History

Topics:
1. Paper 1 and 2 Structure and Advice
2. Authoritarian States - China
3. Authoritarian States - USSR
4. Authoritarian States - Germany
5. Cold War and Super Power Tensions
6. Rights and Protest - US Civil Rights Movement
7. Rights and Protest - Apartheid
8. Mussolini and Italy - HL Only
9. Internal Assessment (Advice)
10. Essays

Paper 1 and 2 Structure and

Advice
1. Paper 1 Structure
2. Paper 2 Essay Structure
1. Planning the Essay
1. Introduction
 2. Body
3. Perspectives and Evaluation
2. Writing Tips

Paper 1 Structure
Paper 2 Essay Structure
Planning the Essay

Introduction

1. Don't make your introduction long, it's an unnecessary time

killer.
2. The intro should be used very briefly to set the historical
context, clarify -if needed- any terms of the question, and most
importantly to state the thesis.
3. The thesis should clearly and directly answer the question
using the same language the question uses.
4. A good introduction will also state the main arguments that
will be presented. Signposting the examiner is a good tip as the
reader already knows what to expect and subconsciously this
affects the perception of 'clarity' and 'structure'.

Body

1. Thematically-structured, analytical responses that clearly

show arguments and perspectives as well as detailed
knowledge greatly outperform narrative chronological
accounts, or questions with very superficial evidence.
2. A body with 3 or 4 paragraphs, each focusing on diff.
arguments, tends to be one of the best performing structures.
Good paragraphs usually start with a topic sentence that
presents the argument, followed by clear relevant data and
facts that are used as evidence to support the argument. The
paragraphs should end with a sentence summarising it and
explicitly tying it back to the thesis.
 3. Students should avoid adding information that does not
support the argument. Only information that can directly be
used as evidence to support or challenge the points is valuable.
Storytelling should be avoided
4. Facts : While narrative/descriptive approaches don't do well,
that does not mean that essays should be devoid of factual
information. Clear, specific knowledge used to support the
analysis is required in order to reach the top mark-bands. It's
good practice for students to memorise a list of detailed facts
for each topic that can be used throughout the essay (for
example "The Night of Long Knives took place in 1934 and was
critical in reducing the power of Röhm's Sturmabeilung")
5. Analytical and Critical writing: Aside from following a PEEL
Point - Evidence - Explanation - Link) structure for each
paragraph, it's recommended that students explicitly use
words and phrases that highlight that they are developing
critical analysis. For example, "This is supported by XYZ", "This
clearly highlights that XYZ, "in contrast to, "given X, it can be
concluded that Y", "This is significant because..", "the
strengths/limitations are XYZ" etc.

Perspectives and Evaluation

Top marks will only go to responses which show evidence of

awareness and evaluation of different perspectives. Let's break
down each concept.
Awareness of different perspectives: Students need to be able
to show that they are aware that the question can be examined
from different sides. This can mean, for example, different
historians interpretations, but also different factors or even
points of view. What is critical is that the essay appears
balanced.
While it is true that, traditionally, "different perspectives"
equaled historiography, that is no longer the case in today's
Papers 2 & 3, and, as stated above, "perspectives" is now a much
broader term (for example, a response on the impact of a Cold
War crisis looks at the political impact on one country's
policies, but then also pivots and analyses those same events
from the point of view of families, or women, or soldiers, or
3rd countries etc).
That being said, historiography is still likely to be the safest
way to show 'awareness of different perspectives'. However,
historiography should be used to support the essay's
arguments, no in lieu of them. Descriptive accounts of what
historians say, or pure name dropping of schools of thought,
without integrating historians views to the essay's analysis will
not work.
It's good practice for students to be aware of the main
historiographical debates in each of the topics, so throughout
the essay they are able to mention the historians, their views,
and, most importantly integrate that into the student's
discussion. However, if, due to the nature of the question it is
not possible to do so, the student will likely find more success
by focusing on non-historiographical perspectives.
The different perspectives need to be well-developed and then
evaluated, ie, the student should weigh the merits of each
perspective (by looking at the historical evidence available) and
 then conclude which of the perspectives (or factors, or points
of view etc) seems to carry more weight.
This can be effectively done in two ways: Either by adding
evaluative sentences in each of the argument paragraphs, or by
adding an evaluative paragraph before the conclusion where
the student weighs the perspectives and concludes, backed by
evidence, which one is better equipped at answering the
question.
Use of language that makes this evaluation obvious is
recommended: "While Author X's view on this factor is
supported by Data Y, Data Z suggests that the impact was more
subdued because XYZ. Consequently, Author B's theory might
be a better explanation than Author X's because XYZ." If not
using historiography, this could also look like this: "While the
key role of propaganda in the emergence of power is supported
by X and Y, data Z does seem to suggest that the impact was
more subdued, due in part to ABC"

Writing Tips

Start Strong: First impressions count. The best arguments

should be presented first. Similarly, students could benefit
from starting with the essay with which they feel the most
confident.
Careful with Adding Information: One of the most important
aspects is to write in a clear manner. The essay must feel well
organised, and the examiner should not have to re-read
passages to understand them. A common issue, especially
when students don't plan the essay beforehand, is a heavy use
of asterisks or other symbols to add sentences that the student
forgot to write. This should be generally avoided, as it is
evidence of poor organisation. However, in case it must
happen, it's good practice to always leave the bottom 15% of
each page blank so the text can be added on the same page
rather than at the end of the essay, making it easier for the
examiner to read the added part in its context. This should only
be a small percentage of space and done at the bottom of the
page and not between paragraphs, as too much space between
paragraphs interrupts the reading flow.
Careful with Poor Handwriting: The responses are scanned and
examiners mark them on their computers. Illegible or hard to
read handwriting can be a big problem. If you have students in
your class with poor penmanship, or struggle with
handwriting in general, you may want to talk to your DP
coordinator to explore the possibility of typing, rather than
handwriting, the exams.
Find ways to introduce detailed facts: Certain phrases can be
used to make it easier for students to present detailed
information that would otherwise have a hard time
integrating. For example, using the word "tangible" in an
argument can then automatically present the student the
opportunity to give a series of specific examples.
Use Specific Vocabulary: Incorporating academic language
common in History (sovereignty, casus belli, hegemony,
unilateralism etc) as well as stating the terms in the original
language (Wehrmacht or Sturmabteilung instead of 'German
Army' or 'brownshirts") can contribute in creating the aura of
high quality writing with relevant and specific knowledge
often needed to reach 13-15.
Students should sketch an outline before starting to write. Not
only will it help them organize their thoughts, arguments, and
make sure they don't forget any critical information, but will
also significantly improve the structure and readability,
making the examiner happy. Furthermore, in case the student
runs out of time and can't complete their essay, but their
outline is visible, that could be taken into account when
marking.
In this outline, students should take about 5 minutes to list the
following:
Thesis. What will my thesis be? Does it clearly answer the
question?
Arguments. What are my arguments? How do they
support my thesis?
Evidence. Which facts and data will I present as evidence
for my arguments?
It's good practice to write down a list of key policies,
dates, events, names, actors, statistics etc than can be
used to support each point.
Perspectives: Am I showing a difference of opinion? Is it
historians who are disagreeing? Which perspective carries
more weight?
It's recommended that students have enough in this outline to
write at least 5 paragraphs: the introduction, 3 body
paragraphs (one paragraph for each argument), and 1
conclusion.
Authoritarian States - China
Contents
Origins and Rise of Mao
China and Mao - Ideology and Nature
Marxist Ideology
Support
Research
Consolidation of Power
Problems Facing Mao
Agricultural Changes
Industrial Changes
The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957)
The Great Leap Forward
Cultural Revolution
Chairman Mao and the People's Republic
Moderate beginnings
PRC Structure
The Great Terror
Mass Killings
Land Reform
Summary

Origins and Rise of Mao

In the early 1900s, China was not politically unified nor
politically stable and parts of it were dominated by foreign
 powers.
China became a country with a representative government in
1912.
However, the government (nationalist) was ineffective and
regional warlords continued to be powerful.
The Chinese communist party was established in 1921.
Mao and the party were not powerful, in fact, they actually
cooperated with the nationalist government on occasions
prior to taking power of China.
Mao and the communist party eventually established their
own military (the red army).
Following WWII, in 1945, Mao and the communists fought a
civil war against the nationalist government.
They won power in 1949.
The 1911 Xinhai Revolution ended the Qing Dynasty, leading to
a fragmented political landscape.
The Warlord Era saw the rise of regional military leaders who
controlled different regions, resulting in political chaos.
Lack of a strong central authority and competing factions set
the stage for the emergence of authoritarian rule.

