,electronic
communication, and, possibly, internet access even without cables.
4.3 Information Processing Tasks and the tools used

1. Capturing information: That is obtaining information at its point of origin. The tools used
consist of input technologies such as mouse, keyboard
2. Conveying information: that is presenting information in its useful form. The tools used
consist of output technologies such as the screen, printer
3. Converting Information: that is processing data to create information. The tools used here
consist of processor and internal memory
4. Storage of information: that is storing information for used at a later time. The tools used
consist of storage technologies such as hard disk, CD-ROM and DVD.
5. Communication of information: that is sending information to other people or other
locations. The tools used consist of telecommunications technologies such as modem, satellite
and digital computer.
4.4 Methodologies and format in which information system can be employed

The knowledge of information system is essential for organizational heads because most
offices need information system to survive and prosper. It’s often said that the better an
information system there is in any organization, the wider the coverage even at locations on long
distances. Information systems provide problem-solving power that most organizations need to
effectively function at local and global scale. This include communication amongst people in the
same organization and communicating with distributors and suppliers in the business world
1. Again, those with a good amount of information technology skills are able to carry out the
processing and storing of information within and around the office which is one major way
information technology has improved our office environment.
2. Next, communication between staff with the use of mobile phones and other Information
Technology devices as a field emphasizes the secure management of large amounts of variable
information and its accessibility via a wide variety of systems both local and world-wide.
Information Technology allows people to make informed decisions in work places.
3. Information Technology introduces style and dynamism in any office environment its being
employed.
4. It also provides businesses with that desired edge over their competitors, creating a
whole new opportunity and provides organisation with the required skills needed for rapid
expansion in information technology industry. Major stake holders in the areas of information
technology include:
a. Project manager
He/ She would be the bridging gap between the production team and client. So he/she must
have a fair knowledge of the industry they are in so that they are capable of understanding and
discussing problems with either party
b. Network engineer
A network engineer is more of a developer, He/she is concerned with everything that has to
do with the network of computers, developing telecommunication network topologies,
internetworking service requirements for switched telephone networks and also the required
hardware and software.
c. Software architect
A Software architect is a computer expert who makes advanced design choices and dictates
technical standards, including software coding standards tools and platforms Main
responsibilities include limiting choices available during development just by either choosing,
creating or defining standard ways pursuing applications development and framework in any
organization.
d. Systems analyst
A systems analyst act as liaison between the client and the developers. They make use of
computers and other related systems to design new IT solutions, modifying and enhancing them
or adapt existing systems and integrate new features or improvements, all with the aim of
improving business efficiency and productivity.
e. Systems administrator
Sometimes called the ‘system admin’ he/she is responsible for maintaining a more than one
user (multi-user) computer system, including a Local- Area Network (LAN) whose typical
duties include
i. Providing really large storage spaces

ii. Performing processes to prevent the spread of viruses
iii. Setting up user accounts
iv. Adding and configurations of new workstations.
f. Programmer
A computer programmer is also known as a developer, coder, software engineer. He is one
who specializes in writing codes for many kinds of software, or one who practices or professes a
formal approach to programming, He makes use of primary programming computer languages
like C, C++, C#, python, Java
g. IT support technician
IT support technicians help to find and correct software and hardware problems for
computer users in and around the giving office environment.
CONCLUSION
Reading through the content of this unit, emphasis has been placed on the importance of
identifying a good working space as can be seen from simple definitions, equipment with which
to make working a bit less stressful than it used to be, the importance of unit and management
towards attaining desired official goals and ensuring sanity with the use of information
technology.
SUMMARY
This unit explains information technology as any computer- based tool that people use to
work with information and support the information and information processing data needs of an
organization. It also involves other equipment and information transmission systems and not just
computer such as facsimiles, telex, e-mail, teleconferencing GSM, and telecommuting. Also
discussed were benefits of information technology, categorists of information processing task
and IT tools used, and the methodologies and format in which it can be employed.
Amoor, S.S. (2020). Office Secretarial StandardPractices. Zaria: ABU Press.

Sani, A. (2015). Executive Office Practice and Procedures. Zaria: Jerry Press
“Organizational Structure Types and Design Strategy.” Organizational
Pitts, J &Radebaugh (2018). Principles of Information Technology Management. New York:
Laudon & Laudon.
5. Sani, A. (2018). Entrepreneurship in Business Education. Zaria:
Concept+Designs& Print
MODULE 2: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEM
INFRASTRUCTURE
UNIT 1: MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, student should be able to:
1. Define management information system
2. State the nature of data, information and communication.
3. State functions performed by information
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Management information system is an organized approach to the information needs of an of
organizations management at every level in making operational, tactical, and strategic decisions.
Its objectives is to design and implement procedures, processes and routine that provides
suitably detailed reports in an accurate consistent and timely manner.
1.1 MAIN CONTENT

1.1.2 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
Organizations need information as much as the information system to provide it. A management
information system make use of available resources to provide managers at all levels and in all
functions with the information from all relevant sources to enable them to make timely and
effective decisions for planning, directing, and controlling the operations for which they are
responsible. It is a system in which defined data are collected, processed, and communicated to
assist those responsible for the use of resources to help management decision making.
Management information system can be defined as a system which converts data from internal
sources into information and communicate that information, in an appropriate form, to managers
at all levels in all functions to enable them to make activities for which they are responsible.
There are wide ranging knowledge requirements for MIS which includes, the nature of data and
information, general system concepts, organization principles, planning and decision walling
control principles, management functions and the use of information technology.
The aim of a management information system is to enable decision making and control action
to be taken in the best way possible to achieve the objectives of the organization as a whole. The
basic issues in designing, developing, and installing MIS is to define the data to be collected,
collect, process, and communicate it.
1.2 THE NATURE OF DATA, INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION IN THE
ORGANISATION
All individuals, companies and, in general, all organisations are continuously capturing data,
many of which are of no significance to them at all. However, other data are available that
would afford them a better understanding of their own environment and of themselves. These
data – what we know as information – enable them to make more accurate decisions. For this
reason, the right amount of information at the right time is a key factor for every organization.
Company managers take decisions, prepare plans and control their company’s activities using
information that they can obtain either from formal sources or through informal channels such
as face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, social contacts, etc. Managers are challenged by
an increasingly complex and uncertain environment. In these circumstances, managers should
theoretically be able to define and obtain the type of information they require. However, this is
not what happens in practice; rather, the way managers perform their work depends on the
available information that they have access to. Most decisions are therefore made in the absence
of absolute knowledge, either because the information is not available or because access to it
would be very costly.
Despite the difficulties in obtaining information, managers need relevant information on which
to base their planning, control and decision-making functions. Although the terms data and
information are sometimes used indiscriminately, they do have different meanings. Data are
non-random symbols that represent the values of attributes or events. Hence, data are facts,
events and transactions stored according to an agreed code. Data are facts obtained through
reading, observation, calculation, measurement, etc. The amounts and other details on an
organisation’s invoices, cheques or pay slips, etc, are referred to as data, for example. Data are
obtained automatically, the result of a routine procedure such as invoicing or measurement
processes.
Transformation Information
Date Process
Fig. 1.1. Transformation of data into information

Information is a set of data transformed in such a way that it helps to reduce future uncertainty
and, therefore, contributes to the decision-making process. Information is data transformed in a
way that makes sense to the person who receives it; in other words, it has a real or perceived
value for that person when he or she acts or takes decisions. Information, moreover, is data that
have been interpreted and understood by the recipient of the message. The relationship between
data and information is similar to that of raw materials and the finished product.
Information will be meaningful insofar as it provides useful raw material for taking a specific
decision.
Information Decision
Decision Making Process Action
Fig. 1.2. Decision making: transformation of information into

action
The process of reflecting on and understanding information is what allows the message to have
different meanings for different people. This process also implies that the data analysed,
summarised or processed to produce messages will only become information if its recipient
understands its meaning. For data to be transformed into information, there must be an
awareness of what the person receiving the message will use it for, his or her training, position
in the organisation and familiarity with the language and calculations used in the message.
While all managers need information, they do not all need the same type of information. The
kind of information required will depend on a range of factors: their level in the hierarchy, the
work they are carrying out, confidentiality, urgency, etc. Indeed, the usefulness of information is
a debatable point, and what for one person is information, for another is data. In an organisation,
for example, when information is transferred from one organisational level to another its
meaning may change significantly, such that at one hierarchical level it is regarded as significant
information, whereas at another level it is simply data (Menguzzato and Renau, 1991).
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION

Good information provides value. Experience shows that good information should present the
following qualities:
1. Relevance
Relevance is a decisive quality. Relevant information is what increases knowledge and
reduces uncertainty surrounding the problem under consideration. Reports and messages
frequently contain irrelevant sections that lead to difficulties and cause frustration. Many
erroneous managerial decisions are a result of data overload. The right information is not taken
from an excessive accumulation of data, which tends to cause a general feeling of impotence
vis-à-vis the problem, but rather it depends on getting hold of the relevant data. This
characteristic is heavily influenced by the qualities explained below.
2. Accuracy
Information must be sufficiently accurate for managers’ purposes. No information is
totally accurate, and spending more on information in pursuit of greater accuracy does not
always result in more valuable information. The degree of accuracy should be coherent with the
importance of the decision to be taken and will vary according to the decision-maker’s level in the
hierarchy. The degree of information accuracy required will depend on the hierarchical level in
question.
3. Completeness
In an ideal world, all the information required to take a decision would be available;
however in reality this is not possible. Information is considered to be completed if it informs us
on the key points of the problem we are analysing.
4. Source trustworthiness
Trust in the information source increases when it has a proven track record. To increase the
trustworthiness of the message, managers use reports from various sources, particularly where
strategic decisions are concerned.
5. Communication with the right person
Each manager in the company is assigned a specific area of activity and responsibility and
must receive information to undertake the tasks he or she is responsible for. However, this
process does not always function as well as it should, and information may not reach the right
level in the organisation. For instance, a superior might not provide all the information to the
person who needs it, and vice versa; a subordinate may hold back information in an attempt to
make him or herself indispensable. Information providers must be aware of information needs in
order to ensure it goes straight to where it is required.
6. Detail
Information should contain the minimum number of details for effective decision making.
Every superfluous character or data entails extra storage efforts, more processing, more
assimilation of difficulties and probably inferior decisions. The level of detail should vary with
the level in the organisation: the higher the level in an organisation, the greater the degree of
aggregation and synthesis. At times, particularly as lower levels, information must necessarily
contain a lot of detail if it is to be useful, although the general rule of minimum possible detail
for coherence with efficient information use should be followed. Given the need to be concise
and to direct attention to where it is required, reports often purposely highlight items whose
performance deviates significantly from a fixed standard or budget. An example of this type of
report is seen in the accounting technique of budgetary control in which actual expenditure,
measured item by item, is compared with the budgeted or desired expenditure. Small variations
in these reports may be accepted, but differences exceeding tolerance levels are highlighted.
These exceptions are presented to managers, thus enabling them to carry out their control
function more quickly.
7. Comprehension
Comprehension is what transforms data into information. If the information is not
understood it cannot be used and therefore it cannot add value. Many factors intervene in
understanding information:
– User preferences. Some people prefer information in graphs or charts, while others prefer a
narrative description. Some prefer presentations with statistics and figures, while others do not
understand them. Research has shown that some people assimilate specific facts in detail,
whereas others evaluate the overall picture without paying attention to the finer points.
Inevitably, these variations mean that the same message can be interpreted in different ways.
– Previous knowledge. Comprehension is the result of memory in association with the received
message.
– Environmental factors. Group pressure, available time and trust in the information system all
influence comprehension.
– Language. Information is codified in signs or messages.
8. Information needs
We live in a world of information. Every day potential readers are presented with a
multitude of books, journals and newspapers. However, human capacity is limited and we can
absorb only a tiny amount of all this information. There are no clear procedures to help us to
identify all information of interest quickly. Information needs refer to the information required
to take decisions correctly and to carry out the tasks deriving from them.
1.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Information is an essential, strategic resource that can be obtained from numerous sources.
In this section, we distinguish between internal information relating to the environment within
the company, and information about its external environment. Many of the data captured by
information systems refer to the functioning of the organisation and are used to produce internal
information. This internal information provides management with knowledge about how the
company is functioning and whether or not it is achieving its objectives. Most internal
information comes from the accounting system and statistical analyses (sales, production, etc.).
Other internal information sources such as surveys and interviews with company members
provide quantitative information on, for instance, workers’ motivation levels or other indicators
that are not easily quantified.
Company managers also need information on the environment: sales volume of their most
direct competitors, potential client segments for the company’s product lines, geographical
distribution of its shareholders, etc. A company can only be successful if it adapts to the
demands of its external environment. The environment is represented by a number of groups
that vary in their capacity to influence the company’s fulfilment of its objectives. Below, we
identify these interest groups and the different types of information about them that the company
requires:Customers: marketing, sales, levels of satisfaction.
– Distributors: marketing and logistics (distribution).
– Competitors: market penetration, innovations, product quality.
– Suppliers: transaction conditions.
– Trade unions: salaries and employment stability.
– Shareholders: company performance.
– Financial institutions: financial conditions and investment opportunities.
– Government: legal and political developments.
The company must be informed constantly about each of these external groups and, at the same
time, some of these groups (e.g., shareholders and the government) must also receive
information from the company.
Information on the environment can be obtained from the following sources:
– Personal information sources, which provide information through contact with sales staff,
customers, suppliers, distributors, bankers, etc.
– Impersonal information sources, which range from general publications (e.g., reports on the
current situation, bank and official entity reports, specialised journals) to specific studies (e.g.,
market research, opinion studies, consultants’ reports).
Functions of information
a. Improving/ increasing knowledge.
b. Reduction of uncertainty.
c. A control mechanism.
d. A means of communication
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UNIT 2: ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE
ORGANISATION
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the concept of information system
2. Know and understand the different information system components
3. State the functions of information system
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit talks about the essential aspect of information systems in the company. As we all
know that information systems within the company are very important for the smooth and
efficient running of the organization, therefore it is imperative for students to have the
knowledge of the various systems and how they interact within the organization.
2.1 MAIN CONTENT

2.1.2 THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION SYSTEM
All systems can be divided into subsystems. Because the company behaves as a system, its
different elements can be broken down into subsystems. According to the organisation theory
literature, the company can be divided into the following systems: commercial, operations,
financial, personnel, and information. The information system is related to all the other systems
and the environment. The purpose of the company’s information system is to gather the
information it needs and, following necessary transformations, ensure that it reaches the
members of the company who require it, whether for decision making, strategic control, or for
implementing decisions adopted by the company (Menguzzato and Renau, 1991). A manager’s
performance therefore depends on his or her skills in exploiting the information system’s
capacities in order to obtain positive business outcomes.
For the purposes of this chapter we adopt the definition of an information system given by
Andreu, Ricart and Valor (1991). According to these authors the information system is a formal
set of processes that, working from a collection of data structured depending to the company’s
needs, gathers, processes and distributes the information necessary for the company’s operations
and for its corresponding management and control activities, thereby supporting, at least in part,
the decision-making processes necessary for the company to perform its business functions in
line with its strategy.
This definition, therefore, only includes the formal information system, which is the part of
the information system that all the company’s members are familiar with and know how to use.
This does not mean that informal information systems are not important, but simply recognises
the limitation that they are, by their very nature, more difficult to study, plan and manage, at
least from a cohesive and holistic point of view. Informal information systems are not the result
of a designed process; rather they provide chance information. We must not, however, ignore
the existence of informal information channels, and the speed and efficiency with which they
can operate, on occasions spreading rumours through the organisation more quickly than
information that follows the standard channels.
The above definition refers to the functions and strategies of the company; by this, we aim
to transmit the idea that a company’s information system must serve its business approach. In
the end, the information system is only one of the many elements that the company designs and
uses to achieve its objectives, and as such, it must be explicitly coordinated in line with these
objectives.
To complete this definition of an information system, we now attempt to clear up any

confusion between information system and computer system. The computer system consists of a
complex interconnection of numerous hardware and software components, which are essentially
determinist, formal systems in that specific input always gives the same output. Information
systems are social systems whose behaviour is largely influenced by the objectives, values and
beliefs of individuals and groups and by the performance of technology. The way an information
system behaves is not determinist and does not follow the representation of any formal
algorithmic model.
Today’s company information systems have to deal with a huge quantity of data and
provide information structured in different ways to multiple decision makers in the company.
The role of the computer system is therefore vital to the company’s information system. Given
the major role of information systems, we believe that today’s organisations cannot be
efficiently and effectively managed without information systems that incorporate a series of
information technologies. Information technology has therefore become a fundamental aspect in
managing both small and large companies and enables them to seek out competitive advantages.
But an information system is more than just a computer system. It is inseparable from the
organisation-environment system, and in the decision-making process we cannot expect that all
the necessary information will be predetermined, formalised and computerised. Information
circulates throughout the whole organisation like a current flowing through formal and informal
channels and both horizontally and vertically. The information system is the organisational
structure that has to manage these information flows with the maximum efficiency and
effectiveness in order for the company to carry out its functions in accordance with its business
plan or strategy.
The essence of every information system is that it provides the means by which the
necessary information is delivered at the right moment and with the right structure to the
members of the company who require it, whether for taking decisions, for strategic control or for
implementing decisions that have been adopted. Most of the problems that arise within business
information systems are related to organisational, social or human factors rather than technical
problems, which are quite scarce. Managers should therefore focus on the appropriate strategic
and tactical application of their information systems.
2.2 INFORMATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Information systems comprise hardware and software, telecommunications, databases, human
resources and procedures (García Bravo, 2000).
2.2.1 Hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the
monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic
cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that
can be touched.
– Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data and
control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information
appliance. Input device translate data from form that humans understand to one that the
computer can work with. Most common are keyboard, mouse, touch screen, scanner, cameras,
webcam etc.
– Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into human readable form. Examples include
monitor, printers, plotters, projector, LCD projection panels, speakers etc.
Nowadays all companies use computers, usually personal computers (pcs). Large organisations
employ diverse computer systems including mainframes, minicomputers and most commonly,
pcs. However, recent advances in the technical specifications of pcs now means that they
perform many of the tasks initially done by minicomputers, and the difference between these
two categories is becoming increasingly blurred. The three computer types have a similar
arrangement. The component controlling all the system’s units is the central processor, which
carries out the instructions given by a program. Other devices are used to introduce data
(keyboard and mouse) and produce the system’s output (printers).
2.2.2 SOFTWARE
Computer software comprises a set of machine readable instructions that directs a computers
processor to perform specific operations.
Qualities of a good software
1. Usability
2. Efficiency
3. Portability
4. Reusability
5. Maintainability
6. Security
7. Reliability
8. Understandability
9. Completeness
10. Correctness
Classification of Software
1. System Software
System Software is a type of computer software that controls the operation of the computer and
provides facilities that extend the general capabilities of the machine. This provides the basic
functions for computer usage and helps to run the computer hardware and system. It includes a
combination of the following
A. Operating system
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. This is the most important type of system software in a computer. A
user can’t run an application program on the computer except it is self booting without the
operating system.
Functions of an operating system

a. The operating system controls all operations within the computer itself
b. The operating system controls the operation of all other software, such as the application
software
c. The operating system controls the operation of all the other hardware connected to the computer
d. The operating system provides system security.
e. The operating system provides the graphical user interface between the user and the computer.
B. Utility Program
This is system software designed to help analyse, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It
performs a variety of general functions on the computer such as copying files, sorting data on
files and checking for viruses.
C. Communication Software
Communication software controls the transmission of data within a computer network making it
possible to send and receive data over media such as telephone lines and fibre optic cables.
2. Programming tools and language translators
Programming tools are software that assist programmers with writing programs. Software is
written in a programming language such as Java, which is used in the development of internet
applications. Programs written in a particular programming language have to be translated into a
binary coded form that the computer can understand. The translation of coded programs is done
by translation software.
3. Application Software
Although system software has the vital job of controlling and managing the computer, it is the
application software that lets you carry out the tasks for which the system was purchased. It
enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks. Business software, databases and
educational software are some forms of application software.
2.2.3 DATABASES
Many company information systems are used as a vehicle for delivering databases. A
database is a collection of interrelated data, such as an organisation’s human resource or product
databases.
The customer database is extremely valuable to the company since it can be used to
inform clients of new products or to develop new products that meet their needs. A database
must be organised so it can be accessed according to its content; for example an order may be
given to retrieve the names and addresses of customers that were invoiced for totals in excess of
one million in the previous year. Databases are managed by software systems known as database
management systems (dbms).
2.2.4 TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunications are the means by which information is transmitted electronically
over long distances. Nowadays, computer systems are generally connected by
telecommunications networks. Various network connections are available to suit the needs of
different companies. In a small company, pcs are connected by local area networks (LAN),
enabling their users to communicate and share data, tasks and equipment. Wide area networks
(WAN) are used to connect computers at greater distances, either within the company or in a
different location. Internet, the ‘network of networks’, links up an immense variety of networks
from diverse fields worldwide. These connections enable pc users to access the company’s
databases and other computerised resources.
2.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE INFORMATION SYSTEM

