Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Scribd
Upload
20 views

Lecture3 - Problem Solving by Search

Artificial Intelligence (AI), a term coined by emeritus Stanford Professor John McCarthy in 1955, was defined by him as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines”.

Uploaded by

Shahd Abd Elsamea
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
20 views

Lecture3 - Problem Solving by Search

Artificial Intelligence (AI), a term coined by emeritus Stanford Professor John McCarthy in 1955, was defined by him as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines”.

Uploaded by

Shahd Abd Elsamea
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 33

Introduction to Problem

Solving by Search
LECTURE 3
Outline
2

⚫ Problem formulation: representing sequential

problems.

⚫ Example problems.

⚫ Planning for solving sequential problems without

uncertainty.

⚫ Basic search algorithms


Environment Type Discussed In
this Lecture 3

Fully Observable
⚫ Static Environment
yes

Deterministic

yes

Sequential
yes no
Discrete no
yes Discrete
no
yes
Planning, Control, Vector Search: Continuous Function
heuristic cybernetics Constraint Optimization
search Satisfaction
Choice in a Deterministic Known Environment
4

• Without uncertainty, choice is trivial in principle:


choose what you know to be the best option.
• Trivial if the problem is represented in a look-up
table.
Option Value
Chocolate 10
Coffee 20
Book 15

This is the standard problem representation in decision theory


(economics).
Computational Choice Under
Certainty 5

⚫ But choice can be computationally hard if the


problem information is represented differently.
⚫ Options may be structured and the best option
needs to be constructed.
E.g., an option may consist of a path, sequence of actions, plan,
or strategy.
⚫ The value of options may be given implicitly rather
than explicitly.
E.g., cost of paths need to be computed from map.
Problem Types
6

⚫ Deterministic, fully observable -> single-state problem


Agent knows exactly which state it will be in; solution is a
sequence
⚫ Non-observable -> conformant problem
Agent may have no idea where it is; solution (if any) is a sequence
⚫ Nondeterministic and/or partially observable -> contingency
problem
percepts provide new information about current state solution is a
contingent plan or a policy
often interleave search, execution
⚫ Unknown state space -> exploration problem (“online”)
Sequential Action
Example 7

⚫ Deterministic, fully observable: single-state problem


Agent knows exactly which state it will be in; solution is a sequence
Vacuum world: everything observed
Romania: The full map is observed

⚫ Single-state:
Start in #5. Solution??
[Right, Suck]
Example: Romania
8

⚫ On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad.

⚫ Formulate goal:
be in Bucharest
⚫ Formulate problem:
states: various cities
actions: drive between cities
⚫ Find solution:
sequence of cities, e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest
Example: Romania
9

Abstraction: The process of removing details from a representation Is the map a good representation of the
problem? What is a good replacement?
Single-state problem formulation
10

A problem is defined by 4 items:


⚫ initial state e.g., “at Arad”

⚫ Successor function S(x)= set of action–state

⚫ Goal test, can be


explicit, e.g., x = “at Bucharest”, or “checkmate” in chess
implicit, e.g., NoDirt(x)
⚫ Path cost (additive) e.g., sum of distances, number
of actions executed, etc. c(x, a, y) is the step cost,
assumed to be ≥ 0
A solution is a sequence of actions leading from the
initial state to a goal state
The successor function
11

⚫ Successor function: for a given state, returns a set of action/new-state pairs.

⚫ Vacuum-cleaner world: (A, dirty, clean) → (’Left’, (A, dirty, clean)),(’Right’, (B, dirty, clean)),
(’Suck’, (A, clean, dirty)), (’NoOp, (A, dirty, clean))

⚫ Romania: In(Arad) → ((Go(Timisoara), In(Timisoara), (Go(Sibiu), In(Sibiu)), (Go(Zerind),


In(Zerind))
Size of space
12

⚫ 8-puzzle: 9!/2 = 181, 000 states (easy)


⚫ 15-puzzle: ∼ 1.3 trillion states (pretty easy)
⚫ 24-puzzle: ∼ 10^25 states (hard)
⚫ TSP, 20 cities: 20! = 2.43 × 10^18 states
(hard)
Selecting a state space
13

⚫ Real world is complex


state space must be abstracted for problem solving

⚫ (Abstract) state = set of real states

⚫ (Abstract) action = complex combination of real actions


e.g., "Arad -> Zerind" represents a complex set of possible routes,
detours, rest stops, etc.
⚫ (Abstract) solution =
set of real paths that are solutions in the real world

⚫ Each abstract action should be "easier" than the original problem


Vacuum world state space graph
14

⚫ states?
⚫ actions?
⚫ goal test?
⚫ path cost?
Vacuum world state space graph
15

⚫ states? integer dirt and robot location


⚫ actions? Left, Right, Suck
⚫ goal test? no dirt at all locations
⚫ path cost? 1 per action
Example: The 8-puzzle
16

⚫ states?
⚫ actions?
⚫ goal test?
⚫ path cost?
Example: The 8-puzzle
17

⚫ states? locations of tiles


⚫ actions? move blank left, right, up, down
⚫ goal test? = goal state (given)
⚫ path cost? 1 per move
[Note: optimal solution of n-Puzzle family is NP-hard]
Example: robotic assembly
18

⚫ states?: real-valued coordinates of robot joint angles parts of the object to be


assembled
⚫ actions?: continuous motions of robot joints
⚫ goal test?: complete assembly
⚫ path cost?: time to execute
Problem-solving agents
19

Note: this is offline problem solving; solution executed “eyes closed.”


Tree search algorithms
20

⚫ Basic idea:
offline, simulated exploration of state space by generating
successors of already-explored states (a.k.a.~expanding
states)
Tree search example
21
Tree search example
22
Tree search example
23
Search Graph vs. State Graph
24

⚫ Be careful to distinguish
Search tree: nodes are sequences of actions.
State Graph: Nodes are states of the environment.
We will also consider soon search graphs.
Search strategies
25

⚫ A search strategy is defined by picking the order of node


expansion
⚫ Strategies are evaluated along the following dimensions:
completeness: does it always find a solution if one exists?
time complexity: number of nodes generated
space complexity: maximum number of nodes in memory
optimality: does it always find a least-cost solution?
⚫ Time and space complexity are measured in terms of
b: maximum branching factor of the search tree
d: depth of the least-cost solution
m: maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)
Search Strategies
26

⚫ Uninformed (blind) search


⚫ Informed Search
⚫ Adversarial Search (Game Theory)
Uninformed search strategies
27

⚫ Uninformed search strategies use only the information

available in the problem definition

⚫ Uninformed search (blind search)


Breadth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-limited search
Iterative deepening search
Breadth-first search
28

⚫ Expand shallowest unexpanded node

⚫ Implementation:
is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
Breadth-first search
29

⚫ Expand shallowest unexpanded node

⚫ Implementation:
is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
Breadth-first search
30

⚫ Expand shallowest unexpanded node

⚫ Implementation:
is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
Breadth-first search
31

⚫ Expand shallowest unexpanded node


Implementation:
is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
Properties of breadth-first search
32

⚫ Complete? Time? Space? Optimal?

⚫ Complete? Yes (if b is finite)

⚫ Time? 1+b+b2+b3+… +bd + b(bd-1) = O(bd+1)

⚫ Space? O(bd+1) (keeps every node in memory)

⚫ Optimal? Yes (if cost = 1 per step)

⚫ Space is the bigger problem (more than time)


Thanks

You might also like