China and Mao - Ideology and Nature

Mao's ideology was shaped by his upbringing as a peasant and
the scholars (Yang Changji and Li Dazhao) who introduced him
to ideas of strong leadership and communism.

Marxist Ideology
 Revolution led by the lower class.
Mao's communist ideology was shaped by his family's
experience and the teachings of Yang Changji, Li Dazhao, and
Karl Marx.
But when Mao put them in practice, they were destructive
instead of accomplishing their intended goals.

Support
Mao won support of China's peasant population due to the
CCPs pledge to redistribute land to poor peasants and end
oppression by landlords.
Women supported Mao's forces since the communists rejected
the inequalities of the old Confucian order.
Nationalists were viewed as morally and politically bankrupt

Research
1. Long Match
2. Peasantry class support gained
3. Redistribution of land amongst the poor
4. What CCP did to support women
5. Corrupt government of Chiang Kai-shek
6. PRC
Consolidation of Power

Problems Facing Mao

1. The country was devastated after the long civil war.
2. War with Japan caused railways, roads, canals and dykes being
destroyed and led to chronic food shortages.
3. Agriculture was a backward industry that was inefficient and
incapable of feeding the poverty-stricken masses and inflation
seemed out of control.
4. Peasant support was with Mao and he also got some support
from the middle class who were all disgusted by the poor
performance of Kuomintang (KMT)

He began by looking closely at Stalin's methods and

experimented with trial and error to find which would work in
China and where a special Chinese approach was necessary.

Agricultural Changes
Transformed industry from small, inefficient, private farms
into one of large co-operative farms like those in Russia
between 1950-56.
Land was taken from large landowners and was redistributed
among the peasants.
Made use of violence.
Two million people killed according to some sources. However,
historian Jack Gray (in 1970 while Mao was still alive) claimed
that "the redistribution of China's land was carried out with a
 remarkable degree of attention to legality and the minimum of
physical violence against landlords".

Industrial Changes
Nationalisation of businesses.
In 1953, he embarked on a Five Year Plan.
Aim to develop heavy industries (iron, steel, chemicals and
coal).
Russians helped monetarily, with equipment and advisers.
The plan had some success however Mao was dubious of
whether China was suited to this sort of heavy
industrialisation.
Conversely, he could claim that the country had recovered
from the wars under his leadership.
Full communication was restored.
Inflation was under control.
Economy was looking much healthier.

The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957)

Produced a vast new class of technicians and engineers.
The party cadres (those who organised the masses politically
and economically - the collectivisation of the farms was
carried out by the cadres) believed that this new class of
experts would threaten their authority.
The government felt pleased and called for constructive
criticism.
The Great Leap Forward
Mao felt that something new and different was needed to meet
China's special problems.
No longer wanted to base it on the Russian experience.
The Great Leap Forward involved further important
developments in both industries and agriculture in order to
increase output.
Agriculture was struggling and the required food was not
being produced.
The introduction of communes
Larger than collective farms containing up to 75000
people divided into brigades and work teams with an
elected council.

Cultural Revolution
Textbook Notes
In 1962 , Mao Zedong slipped into the background of the party, in
the knowledge that his reputation had been damaged as a result of
the Great Famine . President Liu Shaoqi and CCP General
Secretary Deng Xiaoping were instructed to save the countryside
and
stop the famine ; their supporters reversed collectivization in
Gansu
and Qinghai. The growing popularity o f Liu and Deng within the
party became a threat and Mao began to regret retreating into the
political background .
In 1966 , in order to reassert his authority over the Chinese
government
and the country, Mao launched what b e came known as the Great
Proletarian Cultural Revolution. This mass political upheaval,
orchestrated by Mao, would result in genocide, class war, cultural
destruction and economic chaos . It led to further purges of those
considered disloyal to the principles of the revolution and enabled
Mao
to return to the forefront of the CCP as the undisputed leader of
China .

Class Notes

The "Four Olds"

Considered enemies of the revolution (threat to Mao's
vision of modernising the country)
The Little Red Book
Compiled by a strong supporter of Mao, Lin Biao, in
collaboration with Chen Boda.
Was given to all teachers and students.

The Cultural Revolution was Mao's attempt to keep the revolution

and The Great Leap Forward on a pure Marxist, Leninist course and
to hit back at what he considered to be an over-bureaucratic party
leadership under his deputy Liu Shauqi.
The main goal was to avoid the emergence of a privileged class who
would exploit the workers and to be in continuous touch with the
masses.
Between 1963-66, there was a great public debate between the
rightists (Liu Shauqi and Deng Xiaoping) and the Maoist about
which course to follow.
Mao using his position as chairman of the party launched a
desperate campaign to 'save' the revolution. He called this the great
proletarian cultural revolution (GPCR). In which he appealed to the
masses to toward the country, arguing his case carrying the Little
Red Books containing his thoughts as Chairman Mao.
In some areas, schools, and later factories, were closed down as
young people were urged to move into the countryside and work in
farms. If questioned, they were required to say that they would like
to spend their whole lives on the farm whether it were true or not.
It was an incredible propaganda exercise in which Mao was trying
to renew revolutionary fervour.
Unfortunately, it brought chaos and something close to a civil war.
Once the student masses had been roused, they denounced and
physically attacked anybody in authority, not just critics of Mao (i.e.
Teachers, professionals, local party officials were targeted). Millions
of people were disgraced and ruined.
By 1967 the extremists among the red guards were almost out of
control and Mao had to call in the army to restore order.
Mao, in public, blamed his advisors and the red guard leaders for
the mistakes that he'd made although he privately admitted them.
Many were arrested and executed for 'committing excesses'.
At the party conference in April 1969, the cultural revolution was
formally ended and Mao was declared free of all blame for what had
happened.
Later Mao blamed his defence minister, Lin Biao, who had always
been one of his most reliable supporters.
The cultural revolution caused disruption, ruined millions of lives,
and probably held up China's economic development by 10 years.
However, there was some economic recovery in the last few years
prior to the death of Mao.
Certainly, China had made great strides since 1949.

Chairman Mao and the People's Republic

After the formation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in
1949, Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
faced numerous challenges in their quest for full political
control of the country. Despite a sense of victory and relief,
they encountered opposition both domestically and
internationally. The CCP had made promises to free the
country from imperialism, eliminate class divisions, and
advance the revolution, leading to high expectations among
the population. However, the country was still politically and
economically unstable due to years of war and division.
The CCP had to address several urgent challenges:
Chiang Kai-shek and the nationalists continued to fight
before eventually fleeing to Taiwan, posing a potential
invasion threat.
The United Nations recognized the nationalists in Taiwan
as the legitimate government of China, not the CCP.
Opposition parties within China still existed and posed a
threat to CCP control.
Many party cadres were trained as guerrilla fighters and
lacked the necessary skills for governance.
 The communists were concerned about separatist
elements in remote border regions undermining national
unity.
The war-weary nation had high expectations but also
faced issues of inflation, unemployment, and corruption.
Rebellions, particularly in the south, arose from villagers
resisting grain requisitioning and impending land reform.
In summary, after the establishment of the PRC, Mao Zedong
and the CCP faced significant challenges, including opposition
from nationalists, international recognition issues, internal
opposition parties, inexperienced cadres, separatist concerns,
high expectations, and rebellions. These challenges required
the CCP to consolidate its political control, address economic
instability, and work towards fulfilling its promises to the
nation.