Companies or organisations develop information systems to help to perform the tasks they are
specifically designed to do. For instance, a hospital will have a medical records system, police
departments will hold criminal records, all companies will have a payroll system, supermarkets
will use inventory systems, offices will have office automation systems, etc.
All information systems carry out a series of functions that may be classified as follows:
– Data capture and collection.
– Storage.
– Information processing.
– Distribution or dissemination of information.
1. Data capture and collection

This function consists of capturing both external (related to the environment) and internal
(generated within the company) information and sending it through the communication system
to the entities within the information system responsible for organising it to avoid duplication
and useless information (noise). The person or people who capture the information will depend
on what type of company they work for. Sales staff, purchasers, managers at different levels in
the hierarchy or members of the company in direct contact with organisations in the
environment can all act as information gatherers. The data capture and collection process should
be more intense in the areas or sectors of the environment and the company that are subject to
the greatest changes. Once the information has been collected and filtered, and redundant
information removed, it is stored.
2. Storage
The following questions require an answer:
a. How should information be stored? By classifying it according to a particular criterion or at
different points.
b. What type of system should be used to store information? The system can vary from the
traditional filing system to a computer processed database. The use of one system or another
will depend on the amount of data to be stored, how frequently it will be used, the number of
users and whether or not access is restricted.
c. How should the user access to the stored information be managed? The information may be
stored in different services and departments, or in a single location to which all users have
access. The company will decide which of these two options is most appropriate, depending on
how specific the information is. Access to or retrieval of the information can take many forms;
for example passwords may be used to access a database, enabling only authorised personnel to
access the information when required.
3. Information processing
The purpose of information processing is to transform the stored information into useful
information that will be meaningful to the person who requires it. This is a key function of all
information systems. Information processing is essentially carried out by the computer
subsystem. The spectacular development of computers has meant that on the one hand, the
volume of stored and processed data is constantly increasing, and on the other hand, the falling
cost of hardware has led to a generalised use of computers.
4. Distribution and dissemination of information
Not only must the information system provide the information each user requires, but it must
also disseminate information to other people within the company. Different members of the
company need to be aware of certain information about the company and the environment in
order to respond more quickly and efficiently to everyday situations that require problems to be
solved or decisions to be taken.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Today’s information system comprising of computer software, hardware, databases, data and
telecommunication devices is having tremendous impact on organizations and business
operations such that offices can no longer afford to ignore them.
These impacts are pervasive and ever increasing, influencing and controlling the business world.
Organisations must align themselves with these changes to remain relevant in the work place
and to take advantage of technologies for individual corporate interest and also for
organizational effectiveness and productivity where they have managerial control.
REFERENCES
1. ICAN Study Pack (Management Information System)
UNIT 3: INFORMATION SYSTEM CATEGORIES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Know the different categories of information system
2. Know the functions of the different categories of information system
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Given the complexity of information processing and the varying degrees or levels into
which data and processes can be structured, depending on the problem or issue, several
categories of information systems are required to deal with all the organisation’s information
needs.
3.1 MAIN CONTENT
Different types of information systems must be developed to meet the whole gamut of
information needs in a company: systems for processing transactions, management information
systems and decision support systems (Arjonilla and Medina, 2007). The various information
system categories remain coherent through their integration in a common data architecture.
3.1.1 TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPS)

Transaction processing systems are the cornerstones of a company’s information system
and compile their daily business operations. Many companies cannot operate without this type
of system. As operations are carried out in the company, transaction processing systems gather,
process and store data and reflect business transactions such as sales, purchases, payments, etc.
Transaction processing systems are the most defined or structured information processes in the
organisation, automating the central core of its operations. Their purpose is to improve the
company’s routine activities. The most common transactions include invoicing, payrolls,
production and reception of orders. Companies aim to carry out these activities quickly,
systematically and efficiently. All these activities are carried out at the operative level in any
organisation and have similar common characteristics:
– These operations are repeated many times in companies.

– The way these transactions are carried out is very similar in all companies.
– The activities can be separated into well understood stages (procedures) that can be described in
detail.
– There are very few exceptions to the standard procedures
The above characteristics allow routines to be established for managing transactions. The
large volume of transactions at an organisation’s operational level leads many companies to try
and develop more efficient and effective ways of processing the data generated through this type
of activity.
Transaction processing systems are faster and more accurate than the manual procedures
used to perform the same routine activities. A transaction processing system replaces manual
procedures with computer-based procedures to perform well structured routine tasks.
3.2 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MIS)

These can be defined as information systems that provide information for users with similar
needs. The main purpose of Management Information Systems is to provide managers with the
information they need to take decisions and solve problems. Management Information Systems
are supported by corporate databases, which include data generated by transaction processing.
Every organization has to take decisions on many issues that arise on a regular basis, whether
weekly, monthly, or quarterly, for which certain information is required. One example is the
monthly breakdown of sales figures on a client by client basis. Because the decision-making
processes are clearly defined, the information needed to take decisions can easily be identified.
An administrative information system can therefore prepare regular reports on which to base
these decisions; these reports are prepared and presented in a previously designed format. Thus,
these systems provide support for structured decisions, since administrators know beforehand
which factors should be taken into account in the decision-making process and the Management
Information System provides clearly structured reports with all the necessary information to take
these structured decisions.
The content of these reports can be enhanced by including the concept of management by
exception. In this case, the information processor compares real performance with previously
established standards, and when performance falls outside acceptable limits, the manager’s
attention is drawn to the fact. Management by exception can be incorporated into Management
Information System reports in four ways:
3. by preparing a report only when exceptions occur
4. by using the report’s sequence function to highlight exceptions. The report’s entries can be
arranged in ascending or descending order, according to one or more key areas, such that entries
requiring greater attention appear at the top of the list. For example, a sales report could be
arranged in descending order of sales for each client during a specific time period; clients
purchasing the largest volumes would therefore appear first. Another example would be sales
volumes per item, in which an ascending order would place the products with the lowest sales
volumes in a given period at the top of the list, thereby alerting the user to least successful items.
5. by grouping exceptions together. In this case, the reports are prepared so the user can find
exceptions in certain areas according to a particular criterion. For example, a report could
present clients’ outstanding invoices in columns arranged by due date, either within one month,
over 30 days, over 60 days or over 90 days. This makes it easy for managers to identify
outstanding invoices for specific periods in a single column.
6. by showing deviation from the norm. Results of actions are compared with forecast actions and
any difference is presented as a deviation. For example, a report could compare data on real
product sales by geographical area with sales forecasts and present the difference in the
deviations column.
In the 1960s attempts were made to develop an information system that would
automatically meet all the company’s information needs by means of an administrative
information system known as the MIS (Management Information System). The MIS represented
a formal commitment by executives to make IT available to all managers. The idea of the MIS
was to maintain a continuous flow of information to managers.
The environment is represented at the top of the figure, the central section represents the
company management and the company’s various subsystems, and MIS appears in the bottom
section. Information and data flow from the environment to company management and to the
MIS. In addition, management sends information and data to the MIS (MIS inputs), which are
processed by information processors specially designed to provide output in the form of
documents and reports to management groups at strategic, tactical and operational levels, as well
as to the environment. The database contains data from the accounts information system and
also incorporates data from the environment.
Managers define the company’s objectives, and set targets, plans and standards. These
plans and standards provide another type of input to the MIS, establishing the bases on which
control and feedback can operate.
The software uses the database to produce its regular reports. The mis output should be
relevant information sent in the right way to the right person at the right moment. This
information must be carefully selected to help the decision-making processes at strategic,
technical and operational levels (management). This output is used by those responsible for
resolving the company’s problems.
This information is normally compiled in:

a. Strategic level reports to provide managers with the information they need to plan activities such
as defining and reviewing the company’s objectives, setting long-term targets (more than three
years) and establishing company policies.
b. Tactical (and status) situation reports to enable management to draw up new or revised short-
term plans (from 1 to 3 years) on a continual basis, and to perform their planning and control
functions efficiently so that the subsystems can be properly coordinated.
c. Operational reports with daily information to keep managers fully informed of the company’s
current situation, thus enabling them to carry out their control functions. In addition, much of
the information the company sends to the environment is provided by the MIS in the form of
invoices to clients, and salary and tax payments.
Because the MIS hosts an information system structured in accordance with certain
previously determined decisions, it cannot be used to make decisions when an unexpected
problem arises. The idea behind the MIS is to help interpret the information needed to take
previously defined decisions, and particularly at the strategic level, information needs are not
easily identified.
Given the limitations of an information system like the mis in supporting nonprogrammed
decisions, information system designers needed to look at the problem from a completely
different angle (Menguzzato and Renau, 1991). Rather than being structured from the
perspective of the person who interprets predetermined information needs, the information
system should be conceived to give the greatest possible flexibility to the decision maker. In this
way, instead of previously establishing what type of decisions are to be taken, information
should be arranged according to its origin and type, based on decision-makers’ general
knowledge, so the necessary information is available to them when they have to take a decision.
The design of the company’s database is therefore crucial: it must enable information to be used
rationally, and must allow the information system to be properly integrated. The company
database must be flexible enough to be structured according to the particular needs of different
decision-makers. This reveals the need for more interactive systems that help the decision maker
to take non-structured or only slightly structured decisions.
3.3 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS)