Moderate beginnings
The communists aimed to bring stability after decades of
turmoil and had
little choice but to ask the former government servants and
police to stay
on initially.
The Chinese middle classes provided the civil servants and
the industrial managers and, on condition of their loyalty to
the PRC ,
were convinced to stay. Under the slogan "New Democracy " , a
new era
 of cooperation began and only the most hardened enemies of
the regime
were stamped out.

PRC Structure
China was divided into 6 regions with 4 major officials:
Chairman
Party Secretary
Military Commander
Political Commissar
Officers of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) filled the last
two posts, which put China effectively under military control

The Great Terror

In the early years of communist rule, the CCP identified the
'enemy' due to the household registration system.
Adding household registration system, each individual was
given a 'class label'.
Middle class members who spoke against Mao were known as
counter-revolutionaries.
By 1949, some 4600 vagrants in Beijing had been sent to re-
education centres and government reformatories.

Mass Killings
New regime's most dangerous enemies were imprisoned or
quietly executed. Others were interrogated or kept under
 surveillance.
In the early 1950s, thousands of "counter-revolutionaries".

Land Reform
Peasants were made happy due to the land reform (happened
already in many parts of China before 1949).
Land was confiscated from landlords and redistributed among
their former tenants.
"Speak bitterness" campaigns and violence were used to
humiliate, punish, and wipe out the landlords as a class.

Summary
1. Warlord Era (1916-1928):

Warlords controlled different parts of China, exercising

unchecked power.
Political fragmentation led to instability, economic disruption,
and social unrest.
Warlords employed violence to suppress opposition and
consolidate their authority.
Central government's weakness prevented effective
governance and reforms.

2. The Rise of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT):

Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People aimed for

nationalism, democracy, and livelihood.
 However, KMT's early efforts to establish a democratic republic
were met with challenges.
After Sun's death, Chiang Kai-shek assumed leadership,
shifting KMT's focus from democracy to centralized authority.

3. Northern Expedition and Consolidation (1926-1928):

The KMT's Northern Expedition aimed to reunify China and

defeat warlords.
Chiang's military successes earned him control over most of
China.
Despite advocating democracy, Chiang's regime used
authoritarian measures to suppress dissent and opposition.
The KMT's suppression of left-wing groups and labor
movements limited political freedoms.

4. Nanjing Decade (1927-1937):

The KMT government relocated to Nanjing and aimed to

modernize and unify China.
Efforts included economic reforms, infrastructure
development, and social policies.
However, KMT's authoritarian tendencies increased as Chiang
sought to suppress Communists and dissent.
State corporatism emerged, giving the government control
over various aspects of society.

5. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Mao Zedong:

The CCP, influenced by Marxism, aimed to represent the

working class and peasants.
 Mao Zedong's ideologies emphasized peasant mobilization
and guerrilla warfare.
While advocating democracy, the CCP adopted Leninist
organizational structures, centralizing power.
Factional struggles and purges within the CCP demonstrated
early authoritarian tendencies.

6. United Front and Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945):

The KMT and CCP formed a temporary united front against

Japanese aggression.
The united front allowed the CCP to expand its influence in
rural areas through guerrilla tactics.
Mao's successful resistance strategies contributed to the CCP's
image as a national hero.
The cooperation marked a tactical alliance rather than
ideological convergence.

7. Civil War and Communist Victory (1945-1949):

The end of World War II led to the resumption of the Chinese

Civil War.
The CCP's strategies, including land reforms and mass
mobilization, garnered peasant support.
The Communists' successful tactics, combined with Nationalist
corruption and inefficiency, led to their victory.
The CCP declared the People's Republic of China in 1949,
ending KMT rule on the mainland.

8. Mao's Era and Consolidation of Authoritarianism:

 Mao Zedong's leadership established the CCP's dominance
over China.
Land reforms and collectivization aimed at redistributing
wealth and power.
The Great Leap Forward and collectivization, while aiming for
rapid transformation, caused widespread famine.
Mao's personality cult, political purges, and control over
information suppressed dissent.

9. Cultural Revolution (1966-1976):

The Cultural Revolution was Mao's attempt to regain control

and eliminate perceived capitalist and traditional influences.
Red Guards, primarily young radicals, targeted intellectuals,
officials, and those deemed counter-revolutionaries.
Widespread chaos, political purges, and destruction of cultural
heritage caused immense suffering.
The movement ended with Mao's death in 1976.

10. Post-Mao China and Authoritarian Legacy:

After Mao's death, China shifted under Deng Xiaoping's

leadership toward economic reforms and openness.
The Communist Party maintained authoritarian control while
allowing limited economic liberalization.
Political dissent, freedom of speech, and human rights
remained restricted under the one-party system.

11. Modern Authoritarianism and Global Influence:

 China's current political landscape still dominated by the
Communist Party's authoritarian control.
Economic growth and global engagement boosted China's
international influence.
Authoritarian measures, censorship, and surveillance remain
prevalent to maintain social and political stability.

Historiography and Analysis:

Scholars debate whether China's historical context justified

authoritarian measures for stability.
Some argue that authoritarianism was a necessary response to
the country's historical challenges.
Critics emphasize the suppression of human rights,
intellectual creativity, and the negative impact on society.
China's evolving global role sparks discussions about the
compatibility of authoritarianism with modernization and
international engagement.

Background and Rise to Power:

Mao Zedong emerged as a key figure during the Chinese

Revolution, which began in 1911 and overthrew the Qing
Dynasty.
In the 1920s, Mao joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
and played a crucial role in establishing rural bases and
guerrilla warfare tactics.
The CCP and the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) formed an
uneasy alliance to fight against the Japanese invasion during
World War II.
 After the war, the Chinese Civil War resumed, and the CCP, led
by Mao, eventually emerged victorious in 1949, leading to the
establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC).

Land Reform and Agrarian Policies:

Mao implemented land reform policies to address the issue of

land inequality. The Land Reform Law of 1950 aimed to
redistribute land from landlords to peasants.
The Agrarian Reform Law of 1950 led to the collectivization of
land, where individual land holdings were combined into
larger cooperative farms.
The collectivization process varied across different regions,
with some areas implementing more radical forms of
collectivization, such as People's Communes.
The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) was an ambitious
economic and social campaign aimed at rapidly transforming
China into a socialist society.
The Great Leap Forward emphasized the establishment of
backyard steel furnaces, communal dining halls, and the
communes. However, it resulted in economic disaster, as
agricultural production declined, and widespread famine
ensued.

Cultural Revolution:

The Cultural Revolution was a political movement initiated by

Mao in 1966 to reassert his authority and eliminate his
perceived enemies within the party.
 The movement targeted perceived bourgeois elements,
intellectuals, and officials who were accused of being counter-
revolutionaries or capitalist roaders.
The Red Guards, consisting of radicalized youth, were
mobilized to attack the "Four Olds" (old ideas, culture, customs,
and habits) and to enforce Maoist ideology.
Schools and universities were shut down, and students were
encouraged to question authority and engage in class struggle.
The Cultural Revolution led to widespread chaos, violence, and
the persecution of millions of people, including intellectuals,
officials, and perceived "class enemies."

Impact and Legacy:

Mao's policies and campaigns resulted in significant human

suffering and loss of life. The Great Leap Forward is estimated
to have caused a famine that claimed the lives of millions of
people.
The Cultural Revolution disrupted Chinese society and led to
the destruction of cultural artifacts, loss of education
opportunities, and widespread social upheaval.
Mao's leadership and policies left a lasting impact on China.
Despite the negative aspects, he is still revered by many for his
role in unifying the country and establishing the foundation
for modern China.
The Chinese government's official stance on Mao's legacy
remains complex, acknowledging both his achievements and
his mistakes.

Evaluation and Analysis:

 When evaluating Mao's rule, it is essential to consider both the
achievements and the negative consequences.
Supporters argue that Mao's policies helped to eradicate
feudalism, improve gender equality, and unify the country.
Critics argue that Mao's policies resulted in immense human
suffering, economic setbacks, and the suppression of
individual freedoms.
It is crucial to examine different perspectives and analyse the
long-term effects of Mao's rule on Chinese society, politics, and
economy.

Authoritarian States - USSR

Contents
1. Phases of USSR History
1. 1924-53
2. 1953-64
3. 1964-85
4. 1985-91
2. Who Was Stalin
3. Conditions Which Led to the Emergence of Stalin
1. Political
2. Economic
3. Social and Cultural
 4. Stalin's Methods of Consolidation
1. Purges (1934-38) ~ The Great Terror
2. Impact of War
3. Collectivisation of Agriculture
4. Stalin's Foreign Policy

Phases of USSR History

1924-53
By 1924, [Lenin] died and Stalin became a dominant figure in USSR,
in effect a dictator from [1928] Stalin continued to rule till [1953]
when he died at the age of 73. It was widely expected that [Trotsky]
will succeed Lenin but a complex power struggle developed which
made Stalin emerge as the leader. Immense problems faced
communist Russia. For example- industry and agriculture were
backward and inefficient, there were constant food shortages. There
were pressing social and political problems. For example there was
constant danger of the western powers to destroy the new
communist state.
Stalin made determined efforts to solve these problems -

1. [Five Year Plan] to revolutionise industrialisation

2. Collectivisation of agriculture
3. Introduction of a totalitarian regime which was more ruthless
than Nazi Germany Even though his [(Hitler)] system was
brutal.
1953-64
After the death of Stalin in 1953, [Nikita Khrushchev] emerged as
the leader and implemented a [de-Stalinization] policy and
improved the living standard to some extent.

1964-85
This was a period of stagnation for the USSR under [Leonid
Brezhnev]

1985-91
[Mikhail Gorbachev] tried to reform and modernise Russian
communism and encouraged the same in the satellite states of
Eastern Europe, he proved unable to control the rising tide of
criticism of communism. By the end of his regime [1989-90] most
of the Eastern European states had become non communist. In the
end, the people of the [USSR] became against communism and he
lost power to [Boris Yeltsin]. The communist party was declared
illegal. The [USSR] broke up into 15 separate states. [Gorbachev]
resigned as the president of the [USSR] in [December 1991].

Who Was Stalin

Joseph Djugashvili (he took the name ‘Stalin’ – man of steel – soon
after joining the Bolsheviks in 1904) was born in 1879 in the small
town of Gori in the province of Georgia. His parents were poor
peasants; his father, a shoemaker, had been born a serf. Joseph’s
mother wanted him to become a priest and he was educated for four
years at Tiflis Theological Seminary, but he hated its repressive
atmosphere and was expelled in 1899 for spreading socialist ideas.
After 1917, thanks to his outstanding ability as an administrator, he
was quietly able to build up his own position under Lenin. When
Lenin died in 1924, Stalin was Secretary-General of the Communist
Party and a member of the seven-man Politburo, the committee
which decided government policy.

Conditions Which Led to the Emergence

of Stalin

Political
October 1917 - Bolshevik Revolution
Overthrew provisional government
Bolsheviks took over
They were Communist
Single party + Authoritarian State
CPSU (Communist party of Soviet Union)
Council of people's commissions & the secretariat
Leader of the council -> Vladimir Lenin
USSR was founded in 1922
This happened post Russian civil war
 Between communists and monarchy
Cheka - Secret Police
Lenin was making use of them implying that the regime
became highly authoritative
Religious groups were heavily repressed.
Lenin made use of purges & show trials.
Factionalism
Banned within CPSU.
No open, free speech or criticism.
Lenin believed in [democratic centralism]
Ensured that there was obedience.
There was a [growing opposition in the party].
[Ryutin Platform 1932].
[Martemyan Nikitich Ryutin].
Aimed to slow down industrialisation.
Allow peasants to leave the collective farms.
Remove Stalin who was described as the ["evil
genius of the revolution"].
Stalin was [equally determined to remove his
opponents and eliminate them] once and for all
([purges]).
[Requirement of a New Constitution].
To [consolidate Stalin and the communist party] over the
whole country.
[Social and Cultural Aspects of Life].
Needed to be brought into line to the service of the state.
Everything needed to be under control of the state.
[Holding the union together].
In 1914, before the first world war, the Tsarist Empire
included many non-Russian areas.
Poland
Finland
Ukraine
Belorussia (White Russia)
Georgia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland and the 3 Baltic states were given independence by
the Brest-Litovsk.
Finland was given independence in 1917 be Lenin.
Some of the others were not prepared to wait and by
March 18 1918, the Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan declared themselves independent and showed
themselves to be anti-bolshevik.
Stalin, who was appointed the minister for foreign
nationalities by Lenin, decided that these hostile states
surrounding Russia were too much of a threat, and they
were forced to become part of Russia again.
By 1925, there were 6 Soviet Republics.
Russia
 Transcaucasia
Georgia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Ukraine
Belorussia
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
The problem for the communist government was that 47%
of the population of USSR were non-Russians, and it
would be very difficult to hold them together if they were
bitterly resentful of rule from Moscow.
Stalin adapted a two-handed approach which worked
successfully until Gorbachev came to power in 1985.
On one hand national cultures and languages were
encouraged, and the republics had a certain amount
of independence.
On the other hand, it had to be clearly understood
that Moscow had the final say in all important
decisions. If necessary, force would be used to
preserve control by Moscow.
When the Ukraine communist party stepped out of line in
1932, by admitting that collectivisation had been a failure.
In response, Moscow carried out a ruthless purge of what
Stalin called 'Bourgeois, nationalist, deviationist'.
Trotsky
He was brilliant
 Caused resentment within the Politburo (the highest
committee of the communist party)
He was arrogant
He’d only joined the Bolsheviks right before the November
revolution
Criticised Kamenev, Zinoviev and Bukharin when Lenin
was ill
Accused them of having no future plans or vision
All three worked together to make sure that Trotsky didn’t
gain power
Almost no support by 1924
Caused him to be forced into resignation of his position as
Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs
Underestimation of Stalin by Politburo
Stalin was seen only as a competent administrator
Politburo ignored Lenin’s advice on removing Stalin from
power
Too busy attacking Trotsky, forgot that Stalin was a threat

Economic
1. 1917 Revolutions
2. War Communism
3. Kronstadt Rebellion
4. New Economic Policy
5. Disagreement over Economic Policy between Bolshevik Party
post Lenin's Death

Social and Cultural

 1. Writers, artists and musicians were expected to produce works
of realism.
Glorifying Soviet achievements.
Anyone who did not conform / comply was persecuted or
sent to a labour camp.
Young composer Dmitri Shostakovich was condemned
when failed to please Stalin even though the music critics
had at first praised it. Further performances were banned
and the American ambassador noted that imports half the
artists and musicians in Moscow are having nervous
prostration.
2. Education
Closely watched by the secret police
Was compulsory and free, however was used like
indoctrination.
[Increased literacy and social services] (unprecedented
achievement)
3. Orthodox churches
Churches were closed and clergy were persecuted. This
was Stalin's failure! By 1940, half of the population was
still consistent of convinced believers so during the war,
they reduced persecution to increase morale.

Stalin's Methods of Consolidation

Directory
 1. Purges (1934-38) ~ The Great Terror
2. Impact of War
3. Collectivisation of Agriculture
4. Stalin's Foreign Policy

Purges (1934-38) ~ The Great Terror

Using the excuse of the murder of [Sergei Kirov], who was a
supporter of Stalin and an important member of the politburo,
Stalin launched what became known as the purges. It seems fairly
certain that Stalin himself organised [Kirov's murder] known as the
crime of the century. As historian Robert Conquest calls the
murder, "the crime of the century, the keystone of the entire edifice
of terror and suffering by which Stalin secured his grip on the
soviet peoples"
Over the next 4 years, many important officials were arrested,
tortured and made to confess crimes which they were largely
innocent of, and they were forced to emerge for a series of show
trials at which they were invariably found guilty and sentenced to
death or labour camps. Those executed included [M. N. Ryutin
(author of the Ryutin Platform)], all the [‘Old Bolsheviks’ (Zinoviev,
Kamenev, Bukharin and Radek)] who had helped to make the 1917
revolution, [Mikhail Tukhachevsky] (the commander-in-chief of
the Red Army), [13 other generals] and [about two-thirds of the
army’s top officers]. Millions of innocent people ended up in labour
camps (estimation of around 5-8 million). Even Trotsky was sought
out and murdered while in exile in Mexico City (in 1940). The
purges succeeded in eliminating all possible alternative leaders.
Stalin's motive was to frighten/terrorise the great mass of the
population into uncomplaining obedience, however, the
consequences were severe. In a country where the number of highly
educated people was still relatively low, this was borne to hinder
progress.