Not all company decisions are recurrent, and some have to be taken infrequently or perhaps
only once. Decision support systems provide a tool to deal with less precisely structured or
defined problems that arise sporadically. DSS help managers who have to take non-structured
decisions. A decision is understood to be non structured if there are no clear procedures in place
to take the decision, and it is not possible to identify beforehand all the factors that need to be
considered in the decision.
It must be said that all information systems support decision making, even if only
indirectly. DSS have been expressly developed to support the decision making process. These
systems facilitate dialogue with the user when he or she is considering alternative solutions to a
problem, and the system provides database access and models constructed to present
information.
Decision support systems are interactive, and aim to expand human reasoning capacity to
resolve specific non-structured decision-making problems (Gil, 1997). This type of system
focuses on the decision-making processes and must provide relevant facts relating to the
decision easily, quickly and accurately It must also offer interactive access to processing media
that can be used creatively and that allow the user to explore a range of alternatives, and provide
the information necessary to respond to the problem. When managers use a dss, they consider a
number of possible scenarios by asking “What would happen if...?” For example, a manager
who is deciding what price to set for a new product can use the marketing area of the decision
support system. The system will have a model that combines various factors such as product
price, the cost of materials, advertising costs, all of which affect profit forecasts for product
sales over a five-year period. By varying the price of the product in the model, the manager can
compare forecast results and select a price accordingly.
Unlike administrative information systems, decision support systems can help to make
decisions for which a procedure cannot be fully programmed in a computer. To this end, some
of the dependent relations between factors and their consequences are shown by computer
models, and value judgements are introduced when the manager interacts with the system.
Spreadsheets, which can help to manage data by representing them in columns and rows in a
table, are frequently used to construct simple decision support systems.
The main purpose of decision support systems is to help the decision maker in the decision-
making process. Unlike transaction processing systems and administrative information systems,
DSS are not structured or formalised, since they are generally used for ad hoc processes and
therefore they need to be flexible and adaptable. The key aspect of a DSS is that it supports
decision making in situations where computer data processing capacity is needed in conjunction
with the criteria or rationale of the decision maker.
The main emphasis of DSS lies in its support function, and not the automation of decisions.
The computer’s task is to provide access to data and offer the chance to test alternative
solutions, but it must not replace the manager’s criteria. In other words it does not attempt to
offer responses or impose a sequence of predefined analyses; rather it is the user who chooses
how to tackle the problem and in the final instance, takes the decision.
A DSS uses data from the organisation’s transaction processing system and administrative
information system as well as data from external sources. In fact, the data required to generate
information can come from a range of sources, not only the database as in the case of the
transaction processing system and the administrative information system. Moreover, a dss can
store and later reprocess previously obtained data. The user interacts with the system by making
requests, creating or modifying models to adapt them to variations and to help understand the
problem, managing data and designing the format and content of reports, which may include
text, structured information or figures.
In using these systems it is essential to determine what information is necessary. In well
structured situations this information can be identified beforehand, but this becomes
complicated in non- structured environments. Once the manager has certain information, he or
she may realise that more information is necessary; in other words certain information reveals a
need for further information.
In these cases neither the format nor the content of the system’s reports can be designed
previously. Decision support systems must therefore be more flexible than transaction
processing systems or administrative information systems. The user must be able to define the
content of each report he or she wants. The manager’s own criteria therefore play an important
role in taking decisions on non-structured problems. While dss help managers, they are no
substitute for the manager’s own criteria. One example of a non-structured decision is the
decision banks had to take over whether or not to install atms. They had to calculate the cost of
both manual and automatic services, the degree of customer acceptance, their competitors’
response, etc.
3.4 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (EIS)

DSS mainly support planning tasks, whereas the essential feature of the powerful EIS tool
is their support for control activities. An executive who uses an EIS has a greater capacity to
analyse all aspects of the company’s operations and to seek out problems and opportunities.
Since companies timidly began to adopt Information Technologies (it), there has been a
growing conviction that it cannot easily be applied to managerial tasks: the more complex and
ambiguous the activity is, the less useful computer-based tools prove to be.
This conviction can easily be verified in the real business context. Computers are now widely
used by administrative staff and increasingly by middle management. However, the image of a
general manager of a large company busily working in front of a computer screen does not
easily spring to mind. A top-level executive’s daily routine is inevitably assumed to be a round
of meetings, telephone calls, conferences, conversations, business lunches, etc. Research shows
that the executive’s activity is more oriented to verbal communication, and highly analytical
reports and documents are relatively unimportant (Rockart and Treacy, 1982). However, there is
a widespread interest in linking up high-level management with computer tools.
3.5 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (EIS): CONCEPT AND

CHARACTERISTICS
An EIS can be understood as a computer-based information system designed specifically
for use by top-level company managers, providing internal and external information that they
can use as a support in performing their work. Although definitions of EIS vary, there is a
general consensus on the characteristics they all share, which we now detail below:
a) Capacity to access and manage information: EIS must gather the internal and external
information that is relevant to the executive, and must therefore be able to access and manage
information from a range of sources and in different formats, and handle quantitative and
qualitative, structured and non-structured information. An EIS provides direct access to
information without the need for intermediaries.
b) Presentation of information: The information must be presented to the user in a meaningful
and manageable way, which involves combining data from different sources in the same report
or on the same screen, and filtering and condensing a wide range of information. As well as its
capacity to aggregate information, an EIS must also allow the executive to explore more deeply
and obtain additional more detailed information on a specific aspect if he or she considers it
necessary. The presentation of information must be adapted to the user’s personal preferences,
for example by offering choices on how the system can alert the executive to deviations in any
variable.
c) Orientation to Critical Success Factors (csf): The EIS must provide information on key
business variables, and must be flexible enough to adapt to possible changes occurring in the
business, guaranteeing that the system remains oriented to critical success factors. For this
reason, the design of the EIS must allow for constant evolution. The EIS must be able to
accurately determine the user’s information needs in order for it to have the right orientation; to
a large extent, its success or failure depends on this capacity.
d) Capacity for communication and time organization: An EIS must also act as a support for
communication, through electronic mail, and in organising the executive’s work in the diary or
calendar that usually comes with the system.
e) Ease of use: These systems must match the user’s profile, in this case, people who do not
usually have any it training and moreover do not have the time to acquire it. This means that
they must be easy to use and allow direct, intuitive access to their features. The EIS learning
curve should be no longer than a few minutes.
EIS are one of the most promising tools that technology has made available to companies.
They allow an executive to understand and analyse the forces acting in the company and in the
market without moving from his or her own desk. Executives can use EIS in two ways: to read
information about the current situation and forecasted trends, and as a tool to perform
personalised analysis. Executives use EIS in two completely different ways: a) to access
information on the current situation and on foreseeable business trends; and b) to perform
personalised analyses of available data.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Information system do not evolve, they are developed. The deployment of computers in systems
development should be carried out intelligently as developers must make reasoned choices
among various approaches in the use of computers. Each of these approaches will result in
different technical formations and cost/benefit projections. The developers should also take into
account the human resources framework in which these systems will be used.
REFERENCES
2. ICAN Study Pack (Management Information System)
MODULE 3: OFFICE AUTOMATION
UNIT 1: Meaning of Office Automation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Explain automation
2. Identify the characteristics of office automation
3. Enumerate the goals of office automation
4. State the obstacles to the growth of office automation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Office automation is a broadly used term and it represents a new profession, a new
integration of technologies and a new perception of the potential of information tools available
to man. It is primarily based on two factors: computers and communication technology. The
computer is moving from being an independent system to a component embedded in a whole
range of office devices. Communication technology integrates these devices and people. It
provides an effective communications infrastructure. So, office automation is the use of various
technologies (e.g. computer and telecommunication) to simplify and support routine office
functions, improve communication, increase office productivity and enhance the quality of
clerical output. Many office tasks including preparation of reports and correspondence,
communications, file maintenance, duplication and distribution of written materials, can be
facilitated and improved through word processing and other office automation techniques.
1.1 MAIN CONTENT
1.1.2 Meaning of Office Automation
Office automation is a widely used term today. It generally means the application of
computer and communication technology to improve the productivity of "knowledge workers".
Office automation involves the use of computers, in conjunction with other electronic-
equipment to automate the basic secretarial and clerical tasks of office.
It is a conglomerate of various technologies intended to improve the efficiency of office work by
replacing the routine clerical secretarial and paper-based tasks with computer based equipment.
It refers to the use of sophisticated electronic equipment and communication systems to carry
out the "electronic tasks". The tasks include:
– Text processing,
– Data processing,
– Information storage,
– Information retrieval and updating,
– Message distribution,
– Document transmission and reproduction,
– Teleconferencing.
Basic office automation consist of word processors connected to one another by means of a local
area network. Office automation should be designed as a multifunction information system to
provide executives decision support tools such as:
– On-line access to databases,
– Model building and forecasting,
– Risk analysis,
– Sophisticated graphics,
– Integration of data and text,
– Data communication.
Some office automation systems go far beyond the function of providing word processing on
networks. PCs or workstations are connected to a network. Office automation supports a large
number of software packages that could be used as decision support tools. Important ones are:
– Word processor,
– Database management systems,
– Electronic spreadsheets,
– Graphics packages,
– Electronic mail systems
1.2 Application area of office automation system

Some of the application areas of office automation system are:
1. Word Processing: This involves hardware and software tools that allow the computer to
behave like a typewriter.
2. Desktop Publishing: This refers to technologies used to send messages or documents from
one electronic work station to another. Its uses in business include facsimile, voice mail and
electronic-mail box.
3. Electronic Mail: This refers to technologies used to send message or document from one
electronic work station to another. Its uses in business include facsimile, voice mail and
electronic-mail box.
4. Teleconferencing: This refers to the holding of meetings among people who are at
physically different sites. The types of teleconferencing are Video and Audio-teleconferencing.
5. Desktops Organizers: These are software packages that provide users with electronics
equivalent of organizing and coordinating tools likely to be found on an office desk. Tools such
as calendar, card file, notepad, clock and calculator are examples.
6. Archival Storage: This refers to offline storage used for historical and longtime storage of
materials. Some common technologies used to store archival materials are magnetic tape and
compact disc.
1.3 Goals of office Automation