Impact of War
1. First world war played a significant role in the February
Revolution in 1917. The war lowered the morale of people and it
led to loss of lives along with severe food shortages.
2. Battle of Tannenburg in August 1914 caused close to 100,000
Russian soldiers to die and/or have severe injuries.

Collectivisation of Agriculture
‘We must smash the kulaks so hard that they will never rise to their
feet again.’ - Stalin

Stalin's Foreign Policy

1. He wanted to coexist with the major powers of the world while
expanding their sphere of influence in Europe.
2. Georgy Chicherin
1. He was the Commissar of Foreign Affairs
 1. Comintern
1. Rivalled the major powers in their pursuit of
expanding capitalism
2. Wanted to prove their power/influence
2. Jure de recognition
1. Wanted approval of major powers
3. The USSR followed a policy of Isolationism (most of 1930s)
1. Why?
1. Collectivisation was not working
2. Industrialisation was failing
4. Post 1937, there many immediate threats due to the first world
war
1. Russia was being sandwiched between Germany and
Japan to avoid a 2 front war
1. Nazi Germany
1. Munich agreement
1. Stalin thought Hitler was going to become
allies with USA, Britain, and France + France
was losing to Germany in 1939.
2. Led to the creation of Nazi-Soviet pact.
2. Japan took over Manchuria
2. Signed agreement with Japan
Cold War and Super Power
Tensions
Cuban Missile Crisis
Why did Khrushchev want to place missiles in Cuba in 1962?
American backed dictator in Cuba (Batista)
Fidel Castro coming to power in Cuba 1959
Bay of Pigs (clash between Batista and Castro)
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)
Placed in Cuba, aimed at USA by Khrushchev
Why Cuba?
Distance
Also placed in Turkey by USA, aimed at Russia
On 16th October 1962, president Kennedy was informed that a
U-2 spy plane had taken photos of medium range ballistic
missile sites in Cuba.
For 1 week, Kennedy deliberated with his advisors on the
possible courses of action before making any concrete
decisions.
On 22 October, Kennedy gave a televised address to the
American public informing them of the installations and
announced that a quarantine was placed on Cuba and that any
violation of the quarantine would be seen as a hostile action
that would force the USA to retaliate.
 The ideas of massive retaliation and mutual assured
destruction became potential realities.
At the same time, the Soviets dispatched a ship heading to
Cuba which the USA considered as an act of war.
The crisis was averted as Khrushchev ordered the ship to turn
around.
For his part, Kennedy promised that the USA would not try
another invasion on Cuba and it was also secretly agreed to
dismantle and remove its nuclear weapons in Turkey.
USA continued its boycott on Cuban goods, not allowing trade
or travel. They also closed their embassy although there were
some unofficial American advisors in Cuba.
Batista was corrupt and a dictator while, at the time, Castro
was a good leader who was treating the population well.
The Missile Crisis reflects the implementation of the policy of
brinksmanship. It also reflects the determination of Kennedy
and Khrushchev to avoid confrontation. In Cuba, the notion of
peaceful co-existence trumped brinksmanship and the war
was averted.
The 2 super powers found that nuclear deterrence was far
stronger than the idea of a nuclear war.
Conventional warfare and proxy wars remained the methods
by which the Cold War was fought.

JFK Speech (1962)

Note points of indirect attack towards the USSR.

Korean War
Vietnam War
There was an organisation for resistance to both the Japanese
and the French called the League for Vietnamese Independence
(Vietminh).
It was led by Ho Chi Minh.
The Vietminh was an alliance of all shades of political opinion
that wanted to break free from foreign control despite being
primarily led by communists.

First Phase
In 1945, after the war, Ho Chi Minh declared the country of
Vietnam independent.
When the French made it obvious that they didn't intend to
allow full independence, there were hostilities which began an
8 year struggle which ended with the defeat of the French at
Dien Bien Phu (in May of 1954).
The Vietminh were successful partly because they were masters
of guerrilla tactics and had massive support from the
Vietnamese people, and because the French (who were still
suffering from the after-effects of the world war) had failed to
send enough troops. The decisive factor was probably that from
1950, the new Chinese communist government of Mao Zedong
supplied the rebels with arms and equipment.
The USA also became involved: seeing the struggles as a part of
the Cold War and the fight against communism, the Americans
 supplied the French with military and economic aid; but it was
not enough.
However, the Americans were determined to take the place of
France in order to prevent the spread of communism
throughout south-east Asia in fear of the domino theory.

In Between
By the Geneva Agreement (1945), Laos and Cambodia were to
be independent; Vietnam was temporarily divided into two
states at the 17th parallel.
Ho Chi Minh's government was recognised in North Vietnam.
South Vietnam was to have a separate government for the time
being, but elections were to be held in July 1956 for the whole
country, which would then become united.
Ho Chi Minh was disappointed at the partition, but was
confident that the communists would win the national
elections.
As it turned out, the elections were never held, and a repeat
performance of the Korean war seemed likely.
A civil war developed in South Vietnam which eventually
involved in the North and the USA.

Second Phase
1. Involvement of USA
1. South Vietnamese govt. under President Ngo Dinh Diem
(who was chosen via national referendum in 1955) refused
 to make preparations for the elections for the whole of
Vietnam.
2. The USA, which was backing his regime, did nor press him
for fear of a communist victory if the elections went
ahead.
3. US president Eisenhower (1953-61) was just as vexed as
Truman had been in regards to the spread of communism.
4. He was obsessed with the concept of the domino theory.
5. Eisenhower thought this concept could be applied to
countries such that if one country in a region 'fell' to
communism, it was
2.

Détente
Détente means a permanent relaxation of tensions between
the East and the West.
The first real signs of détente could be seen in the early 1970s.
Motives Behind Détente
USSR was finding it difficult to keep up with the Americans
and wanted to spend more on increasing their standard of
living.
Americans began to realise that communism could be dealt
with in a better way to avoid the
Western European nations were worried of being on the front
line in the case of the break out of nuclear war.
Willi Brandt (chancellor of west Germany in 1969) worked for
better relations with eastern Europe. This policy was known as
'OSTPOLITIK'.
Progress was made with a 'hotline' telephone link. (1963)
They agreed to only carry out underground nuclear tests. (1963)
Agreement was signed in 1967 which banned the use of nuclear
weapons in outer space
SALT 1 - 1972 (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty)
Major breakthrough.
The 2 countries signed the SALT 1.
This only slowed down the arms race, not stopped it.
Presidents Brezhnev and Nixon met at 3 summit meetings
where they began negotiations for SALT 2 and USA began to
export wheat to Russia.
Helsinki Agreement - July 1975
This is where USA, USSR, Canada, and most European
countries accepted the European frontiers drawn up after
WW2, thus recognising the division of Germany.
The communist countries promised to allow their peoples
'Human Rights including freedom of speech and freedom to
leave the country'.
Setbacks
In 1979 NATO became nervous at the deployment of 150 new
Russian SS-20 missiles.
NATO decided to deploy over 500 Pershing and cruise missiles
in Europe by 1983 as a deterrent to a possible Russian attack on
Western Europe.
US senate decided NOT to accept SALT 2 treaty which would've
limited the number of MIRVs they could use.
Star Wars
When the Russians invaded Afghanistan on Christmas day in
1979, and replaced the president with one more favourable to
them, all the old western suspicions of Russian motives
revived.
The next few years are sometimes referred to as 'the second
Cold War'.
Both sides spent the first half of the 1980s building up their
nuclear arsenals and US President Reagan (1981-89) apparently
gave the go ahead for a new weapon system, the Strategic
Defence Initiative (SDI), also known as Star Wars.
This was intended to use weapons based in space to destroy
ballistic missiles in flight.
Détente gathered momentum again thanks to the
determination of the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
(1985-91).
In November 1985, he had a meeting with President Reagan in
Geneva which went well and they issued a joint statement that
'Nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought'.
The signs were that détente was back on course.
Then in April 1986, there was a disastrous accident at
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station in the Ukraine.
This caused a wave of anti-nuclear feeling in the USSR and
Gorbachev decided that measures to reduce nuclear dangers
were absolutely vital.
In October 1986, he invited Reagan to a summit meeting at
Reykjavik and proposed a 15 year timetable for a 'step-by-step
process to rid the earth of nuclear weapons.'
Reagan responded to some extent, though he was not prepared
to abandon his star wars project. Reagan's response was
lukewarm.
At the next summit, held in Washington, in 1987, a historic
breakthrough was made - Reagan and Gorbachev formally
signed the INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) treaty.
Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
All land based intermediate range (300-3000 miles) nuclear
weapons were to be scrapped over the next 3 years.
This meant 436 American, and 1575 Soviet warheads. Including
all Russian missiles in East Germany and Czechoslovakia and
all American cruise and Pershing missiles based in Western
Europe.
There were strict verification provisions so that both sides
could check that the weapons were actually getting destroyed.
However, all this amounted to only 4% of the existing stocks of
nuclear weapons and there was a stumbling block of Reagan's
star wars which he was still not prepared to give up.
Also the UK prime minister Margaret Thatcher was determined
that Britain should keep its own nuclear arsenal.
Nor did the agreement include French weapons.
Nevertheless, the INF treaty was an important turning point in
the nuclear arms race since it was the first time any weapons
had been destroyed.
By 1985, USSR was seriously embarrassed by its involvement in
Afghanistan.
Although there were over 100,000 Soviet troops in the
country, they found it impossible to subdue the ferocious
 Islamic Gorillas.
The hostility of China, the suspicion of Islamic states all over
the world and repeated condemnations by the UN convinced
Gorbachev it was time to pull out.
It was eventually agreed that the Russians would begin
withdrawing their troops from Afghanistan on 1st May 1988,
provided the Americans stop sending military aid to the
Afghan resistance movement.
In June 1988, Reagan went to Moscow to discuss the
implementing of the INF treaty.
Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe

Rights and Protest - Apartheid

(1948-1964)
Directory
1. Introduction
2. Origins of Apartheid
3. Development of Apartheid
1. Petty Apartheid
2. Grand Apartheid
4. Defiance Campaign
5. Congress of People
Introduction
The Dutch were the first people to come to South Africa for trade
purposes. They came and settled near the cape of good hope. The
Europeans who were living in South Africa were called Afrikaners.
Later on the British established settlements in South Africa.

Origins of Apartheid
In May 1948, the Whites-only electorate of the Union of South
Africa voted the Herenigde Nasionale Party (more usually known as
the National Party or the NP), led by Dr DF Malan, into power. The
margin of the NP victory was exceptionally narrow. In fact, the
ruling United Party (UP) of sitting Prime Minister Jan Smuts won
the majority of the popular vote, but the electoral system was
weighted in favour of larger, rural constituencies where the NP
managed to out-perform its rivals. This meant that Malan was able
to form a coalition government with the smaller Afrikaner Party
(AP) of Nicolaas Havenga. Despite the narrowness of the NP
mandate, the decision of the White voters of South Africa was
momentous. The NP would remain in power for more than four
decades. During this period, it would implement an extreme
version of racial segregation known as apartheid, a word which
means "apartness" in Afrikaans. Malan and his successors enacted a
series of legislative measures designed to reinforce the dominance
of the minority White population over the other peoples of South
Africa. They also sought to engineer the complete separation of the
different racial groups in the country. Their actions resulted in an
explosion of opposition to the apartheid system among the non-
White peoples of South Africa, and growing disgust and opposition
to the country from the international community, leading to
diplomatic pressure and trade sanctions. In the 1980s, with South
Africa in a state of deepening political and economic crisis, a
section of the NP leadership made the decision to begin
dismantling the apartheid system. The country completed its
transition from apartheid to non-racialism with its first fully
democratic elections in 1994. These were won handsomely by the
African National Congress (ANC), the party which had been at the
forefront of Black opposition to the apartheid system since the NP
first won power in 1948. Nelson Mandela, the ANC leader who had
spent 27 years in apartheid prisons, became South Africa's first ever
Black president.

Apartheid was a system of extreme racial segregation which lasted

while the Herenigde Nasionale Party was in power until the 1980s
when the country was in deep political and economic crisis. The
word Apartheid translates to "Apartness" in Afrikaans.
The first fully democratic elections in South Africa were held in
1994 which was won by the African National Congress leading to
Nelson Mandela becoming the first ever Black president.

Development of Apartheid
It developed in two phases:
 Petty Apartheid( Baasskap- Boss Rule)
Grand Apartheid

Petty Apartheid
Petty apartheid developed in the first few years of NP rule
when Malan and Strijdom served as prime ministers.
Its principal purpose was to ensure complete domination,
economic and political of white over black.
The term Baasskap connotes the brutal subjugation of black
majority and the decisive manner with which the government
dealt with the anti- apartheid opposition.

Grand Apartheid
The second phase known as Grand Apartheid was initiated by
HF Verwoerd in the late 1950s.

Defiance Campaign
The campaign also led to the formation of the coloured
people's congress (CPC) and the congress of democrats. They
played a crucial role in promoting multiracial resistance to
Apartheid.
During the campaign, late chief Albert Luthuli was deposed
from the chieftaincy to which he had been elected for refusing
to obey the orders of the regime and disassociate from the ANC
(African National Congress).
 - He was elected the president-general of the ANC in dec 1952
and earned the respect of the world opinion for his stead fast
resistance to Apartheid until his mysterious death in 1979.
Nelson Mandela
Nelson Mandela, president of the ANC youth league, was
appointed appointed volunteer in chief of the defiance
campaign. His outstanding qualities as a leader led to his
election as the Transvaal president and dep national president
of the ANC 1952. He was to assume even greater
responsibilities in the struggle especially after the ANC was
banned in 1960 and despite his incarceration for 25 years (5th
Aug 1952 onwards), he remains a inspiring symbol of
resistance.
His wife, Vinny Mandela, was also a strong influence while he
was in prison.
The campaign led to the foundation of the defense and aid fund
for South Africa led by the late reverend Canon John Collins in
London and the American Committee on Africa by the
reverend George Houser in New York initiating the
international solidarity moment with the South African
struggle.
Defiance campaign and the subsequent bus boycotts and other
acts of non violent resistance in South Africa were an
inspiration to the Black people in the United States in
launching the Civil Rights movement under the leadership of
the late reverend Martin Luther King Jr.

Congress of People
Mussolini and Italy
1. Introduction
2. Benito Mussolini Rise to Power
3. Mussolini's Consolidation of Power
4. Domestic Policies and State Control
5. Foreign Policy and Expansionism
6. Road to World War II
7. Downfall and Legacy
8. Mussolini's Consolidation of Power in Italy
9. Key Concepts
10. Disillusionment and Frustration - 1919
11. Mussolini
1. Winning the support of the Church
2. Lack of effective opposition
12. The General Strike of 1922
13. The March on Rome

Introduction:
Mussolini's rise to power in Italy during the early 20th century
marked a significant chapter in European history. Through a
combination of political manoeuvring, propaganda, and the
establishment of a fascist regime, Mussolini was able to
 consolidate his power and transform Italy into a totalitarian
state.