The goals of office automation may be expressed in terms of:
1. Greater Efficiency
The use of computers and other office automation technologies on large scale has made
prices lower by 10 to 30 percent and often much more than they would be without computers.
The use of office automation technologies improves productivity i.e. the amount of goods or
services that individuals and machines can produce in a given time period. These productivity
gains can lead to (i) a stronger competitive position and (ii) higher levels of real income for an
increased number of individuals. So, office automation brings speed and efficiency to all types
of office work. Improved efficiency leads to greater profitability and at the same time creates
good images in the minds of the people who deal with office.
2. Better Service
Offices use office automation technologies to improve the service they provide to
customers, clients, patients etc. For example, Computer processing techniques and office
automation tools make possible:
– shorter waiting lines at airline ticket offices and at the reservation desks of hotels, motels and
car-rental agencies
– faster and more accurate answers to the inquiries of people served by the offices
– more convenient handling of purchase transactions through the use of credit cards
– more efficient customer service and control in retail outlets.
Thus, office automation provides better service and help to improve the quality of work done in
the office.
3. Better Accuracy
If a data processing operation is strained to and beyond the capacity for which it was
originally planned, inaccuracies begin to appear and the control of official activities suffers.
Computer processing, becomes quite accurate if the task to be performed are properly prepared.
So, office automation ensures better accuracy. Chances of errors are almost eliminated. Thus
work goes on smoothly and bottlenecks and delays are eliminated.
4. Demanding for Timeliness
Timeliness of information is of great importance to all offices and organizations for
decision making. For example, timely announcement of promotion, timely information about
training opportunities, timely modification of staff lists and their addresses, timely payment to
customer and so on, avoid many serious problems. For an administrator, timely information may
help him to take timely decisions and actions and prevent undesirable consequences. Only office
automation can perform these and provide timely information.
5. Facility in Control
Office automation facilitates the task of mangers. Office automation helps managers to
exercise better degree of control over their subordinates. Certain office automation tools allow
for minimization of fraud in the accounting department.
6. Facilitates Standardization of Office Routines
Office automation helps to facilitate standardization of office routines and procedures.
Standardization of office routines facilitates better coordination of works.
7. Relieving Monotony
Office automation reduces the monotony of carrying out repetitive processes which are
boring and time consuming. The office worker is thus relieved of mental tensions of going
through same process again and again by using office automation tools and technologies.
8. Prevention of Fraud
Computer and office automation tools are more reliable than man. A man can deceive cheat
but a computer works on its own motion. So, for the prevention of fraud, office automation is a
must.
9. Better Information Retrieval

A New-York surgeon contacted a medical library when a near-term pregnant woman lapsed
into a hepatic coma. He needed immediate information on exchange blood transfusion for
woman. Using a computer terminal and a retrieval program, the librarian searched more than a
half million medical documents in a few minutes to get information needed by the surgeon to
perform an emergency blood transfusion. The patient recovered fully from hepatitis. Most
information retrieval tasks obviously do not involve life or death decision; but quick computer
assisted retrieval can save time and aggravation for many individuals. So, office automation
ensures better information retrieval.
10. Lower Operating
Cost Operating cost per hour of work declines with the use of office automation
technologies. For example, a PC can help a manager budget and balance his check book, control
his installment purchases, control his home's energy use and analyze his investment. Of course,
there is no doubt that office automation technologies require a large amount of initial capital
investment. However, now-a-days, office automation prove beneficial. The costs of electronic-
office equipment have been falling rapidly in recent years. Executives are now more receptive to
the idea of investing in new office automation technology to reduce rising labour costs and
improve productivity.
11. Reduction in Paper Work
Paper based office work is certainly costly. It is not due to the increasing cost of paper but
due to the procedure involved in preparing reports and letters. First, a letter is dictated (or
written by hand). Then it is typed (draft), proofread and delivered to the executive. After
corrections and alternations, the process is repeated again till it is approved. Office workers use
to output written documents on paper - a physical medium that (i) takes space, (ii) requires
postage for mailing or effort for delivering, (iii) often gets stored in file cabinets that is space
consuming, (iv) requires additional work to update and destroy. So, finding no other way,
managers are trying to reduce paper work to minimize the cost and improve office productivity.
Only office automation provides a number of ways for accomplishing these through the use of
office automation technologies such as computer processing, distributed data processing, e-mail,
and teleconferencing etc.
12. Improved Communication Environment
Studies shows that a lot of office activities involve the communication of information to
others. For example, more than half of a typical manager's time is spent communicating in
meetings, phone calls, letters and memos. Secretaries and office staff support these
communication efforts by taking messages, drafting documents, planning meetings and
documenting verbal agreements. A key ingredient of office automation is the ability to
communicate easily relevant data and information to every worker who needs it. It has obvious
superiority in certain respects over traditional channels for business communication. The postal
service can be slow, letters are sometimes lost, and the mail usually takes long time. Telephone
calls require both senders and receiver to be on the line at he same time. Hand written memos
depend on some internal distribution process and are easily lost in the shuffle of paper. To avoid
all these drawbacks, a whole array of advanced communications, including email, Internet,
voice mail, facsimile transmission, local area network, teleconferencing, are now being offered
by a modern automated office.
Obstacles to the growth of office automation

The problems which can obstruct the growth of office automation are as follows :
– Monotonous job specialization can lead to boredom, frequent errors, high personnel turnover
and high training cost.
– People may be unable to locate records in large files because the records may have been stored
under a number of different classification schemes.
– Cost associated with storing and duplicating documents within an organization or office, as well
as the cost of preparing and mailing documents are often very high.
– Wrong management approach for a particular office.
– Poor selection of equipment relative to the employee's skill levels.
– Some argue that automated office will trend to dominate our lives as a society as individuals.
– On the economic front, the pessimists argue, more people will be displaced and then
unemployed as the advances in technology are accelerated.
– Some administrators have lost their job or have suffered a loss of status and prestige when office
automation systems were installed, and others have suffered anxiety at being forced to give up
familiar surroundings and procedures and to learn new techniques.
– Clerical employees, for example, have often been displaced by computers and production
employees are being threatened (or sometimes displaced) by the rapidly increasing use of office
automation technologies or computer controlled machines.
– System miscalculation have also victimized individuals.
– Individuals may temporarily feel threatened by a change and reaction may be evidenced by open
opposition and even destruction . Besides these, the following symptoms may be found, these
are-
 withholding a data and information,
 providing inaccurate information,
 distrusting computer outputs,
 showing lowered morale.
– The lack of control over office automation system security has resulted in :
 economic loss, i.e. theft of money and goods,
 misrepresentation of facts,
 system penetration and espionage,
 a loss of privacy for individuals,
 inconvenience,
 and dehumanization.
CONCLUSION
Office automation is a completely new way of perceiving the interaction between technology,
people and functions. It provides a mixture of potential benefits and potential hazards. In order
to reap the benefits over the hazards, the technology should be carefully selected and integrated
with the people. Office automation is the collective term for the various technologies that have
simplified, accelerated, organized and improved the quality of tasks such as typing, filing,
conferencing, message exchange and generating, and distributing documents.
SUMMARY
This unit examined the definition of automation and office automation projects. Automation is a
means of using computer technology to speed up the performance of existing tasks. The data
processing manager has the technical know-how, but he doesn’t necessarily have the
management skills and knowledge to understand how automation affects working arrangement
in the office, the style or structure of the organization and attitude of personnnel.
4. Pitts, J &Radebaugh (2018). Principles of Information Technology Management.
New York: Laudon & Laudon.
Concept+Designs& Prints.
UNIT 2: COMPUTER MAIL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Know voice mail systems and transmission of text
2. Learn what videotex is.
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit talks about computer mail systems and its components.
2.1 MAIN CONTENT
2.1.1 What is CMMS?
A computer mail/message system (CMMS) is a network that can store, transmit and
deliver electronic messages avoiding the usual postal services. CMMS is gaining popularity
among large organization and offices in advanced countries mainly due to two reasons :
 The cost of sending a message over a CMMS has been continuously decreasing. It is dropping
by 10 to 15 per cent every year.
 The postal service is relatively slow and messages get lost sometimes. When telephone is used
to convey a message, it is not certain that the message will reach the concerned person.
Message Distribution
A written message can be keyed into the system at any time for onward transmission.
The message is received and stored in the receiving system. The receiver reviews the stored
message at a time convenient to him. A visual display terminal is used to review the message.
The receiver can also obtain a hard copy, if required, on the printer and can send replies
immediately through the keyboard. Such systems are often referred to as "electronic mail
service" and the storage part of the receiving end as "electronic mail box".
Voice Mail System (VMS)

Voice mail systems function somewhat like an electronic mail box described above.
However, instead of holding a recorded written message, it holds a recorded voice message. The
caller establishes a connection between his/her phone and a computer and notifies the computer
that he/she wants to leave a message at a particular number. The caller then leaves the message
orally on the phone. The computer, in turn, converts the caller's oral message into a digital
signal and forwards it to the concerned destination. At the receiving end, the voice message is
recorded and stored until the receiver requests for it. The receiver, at any time convenient to
him, can hear the computerized reproduction of the caller's voice. The same voice message can
be sent to many people.
Transmission of Text
The conventional method of transmitting information in the form of text is through
the teleprinter exchange system called "telex". In this system, text is transmitted over
telecommunications lines between two terminals called teleprinters that look like typewriters.
After establishing connection with the distant terminal, text is keyed into the keyboard of the
sending-end terminal. The text is then transmitted over the lines to the receiving-end teleprinter
which prints out the message automatically. The telex system is extremely widespread and
found in almost every office.
These terminals may also be connected to computers to extend the use of computers to
various places of work in an organization. With the introduction of microprocessors, the
teleprinter terminals that are connected to computers are being replaced by the terminals with
display screen and processing power. The screen displays text as it is keyed in, enabling a visual
check before the input is transferred to the computer for onward transmission. Text is displayed
on the screen faster than by the teleprinter terminals. It is a silent operation.
Videotex
Videotex refers to the transmission system that uses a TV set to display text. The
development of videotex systems have led to the use of computer-based information services in
the home. There are two kinds of videotex systems, namely
 teletext and
 viewdata.
Teletext
It is the transmission of text on the normal television channels for display on TV sets.
This kind of service is popular in Britain. Both the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and
Independent Television (ITV) provide 'pages' of information on request by the viewer. The
request is made by keying in page numbers on a hand-held control unit (keypad) and within a
few seconds the requested page appears on the screen. Information covers topics such as travel,
weather details, financial news, stock exchange rates, consumer items, important news items and
special events of the day.
Viewdata
It is a more versatile type of computer-based information system. This system links
"viewdata terminals" to a central computer via telephone lines. The terminals are normally
modified television sets which can still receive usual TV signals. A word processor can also be
used as a terminal. Here again, information is transmitted as pages. A user requests for a page
and gets it on a screen or printer. If a word processor is used, the message can be stored for
future. The information is stored in the central viewdata computer and updated continuously.
Britain and United States are among the leading countries that provide viewdata service to
public. Viewdata service in Britain is popularly known as "Prestel". This service is provided by
the British Telecommunications and is based on a number of regional computers situated in
various parts of UK and a central computer in London. Information on Prestel is provided by
independent agencies who lease space on the system. Government departments, business and
industrial organizations and educational institutions are among the "Information Providers". In
US, a large number of private organizations offer viewdate service. A user can register with a
service company as a subscriber and can have access to the data bases maintained by the
company. Subscribers can also exchange messages between themselves.
The interactive capabilities of viewdata promise a host of services to the public. It is