Benito Mussolini: Rise to Power

Background:
Italy's post-WWI situation - economic instability, social
unrest, territorial dissatisfaction.
Impact of the Paris Peace Conference and Italy's
discontent with the Treaty of Versailles.
Mussolini's Early Life and Ideology:
Mussolini's upbringing and political development.
Formation of the Fascist ideology - nationalism,
authoritarianism, anti-communism.
Formation of the Fascist Party:
Founding of the Italian Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale
Fascista) in 1921.
Squadristi (Blackshirts) - paramilitary units used to
suppress opposition and gain support.

Mussolini's Consolidation of Power

March on Rome (1922):
The threat of a fascist march prompts King Victor
Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister.
Mussolini uses this position to gradually establish
dictatorial control.
Acerbo Law (1923):
 Manipulation of electoral system to favor Mussolini's
party.
Facilitates the National Fascist Party's dominance in
parliamentary elections.
Legislative Changes and Political Suppression:
Introduction of laws to suppress political opposition,
trade unions, and freedom of the press.
Establishment of a one-party state - Fascist Grand Council
as the highest authority.

Domestic Policies and State Control

Corporate State Model:
Corporatism - merging of labor, business, and state
interests.
Corporate syndicates replace trade unions and employers'
associations.
Battle for Births:
Pronatalist policies to increase the population and create a
larger workforce and military.
Cult of Il Duce:
Mussolini's personality cult and control over media.
Propaganda to promote himself as the embodiment of the
Italian nation.

Foreign Policy and Expansionism

Imperial Ambitions:
 Expansionist goals to establish an Italian empire, similar
to ancient Rome.
Invasion of Ethiopia (1935-1936) to gain colonies and
prestige.
Rome-Berlin Axis:
Alliance with Nazi Germany, forming the Axis Powers.
Collaboration in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).
Stresa Front Collapse:
Breakdown of the Stresa Front due to Mussolini's
aggression in Abyssinia.

Road to World War II

Alignment with Nazi Germany:
Growing alignment with Hitler's aggressive
expansionism.
Anti-Comintern Pact and Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
Occupation of Albania (1939):
Further expansion in the Balkans.
Entry into World War II:
Italy's hesitant entry in 1940, leading to military failures
and defeats.

Downfall and Legacy

Allied Invasion and Collapse:
Allied invasion of Sicily and mainland Italy.
Mussolini's fall from power and establishment of a
German puppet state.
 Execution and End of Fascism:
Mussolini's capture, execution, and public display.
Italy's liberation by Allied forces in 1945.
Impact and Legacy:
Fascism's lasting impact on Italian society, politics, and
collective memory.
Italy's transformation into a democratic republic post-
WWII.

Mussolini's Consolidation of Power in

Italy
1. Formation of the Fascist Party:

Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party in 1921 as a

response to post-World War I political turmoil and economic
instability.
Fascism promoted nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the
superiority of the state and the importance of a strong,
centralized government.

2. March on Rome (1922):

Fearing a communist uprising, Mussolini orchestrated the

March on Rome, a demonstration of fascist power that
pressured King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint him as Prime
Minister in October 1922.
While the march itself was relatively peaceful, the implicit
threat of violence played a crucial role in Mussolini's ascent to
 power.

3. Legal and Political Maneuvering:

Once in office, Mussolini worked within the existing legal

framework to gradually consolidate his power.
He formed coalitions with conservative and liberal parties,
weakening political opposition and enhancing his political
legitimacy.
Key positions were filled with loyal fascists, allowing Mussolini
to influence policies and control key institutions.

4. Acerbo Law (1923):

This electoral reform favored the party with the most votes by
granting it a two-thirds majority in the Italian Parliament.
The law was designed to ensure fascist dominance in the
legislature, paving the way for future legal changes.

5. Suppression of Opposition:

Mussolini's government suppressed political opposition

through violence, censorship, and intimidation.
Trade unions were controlled by the state, and opposition
parties were gradually dissolved or absorbed into the fascist
party.

6. Establishment of the Corporate State:

Mussolini aimed to create a corporate state, merging labor and

industry under state control to eliminate class conflict.
 Syndicates were established to represent various sectors, but in
reality, they were subject to state control, limiting workers'
rights.

7. Cult of Personality and Propaganda:

Mussolini cultivated a cult of personality, portraying himself

as the embodiment of the Italian nation.
Propaganda was used extensively to promote fascist ideals,
glorify Mussolini's leadership, and suppress dissent.

8. Lateran Accords (1929):

An agreement between Mussolini and the Catholic Church, it

recognized Vatican City as an independent state and
established the Catholic religion as Italy's official religion.
This move secured Mussolini's support from the Church and
added to his political stability.

9. Expansionist Policies and the Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936):

Mussolini pursued expansionist foreign policies to strengthen

Italy's global standing, which culminated in the invasion of
Ethiopia.
The Abyssinian Crisis exposed Italy's brutality and challenged
the League of Nations' authority, but also rallied domestic
support.

10. Conclusion and Legacy:

Mussolini's consolidation of power led to the establishment of

a fascist dictatorship in Italy by the late 1920s.
 His regime suppressed civil liberties, created a cult of
personality, and implemented aggressive foreign policies.
Despite initial successes, Italy's involvement in World War II
and its alliance with Nazi Germany ultimately led to
Mussolini's downfall and the end of his regime in 1943.

Key Concepts:
Fascist Party and Ideology
March on Rome
Legal Maneuvering
Acerbo Law
Suppression of Opposition
Corporate State
Cult of Personality
Propaganda
Lateran Accords
Expansionist Policies
Abyssinian Crisis
Legacy of Mussolini's Regime

Disillusionment and Frustration - 1919

In the summer of 1919 there was a general atmosphere of
disillusionment and frustration in Italy caused by a combination of
factors:

1. The social effects of the war:

 1. When Italy entered the war, the allies had promised her
Trentino, South-Tyrol, Istria, northern Dalmatia on the
Adriatic coast, and a protectorate over Albania.
1. Although she was given the first 4 of these areas, the
rest were awarded to other states, mainly Yugoslavia.
2. Albania was to remain independent.
3. They felt cheated in view of their variant efforts
during the war and loss of about 700,000 men (7 lakh
men)
4. They felt particularly irritated with the fact of not
being able to get Fiume and Adalia which was also
given to Yugoslavia.
1. Although this wasn't promised by the allies to the
Italians.
5. This gave way to Mussolini since he could use this
frustration to his benefit.
2. The economic effects of the war:
1. Effects of the war on the economy and standard of living
were disastrous.
1. The government had borrowed heavily, especially
from the USA, and these debts now had to be repaid.
2. As the lire declined in value from 5 to the dollar (US)
to 28 to the dollar (US).
1. The cost of living increased accordingly by at
least 5 times.
3. Reduction and wartime production led to mass
unemployment in the country.
 1. Almost 2.5 million ex-servicemen had difficulty
finding jobs and were left virtually unemployed.
3. Growing contempt for the parliamentary system:
1. Votes for all men and proportional representation were
introduced as of the 1919 elections. This meant that there
were a large number of parties in the parliament.
1. Post the elections in May 1921, at least 9 parties
represented including liberals, nationalists, socialists,
communists, catholic popular party, and the fascists.
1. This made it difficult for any one party to gain a
clear majority and coalition governments were
inevitable.
2. No consistent policy was possible as 5 different
cabinets with shaky majorities came and went
(unstable govt.).
3. This led to growing impatience with a system
that seemed designed to prevent a decisive
government.
2. Wave of strikes from 1919 and 1920 (Bienno Rosso)
1. The industrialisation of Italy led to the development
of a strong socialist party and trade unions.
2. They started to protest through a wave of strikes in
1919 and 1920.
3. Led to riots, looting of shops and occupation of
factories by workers.
4. Factory councils, socialist leagues and cooperatives,
which were reminiscent of Russian Soviets, were
appearing in Turin.
 5. The govt. prestige sank even lower because of its
failure to protect property.
6. Many property owners were convinced that a left-
wing revolution was at hand especially when the
Italian Communist Party being formed in January
1921.
3. Mussolini attracted wide spread support.
1. Mussolini and the Fascist Party were attractive to
many sections of the society because they aimed to
rescue Italy from the feeble and corrupt government
and provide the country with a strong political system
which would be more stable.