possible to have electronic banking at home. A customer can get his bank account displayed on
his television screen, make payments for goods and services and transfer money to other
accounts or banks. Departmental stores use viewdata for providing "electronic shopping"
service. Shoppers view merchandise on the TV screens and then place their orders through their
home computers. Universities and educational institutions use viewdata for career guidance and
for details of educational courses and opportunities
Transmission of Pictures
Documents containing photographs, maps and drawings are transmitted using special
machines called facsimile machines.
Modem
MODEM means Modulator-DEModulator unit. A device that converts data from a
digital form that is compatible with data processing equipment (e.g. Computer) to analog form
that is compatible with certain transmission facilities and vice versa.
SUMMARY
This unit talks about the importance of computer messaging mail system within the
organization. A computer mail/message system (CMMS) is a network that can store, transmit
and deliver electronic messages avoiding the usual postal services.
UNIT 3: SALES FORCE AUTOMATION (SFA)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. State the advantages of SFA
2. State the disadvantages of SFA
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Sales-force automation (SFA) has offered technological support to sales people and
managers since the beginning of the 1990s. SFA is now so widely adopted in business-to-
business environments that it is seen as a ‘ competitive imperative ’ 1 that offers ‘ competitive
parity ’ . In other words, SFA is just a regular feature of the selling landscape. Salespeople are
found in a wide variety of contexts: in the field calling on business and institutional customers,
in offices, contact centres and call centres receiving incoming orders and making outbound sales
calls, in retail business-to-customer settings, in the street selling door-to-door, and even in the
home where party planners sell a variety of merchandise ranging from adult sex aids to cleaning
products. All these sales contexts deploy SFA in some form or other.
The SFA ecosystem is made up of three components: SFA solutions providers, hardware
and infrastructure vendors, and associated service providers. The technology enables companies
to collect, store, analyse, distribute and use customer-related data for sales purposes. Customer-
related data like this is the key to customer orientation 3 and the development of long-term
mutually beneficial relationships with customers. 4 SFA software from solutions providers
enables sales representatives and their managers to manage sales pipelines, track contacts and
configure products, among many other things. SFA software also provides reports for sales
representatives and managers. This chapter starts by defining the field and identifying members
of the SFA ecosystem.
3.1 MAIN CONTENTS

The term sales-force automation (SFA) can be defined as the application of
computerized technologies to support salespeople and sales management in the achievement of
their work-related objectives. Hardware and software are the key technological elements of
SFA. Hardware includes desktop, laptop and handheld devices and contact or call centre
telephony technology. Software comprises both ‘ point ’ solutions that are designed to assist in a
single area of selling or sales management, and integrated solutions that offer a range of
functionality. The integrated packages can be dedicated to sales-force applications only, or can
be incorporated into comprehensive CRM suites that operate over the three front-office areas of
marketing, service and sales. All SFA software is designed so that pertinent customer-related
data can be captured, stored, analysed and distributed to sales people and sales managers in
order for them to become more effective or efficient in the pursuit of their objectives.
3.2 THE SFA ECOSYSTEM

The SFA ecosystem consists of SFA solutions providers, hardware and infrastructure vendors,
and service providers.
3.3 SFA SOLUTIONS PROVIDERS

SFA solutions providers can be classified in a number of ways. Some are SFA specialists.
They compete against enterprise and mid-market CRM suites that include SFA modules, and
enterprise suite vendors that offer a full range of IT solutions to support business, including
supply chain management (SCM), enterprise resource planning (ERP) and customer relationship
management (CRM).
Some SFA specialists focus on particular areas of functionality within SFA. Selectica, for
example, builds customized configurators. A configurator is a software-based application engine
that allows companies to configure complex products and services based on predefined rules.
Sometimes, customers interact directly with configurators. For example, the Dell Computer
website allows customers to build their own personal computers (PCs). Configurators guide
users through the buying and specification process, offering only valid options and features at
each step. This can deliver benefits to customers, salespeople and management. Customers can
define and build their preferred customized solutions, reducing cost and meeting specifications.
Salespeople no longer need to master comprehensive product or service technical data, because
these are built into the engine. Training costs for salespeople are therefore reduced. The
potential for incorrectly specifying a solution for a customer is decreased. Configurators enable
mass customization. Many of the vendors offering SFA as part of broader CRM suites started
out as SFA specialists, for example Siebel and salesforce.com. These brands now offer a wide
range of marketing, service and sales automation.
3.4 HARDWARE AND INFRASTRUCTURE VENDORS
The performance requirements of SFA applications can create significant challenges for
both hardware and technology infrastructure. Whereas office-bound salespeople and sales
managers might be happy to use desktop or laptop computers, field sales representatives often
want lighter, handheld devices, such as Microsoft-based Windows Pocket PC, Palm Pilot or
Blackberry. Where companies have geographically dispersed external salespeople, SFA systems
must be able to operate out of the office and over the web. Mobile or wireless solutions are
necessary, as the data held on portable devices must be regularly synchronized with the central
database. SFA applications often need to integrate with a number of communication channels
which use different technologies(e.g. web, e-mail or telephone). In growing industries and
companies, SFA applications must be supported by hardware and infrastructure that can sustain
increased numbers of users.
3.5 SERVICES
The services component of the SFA ecosystem is very diverse. When a sales-force
automation project is undertaken, service costs may significantly add to overall project
expenditure. SFA project leaders might buy services from providers that re-engineer selling
processes, manage projects, train salespeople, consult on organizational structure or conduct
customer portfolio analysis. Service providers can contribute significantly both to SFA project
costs and to the probability of success. The hardware and software for a sales-force automation
project may account for between 10 and 50 per cent of the overall costs. The balance is made up
of service costs. Although some software vendor case studies suggest that payback is achievable
within days, many projects take between 12 and 24 months to implement, let alone to yield a
return. It has been suggested that the average implementation period is 21 months5 and that
users need over 100 hours experience with the systems before they could claim to have mastered
it.
3.6 SFA SOFTWARE FUNCTIONALITY

SFA applications offer a range of functionality. Not all solutions provide the full
complement of sales-related functionality. In the next few paragraphs, we’ll describe this
functionality in more detail.
1. Account Management
Account management offers sales representatives and managers a complete view of the
customer relationship including contacts, contact history, completed transactions, current orders,
shipments, enquiries, service history, opportunities and quotations. This allows sales
representatives and account managers to keep track of all their obligations in respect of every
account for which they are responsible, whether this is an opportunity to be closed, an order or a
service enquiry.
2. Activity Management
Activity management keeps sales representatives and managers aware of all activities, whether
complete or pending, related to an account, contact or opportunity, by establishing to-do lists,
setting priorities, monitoring progress and programming alerts. Activities include, for example,
preparation of quotations, scheduling of sales calls and following up enquiries.
3. Contact Management
Contact management functionality includes tools for building, sharing and updating contact lists,
making appointments, time setting, and task, event and contact tracking. Contact list data
includes names, phone numbers, addresses, preference data and e-mail addresses for people and
companies, as well as a history of inbound and outbound communications.
4. Contract Management
Contract management functionality enables representatives and managers to create, track,
progress, accelerate, monitor and control contracts with customers. Contract management helps
manage a contract’s lifespan by shortening approval cycles for contracts, renewing contracts
sooner and reducing administrative costs. The software may use security controls to ensure only
approved people have access to contracts.
5. Document Management
Companies generate and use many documents as they sell to customers, for example brochures,
product specifications, price lists, competitive comparisons and templates for preparing
quotations. Document management software allows companies to manage these documents,
keep them current and ensure that they are available to representatives and managers when
needed. Some systems allow all documents to be ‘attached’ to the account or contact, thus
facilitating faster and fuller recall of past interactions.
6. Event Management Software
This software enables representatives and managers to plan, implement, control and evaluate
events such as conferences, seminars, trade shows, exhibitions and webinars, whether run solo
or jointly with customers or other partners. Some events, such as conferences, can be very
complex and involve many stakeholders, such as sponsors, exhibitors, security partners, police,
accommodation partners, travel partners, catering partners, lighting and sound contractors,
speakers, invitees and the general public.
Indeed, some major events are planned many years in advance; you only need to consider
the Olympics or FIFA World Cup to appreciate the grand scale of some major events. Few, if
any, sales related events reach a comparable level of complexity, but events to which customers
and key partners are invited must run smoothly or the company risks being regarded as
unprofessional. Event management software contains a range of tools that can be useful to sales
managers and others organizing events. These include an event calendar, online registration,
partner management tools, event reports and analytics, attendee communication and
management tools, badge creation, activity lists for exhibitors and venue management tools.
7. Incentive Management
Incentive management is an issue for sales managers who use commissions to lift, direct
and reward sales representatives ’efforts. In many companies, commissions are calculated using
standalone spreadsheets. When part of a sales-force automation solution, incentive management
eliminates the need to re-enter or transfer data from spreadsheets, leading to better visibility,
accuracy and higher efficiency. Incentive management applications can be linked into back-
office payroll applications that automate payment.
8. Lead Management
Lead management allows companies to create, assign and track sales leads. Leads either
expire or convert into qualified opportunities. User-defined rules allow leads to be allocated to
representatives and account managers on the basis of role, territory, product expertise orother
variables. Lead management allows for more equitable workload distribution across a sales
team, and uses security controls to ensure that representatives can only access their own leads.
9. Opportunity Management
An opportunity is a record of a potential sale or any other type of revenue generation.
Opportunity management software enables representatives and managers to create an
opportunity record in the database and monitor progress against a predefined selling
methodology. Salespeople follow the steps as if following a checklist, ensuring that all
opportunities are handled consistently. Sales representatives can view their own opportunities
linked to additional information such as contacts, activities, products, proposals, projects,
presentations, quotations, competitors, estimated revenue, cost of sales, probability of closure,
sales stage and so on. Opportunity management functionality allows representatives to estimate
their future bonuses or commissions. Managers can then receive reports on the progress of
opportunities as they move towards closure, broken down by salesperson, territory, type, date or
other criteria.
10. Order Management
Order management functionality allows representatives to convert quotations and estimates
into correctly priced orders once a customer has agreed to buy. If this is done in front of a
customer, the order can be loaded into production or picked from a warehouse more quickly.
Order management software may include a quotation engine, a pricing module and a product
configurator. With visibility through a portal, the customer, representative and manager have
access to the same, up to date, order information.
3.7 ADVANTAGES OF SFA TO A SALES MANAGER –
1. SFA automatically present easy to understand tables, charts or graphs of information on call
sheet.
2. Activity reports, information request, order book and other information are sent more frequently.
3. Analyze automatically information using sophisticated statistical technique presenting the result
in a user friendly way.
4. Giving the sales manager very useful information.
II. TO MARKETING MANAGERS,
1. SFA gives information that is useful in understanding the economic structure of the industry.
2. Identify segment within the market.
3. Identifies target, identifies best customer in place.
4. Develops new products and others marketing manager duties.
III. TO THE COMPANY,
1. SFA create competitive advantage by increasing productivity.

2. Ensure effective time management of sales manager and staff.
3. Management response time reduced due to better communication with field sales staff thus
company become more alert and more agile.
4. Increase customer satisfaction which in turn lead to increased customer loyalty.
5. Reduced customer acquisition costs, reduced price elasticity of demand and.
6. Increase profit margins.
3.8 DISADVANTAGES OF SFA
1. Some users claim that it is difficult to work with b. Requires additional work i.e. inputting data.
2. Dehumanizes a process that should be personal.
3. Requires continuous maintenance, information updating and system upgrading. e. It is difficult
to integrate with other MIS
CONCLUSION
SFA Information system used in marketing and management that helps automate sales and sales
force management functions particularly in e- business environment.
SUMMARY
This unit explains SFA functions. It also discussed the advantages of SFA sales managers,
marketing managers as well as to the company. It discussed the disadvantages of SFA which
include difficult to work with; requires additional work i.e. inputting data, dehumanizes a
process that should be personal; requires continuous maintenance.
1. Morgan , A. and Inks , S.A. ( 2001 ) Technology and the sales forceIndustrial Marketing
Management , Vol. 30 ( 5 ) , pp. 463 – 472 .
2. Engle , R.L. and Barnes , M.L. ( 2000 ) Sales force automation usage, effectiveness, and cost-
, Vol. 15 ( 4 ) , pp. 216 – 242.
3. Lambe , C.J. and Spekman , R. ( 1997 ) National account management: large account selling or
buyer-seller alliance? Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management , Vol. 17 ( 4 ) ,
Fall , pp. 61 – 74 .
4. Grönroos , C. ( 2000 ) Service marketing and management: a customer relationship management
approach , 2nd edn. Chichester : John Wiley
5. Taylor , T.C. ( 1994 ) Valuable insights on sales automation progress . Sales Process
Engineering and Automation Review , December , pp. 19 – 21 .
6. Conner , K.R. and Rumelt , R.P. ( 1991 ) Software piracy: an analysis of protection strategies .
Management Science , Vol. 37 ( 2 ) , February, pp. 125 – 139
MODULE 4: SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
UNIT 1: COMPUTER SECURITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define computer security
1.0 MAIN CONTENT
1.1 COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security can be defined as the protection of systems from accidental or deliberate
threats that might cause unauthorized modification, disclosure or destruction as well as the
protection of information systems from degradation or non availability of services. Computer
security is concerned with protecting computer systems, computer files and databases from
external sources of damage. A breach of security may result into any of the followings.
1. Loss of confidentiality
2. Loss of availability of computer services through unscheduled interruption and breakdown.
3. Loss of integrity
Security measures must be proactive and reactive, sound in principle and effective in
operation. Security must be considered from two perspectives, namely; operation and
physical.
Operation Security has two purpose namely:

1. Prevention of unauthorized users to access or use data
2. Prevention of authorized users from misusing the data or damaging it through ignorance
1.2 COMPUTER SECURITY MEASURES
Computer security measures can be in the following ways:

1. Prevention
2. Proactiveness
3. Deterrence
4. Recovery
5. Correction
6. Physical Security
Prevention and Proactive measures include the following:
1. Precautionary measures to safeguard the system from external threats and unauthorized
persons.
2. Protect and defend the system from illegal operations by authorized personnel e.g, the use of
operator permissions, restrictions of access to certain functions.
3. Immune the system from damage and neutralize the effect of operations inimical to the correct
performance of the system procedures for threat avoidance.
4. Deterrence: Deterrence measures ensure that illegal operations are not encouraged and that
erring employees are not allowed to become bad influences to others. Deterrence measures
include appropriate incentives and penalties to restrain same persons or other users to perform
such acts in future.
5. Recovery: Recovery procedures are procedures put in place to minimize the effects of
unscheduled interruptions/breakdowns and provide a means to ensure continuous operations
and prevent financial losses to the business.
6. Correction: Remedial actions are actions taken to bring the system back on track after
recovery. This may include procedures to make necessary amendments and fine tune the
system to achieve desired performance levels.
7. Physical Security: This relates to the ability to physically protect the hardware and media
that hold programs and data from destruction, loss or damage. This means of achieving
physical security depends on the control environment and the nature of the threat.
Physical Security measures may include the following:
a. Physical access control

b. Fire prevention and detection equipment
c. Provision of uninterrupted power supply (UPS) equipment
d. Introduction and enforcement of a strict backup routine with a copy of the data stored in a
secure location offsite.
Password Security: The first thing to think about when you implement an office security
policy is password. It seems to be so obvious, and yet it is often overlooked. Here are some
common-sense guidelines for keeping your password secure:
Dos
1. Change your password often (monthly is recommended)
2. Use letter/number/special character combination
3. Choose a password that is easy to type
4. Choose a password that is easy to remember
5. Make your password at least six characters long.
Don’ts
1. Don’t use your first or last name.
2. Don’t use the name of your pet, spouse or children
3. Don’t use your login or username
4. Don’t leave a password on somebody’s voice-mail
5. Don’t use the same password for all your password needs.
1. What do you understand by computer security?
2. Enumerate five computer security measures that can be put in place
York: Laudon & Laudon
5. Sani, A. (2018). Entrepreneurship in Business Education. Zaria: Concept+Designs &
Prints.
6. ICAN Professional Study Pack (Management Information System).
UNIT 2: INFORMATION SYSTEM RECOVERY PLAN
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
1. Explain information system contingency and disaster recovery plan
2. Identify causes of disaster
3. State Information systems disaster recovery strategies
2.0 INTRODUCTION
A good business continuity plan will take into account all types of events affecting
both critical information system facilities and end user’s normal business operation functions.
In addition to these, in case of the worst scenario, short term and long term fallback provisions
are required. For the short term, an alternate processing facility may be needed to meet
immediate operation needs, as in the case of a major natural disaster. In the long term, a new
permanent facility must be identified for disaster recovery and equipment to provide for
continuation of information system processing services on a regular basis.
2.1 MAIN CONTENT

A good business continuity plan will take into account all types of events affecting both
critical information system facilities and end user’s normal business operation functions. In
addition to these, in case of the worst scenario, short term and long term fallback provisions
are required. For the short term, an alternate processing facility may be needed to meet
immediate operation needs, as in the case of a major natural disaster. In the long term, a new
permanent facility must be identified for disaster recovery and equipment to provide for
continuation of information system processing services on a regular basis.
Information system contingency and disaster recovery plan
Information system contingency planning, otherwise called Business Contingency Planning
(BCP), is a process designed to reduce an organization’s business risk arising from an
unexpected disruption of its information system which is critical to the organization.
BCP is primarily the responsibility of senior management, as they are entrusted with
safeguarding both the assets and the viabilities of organization.
Disasters and disruptive events to information system
Disaster can be defined as disruptive incidences that cause critical information system
resources to be inoperative or non-functioning for a period of time and thereby adversely
affecting business operations.
CAUSES OF DISASTER
a. Natural calamities, such as floods, severe thunderstorms and fire.

b. Electrical power, telecommunications and delivery services that are no longer supplied to the
company.
c. Event caused by human beings, such as attacks from hackers or viruses.
2.2 INFORMATION SYSTEM DISASTER RECOVERY STRATEGIES
Information systems disaster recovery strategy is a combination of preventive, detective and

corrected actions to be taken. They are:
a. Removing the threat altogether

b. Minimizing the likelihood of occurrence
c. Minimizing the effects of occurrence.
Removing the threat and minimizing the risk of occurrence can be addressed by the
implementation of physical and environmental security, while minimizing the effect can be
achieved by implementing built-in resilience through alternative routing and redundancy.
In selecting a recovery strategy, the following should be considered:
a. The criticality of the business process and the applications supporting the process
b. Cost
c. Time required to recover and
d. Security
CONCLUSION
Information systems disaster recovery strategy is a combination of preventive, directive and

corrective measures. In case disruption, especially when there is serious damage to primary,
physical facility, there is need for off-site backup alternatives. Such off site backup facilities
include hot site, warm site, cold site and mobile site.
SUMMARY
A disaster recovery plan is defined as an arrangement that provides for immediate access to
the alternative computer hardware and the restoration of software programs, data and
telecommunication facilities in case of the unexpected. Also discussed were information
system contingency and disaster recovery plan, disaster and disruptive events to information
system, causes of disaster as well as information system disaster recovery strategies
a. What is disaster recovery plan?

b. Give any three key element required in a disaster recovery plan
2. Sani, A. (2015). Executive Office Practice and Procedures.Zaria: Jerry Press.
4. Pitts, J &Radebaugh (2018). Principles of Information TechnologyManagement. New York:
Laudon & Laudon.
UNIT 3. MANAGING PEOPLE IN THE ORGANIZATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the managers job and why certain decision are been made.
2. Understand Managers ability to make sense out of t he many situations faced by organization
and how they formulate action plans to solve organizational problems.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 MANAGEMENT
Managers perceive business challenges in the environment, set organizational
strategy for responding and allocate human and financial resources to achieve the strategy and
coordinate the work. Managers exercise responsible leadership. Management's job is to "make
sense" out of the many situations faced by organizations and formulate action plans to solve
organizational problems. In order to attain this, managers must do more than manage what
already exists. They must also create, and even re-create, new products and services in the
organization from time to time. A substantial part of management responsibility is creative
work driven by new knowledge and information. Information technology can play a powerful
role in redirecting and redesigning most organizational plans.
Managerial roles and decisions vary at different levels in any organization. Senior
managers are saddled with the responsibility of making long-term strategic decisions about
what products and services to produce.
Middle managers carry out programs and plans of senior management. Operational
managers are responsible for monitoring the firm's daily activities. All levels of management
are expected to be creative, develop novel solutions to a broad range of problems. Each level
of management has different information needs and information system requirements.
The duties of a manager cannot be over emphasized, More often than not they a saddle with
series of responsibilities if the organization is to succeed. These responsibilities include:
1. Planning: Planning is the key function of management, it is the process of determining
in advance. What should be accomplished, when, by whom, how, and at what cost. It also
includes outlining philosophy, policy, objectives, to be accomplished and the techniques for
accomplishment
2. Organizing: Establishing structures and systems through which activities are arranged,
defined, and coordinated in terms of some specific objectives
3. Directing: making decisions, present the decisions in the form of instructions and serving as
the leader of the enterprise.
4. Coordinating: Inter-relating various parts of the work as it relates to the office
5. Reporting: keeping informed those to whom you are responsible, both staff and the public.
6. Budgeting: Making financial plans, maintaining accounting and management control revenue
and keeping costs in line with objectives.
Planning
Regardless of whether it is planning long-term program priorities or planning a two- hour
meeting, the planning aspect of management is the major contributor to the success and
productivity of the an organization. Planning is the process of determining an organization's
goals and objectives and making provisions for their achievement. It involves choosing a
course of action from available alternatives.
Planning is the process of determining organizational aims, developing premises about
the current environment, selecting course of action, initiating activities required to transform
plans into action and evaluating the outcome. Planning at managerial level usually depends on
their level in the organization followed by the type and size of the organization.
Generally, there are four major types of planning exercises:
1. Strategic
2. Tactical
3. Contingency
4. Managerial
Tactical planning occurs at middle and lower management level and it is concerned with
implementing strategic plans for the organization.
Contingency planning anticipates possible problems or changes that may occur in the future
and prepares to deal with them effectively as they arise
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning occurs at top management level and it involves determining
organizational goals and how to achieve them.
Strategic planning has to do with determining the basic objectives of an organization and
allocating resources for their accomplishment. strategy determines the direction in which an
organization needs to move to achieve its objectives. It also acts as a road map for carrying
out the strategy of any office and achieving long-term goals. Occasionally a gap exists
between strategic plan and real results. To boost organizational performance, people must be a
key part of the strategy.
Strategic planning is different from long-term planning. Long-range planning builds on

current goals and practices and proposes modifications for the future. On the other hand,
strategic planning, considers changes or anticipated changes in the environment that suggest
radical moves away from current practices. When doing strategic planning, the organization
should emphasize team planning. By involving those affected by the plan, the manger builds
an organization wide understanding and commitment to the strategic plan. The elements of
strategic plans include:
a. Organizations mission statement - What
b. Strategic analysis - Why
c. Strategic formulation - Where
d. Long-term objectives implementation - When and How e. Operational plans - When and
How
These plans form the framework for focusing organizational resources on the most
strategic areas by using a staged approach. updated plans are implemented by work teams at
all levels of management. Work-team objectives include:
1. Involving all levels of staff in consultation
2. Designing and implementing a process to develop-goals and objectives for the
organization and unit; a strategic process for the next five to ten years
3. Defining and clarifying organizational structures and identifying functions, customers
and service delivery models
4. Identifying changes and staged approaches needed to move from the current situation to
what will be required over the next three to five years
5. Identifying and recommending priorities for policy and program development
6. Incorporating goals for expenditure reduction, service quality improvement, workforce
management, accountability, technology and business process improvement
7. Stating the start date and first report date. This way, departments would take their
assigned duties seriously as there would be an expected date of completion.
Managerial Planning helps in combining resources and expertise to achieve the overall
objectives of an organization. Managerial planning focuses on the activity of a specific unit
and involves what needs to be done, by whom, when and at what cost. The strategic planning
process serves as an umbrella over the management planning process which deals with the
following:
1. Establishing individual goals and objectives

2. Forecasting results and potential problems
3. Developing alternatives, selecting alternatives and setting priorities
4. Appraising how the management unit has succeeded in meeting its goals and objectives
Decision making
Closely related to both strategic and managerial planning is the process of decision
making. Decisions need to be made wisely under varying circumstances with different
amounts of knowledge about alternatives and consequences. It’s concerned with the future
and may be made under conditions of certainty, conditions of risk, or conditions of
uncertainty. Under conditions of certainty, managers have sufficient or complete information
and know exactly what the outcome of their decision will be.
Managers are faced with a less certain environment. They may, however, know the
probabilities and possible outcomes of their decisions, even though they cannot guarantee
which particular outcome will actually occur.
In such cases, there is a risk associated with the decision and there is a possibility of an
adverse outcome. Most managerial decisions involve varying degrees of uncertainty. This is a
key part of managers’ activities. They must decide what goals or opportunities will be
pursued, what resources are available, and who will perform designated tasks.
Decision making, consists of several steps:
Step1: Identifying and defining the problem

Step2: Developing various alternatives
Step3: Evaluating alternatives
Step4: Selecting an alternative
Step5: Implementing the alternative
Step6: Evaluating both the actual decision and the decision-making process
The structure of every organization is unique in some respect, but all organizational structures
are consciously designed to enable the organization to accomplish its goals. Typically, the
structure of an organization evolves as the organization grows and changes over time.
There four basic decisions that managers have to make as they develop an organizational
structure, although they may not be explicitly aware of these decisions:
1. Division of labor. The organization's work must be divided into specific jobs.
2. Departmentalization. Unless the organization is very small, the jobs must be grouped in
some way.
3. Span of control. The number of people and jobs that are to be grouped together must be
decided, which is related to the number of people that are to be managed by one person.
4. Authority. The way decision-making authority is to be distributed must be determined.
In making each of these decisions, a range of choices are possible. At one end of the
spectrum, jobs are highly specialized with employees performing a narrow range of activities;
while at the other end of the spectrum employees perform a variety of tasks. In traditional
bureaucratic structures, there is a tendency to increase task specialization as the organization
grows . In grouping jobs into departments, the manager must decide the basis on which to
group them. The most common basis, is by function. For example, all accounting jobs in the
organization can be grouped into an accounting department; all engineers can be grouped into
an engineering department and so on.
CONCLUSION
We have succeeded in understanding the importance of managing people (staffs) in any
organization properly to produce the desired result would require some level of determination
on the part of those involved and their ability to make strategic plans. It Management can
perform their duties easier and faster, and how much training can/ should be given to staff
with respect to information technology as opposed the use of manual equipment to do the
given task as the level of competence wont and cannot be measured which in turn would be
regarded as bad management tactic and no manager want to be called that.
SUMMARY
In managing people in any organization, planning and strategy would be useful in making
required useful decision
Laudon & Laudon.

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TAI SOLARIN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

STUDY MODULES AND UNITS

REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

MODULE 1: SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION

1.1 MAIN CONTENTS

1.2 Functions of an Office

1.3 Types of office

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

2.1 MAIN CONTENT

Fig 1.2a, diagram of a personal work space

Disadvantages of the closed office

2.2 OPEN OFFICE/WORK SPACE:

Fig 2.1. Diagram of an open work space

2.3 TEAM WORK SPACE

2.4 CUBICLE WORK SPACE

2.5 PLANNING AN OFFICE ENVIRONMENT

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Briefly explain personal work space

3.1 MAIN CONTENT

3.2 Types of Office Machines

3.3 Types of Computers used in any office environment:

4.1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

The activities in the office can be described as:

The virtual office has no boundary.

Fig3.1a,A traditional office environment Fig3. 1b, A typical office environment

1. Ease in disseminating information.

4.3 Information Processing Tasks and the tools used

4.4 Methodologies and format in which information system can be employed

i. Providing really large storage spaces

Amoor, S.S. (2020). Office Secretarial StandardPractices. Zaria: ABU Press.

UNIT 1: MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.1 MAIN CONTENT

Fig. 1.1. Transformation of data into information

Fig. 1.2. Decision making: transformation of information into

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION

1.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

1. Amoor, S.S. (2020). Office Secretarial Standard Practices. Zaria:ABU Press.

2.1 MAIN CONTENT

To complete this definition of an information system, we now attempt to clear up any

2.2 INFORMATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Functions of an operating system

2.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE INFORMATION SYSTEM

1. Data capture and collection

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

3.1.1 TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPS)

– These operations are repeated many times in companies.

3.2 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MIS)

This information is normally compiled in:

3.3 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS)

3.4 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (EIS)

3.5 EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (EIS): CONCEPT AND

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

1.2 Application area of office automation system

1.3 Goals of office Automation

9. Better Information Retrieval

Obstacles to the growth of office automation

Voice Mail System (VMS)