Mussolini
Mussolini started off as a socialist and made a name for
himself as a journalist becoming the editor for the socialist
newspaper avanti.
He fell out with the socialists because they were against
Italian intervention in the war.
He started his own paper called popolo d'Italia.
In 1919, he founded the fascist party with a socialist and a
republican program.
The local party branches were known as fascidi
combatimento (fighting groups).
The word fasces meant the bundle of rods with protruding
axe which used to symbolise the authority and power of
ancient Romans.
 At this stage the fascists were anti-monarchy, anti-church,
and anti-big business.
The new party won no seats in the 1919 elections so
Mussolini changes his course of action and became a
defender of private enterprise and property thus
attracting the much needed financial support from
wealthy business interests.
The property owners saw him as a guarantee of law and
order and a protector of the property especially after the
formation of the communist party in 1921.

Winning the support of the Church

Having won over the big businesses, Mussolini began making
conciliatory speeches about the Roman Catholic Church.
Pope Pius XI swung the church into line behind Mussolini
seeing him as a good anti-communist weapon.
In the span of 3 years(1919-22), Mussolini swung from extreme
left to extreme right political alignment.
Most of the working classes supported the fascists, though the
majority of industrialists supported socialists/leftist parties.

Lack of effective opposition

The anti-fascist groups failed to cooperate with each other and
made no determined efforts to keep the fascists out.
E.g. The Communists refused to cooperate with the
Socialists.
 Giovanni Giolitti was the prime minister from June 1920 to July
1921 when he held the elections of May 1921 in the hope that
the fascists (still unrepresented in the government) would win
some seats and then support his government. He was willing to
overlook their violence feeling that they'd become more
responsible once they were in the parliament.
They (the fascists) only gained 35 seats whereas the
socialists gained 123 seats.
Clearly, there should've been no question of a fascist takeover
had the leftists been united.
The socialists must take much of the blame for refusing to
work with the government to curb the fascists' violence.

The General Strike of 1922

The socialists tried to take advantage of the situation by calling
a general strike in the summer of 1922.
The fascists announced that if the government failed to quell
the strike, they would crush it themselves.
When the strike failed due to lack of support, Mussolini was
able to pose as a saviour of the nation from communism.
By October 1922, the fascists were confident enough to stage
their March on Rome.

The March on Rome

as about 50,000 black shirts converged on the capital the
prime minister Luigi Facta was prepared to resist but
 surprisingly King Victor Emannuel III refused to declare a state
of emergency.
The King invited mussolini to come to rome and form a new
government which he did after arriving by train from Milan.
Afterwards the fascists fostered the myth that they had seized
power in a heroic struggle, however it had been achieved
legally by the mere threat of force while the army and the
police stood aside.
the role of the king was important as he made the crucial
decision to not declare martial law to stop the black shirts. the
march was an enormous bluff which worked.
the reasons why the king decided against armed resistance
remains unknown.
some historians suggest that he lacked confidence in Facta, did
not have faith in the army and could not rely on it, and feared a
long civil war
There is no doubt that the King had a certain amount of
sympathy with the Fascist aim of providing strong governance,
whatever the King's motives were, the outcome was clear -
Mussolini became the first ever Fascist premier in history.

Mussolini's consolidation of power

there were no sudden changes in the sytem of govt and the
state institutions, at first Mussolini was merely the prime
minister of a coalition cabinet, however the king had given
him special powers to last until the end of 1923
 his private army (blackshirts) was legalised, becoming the natl.
state voluntary militia (MVSN)
Accerbo Law - passed Nov 1923 changed rules of the general
elections. From now on, the party which got most votes in a
general election would automatically be given 2/3rds of the
seats in parliament.
as a result of the next election in april 1924- the Fascists and
their supporters came out with 404 seats and the opposition
parties got 107 only.
the right wing success can be explained by the general desire
for a strong government ehich would put the country back on
it's feet again, after the weak minority govts of the preceding
years
banning of oppostition parties
Matteotti Crisis

Banning of Opposition Parties

Persistent opponents of the regime were either exiled or
murdered.
Most notorious case of these was the murder of Giacomo
Matteotti.
Soon after the election of 1924, Matteotti gave a speech in the
parliament complaining about the corruption and violence
from the fascists during the election calling for the results to be
nulled.
There is little doubt that Mussolini was responsible for having
Matteotti killed since this infuriated him.
 Giovanni Amendola - Beaten to death by the fascist thugs.
Due to these reasons, Fascist popularity levels dramatically
slumped, however nobody had the courage nor the nerve to
fight the fascists.

Changes in the Local Government

Elected town councils and mayors were abolished and towns
were run by officials appointed from Rome or the fascist party
bosses known as the ras.
Education was closely supervised to glorify the fascist system
through the following steps.
Education in schools and universities were closely
supervised.
Teachers had to wear uniforms and take an oath of loyalty
to the regime.
Children were encouraged to criticise any teachers who
lacked enthusiasm for the party.
They were encouraged to join the government youth
organisations (i.e The Gioventu Italiana del Littorio (GIL)).
This had branches for both boys and girls aged 6-21.
Organised sports and military parades.
There was another special organisation for young boys
aged 6-8 known as 'sons of the wolf' which also tried to
indoctrinate them with the billions of the Il Duce and the
glories of the war.
The other main message emphasised was total obedience
to authority.
 This was deemed necessary because everything was
seen in terms of struggle - 'Believe, Obey, Fight!'.

Points for Consolidation

Metteoti crisis
Roberto Ferinacci
Killing of Amendola and exile of many others
Ferinacci supervision of purge

Internal Assessment

The topic doesn't need to be related to the syllabus but it must be

historical and can't be on an event that's occurred in the last 10
years.
It is crucial that there are sufficient sources to support the essay.
Students should be aware of any relevant ethical considerations.
The emphasis must me on a specific historic inquiry to analyse a
range of source material.
The topic must be debatable.
Students should be able to evaluate and use evidence to reach a
relevant conclusion consistent with the evidence and arguments
that have been put forward.
Some Topics To Consider:
1. Murder of Sergei Kirov
2. New economic policy
3. Moscow trials
4. Nuremberg trials
5. Show trials of USSR / the great terror
6. Hitler's drug consumption
7. Collectivisation of agriculture in USSR - why random booms?

Essays
1. Essay 1
2. Essay 2
3. Essay 3
4. Essay 4

Essay 1
To what extent did the weak political system in USSR lead to the
emergence of Stalin?

The Soviet Union was an authoritarian state which was established

in 1922 and later dissolved in 1991. The political structure of the
Soviet Union had seen several shifts during its time as a nation,
including the political rise of Joseph Stalin. This essay will examine
how the USSR's weak political structure was the leading cause for
the emergence of Stalin.

Following the Russian Revolution, Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik Party

took control of Russia. The socialist ideology of the party was based
on the idea that everyone should live in an egalitarian society. In
addition to creating a centralised government, they nationalised
several enterprises and properties.

But after Lenin unexpectedly passed away in 1924, the party was left
with a void, and several candidates rose to the top. The Communist
Party (the Bolsheviks) and ultimately the Soviet Union were then
led by Joseph Stalin due to the internal conflict of interest in
bringing Trotsky to power.

Lenin's era is known for having a weak political system in the Soviet
Union. The establishment of a one-party Soviet state by him
resulted in the outlaw of other political groups. By reducing checks
and balances, the Communist Party was given absolute authority
over the government.

In order to keep control over the population, the Communist Party

also founded the KGB (Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti), a
secret police agency. The use of force was utilised to exterminate
party opponents and anyone who resisted the administration. This
action severely damaged the political system by removing any and
all avenues for criticism of the policies and resistance including in
any form of art or expression.
The Soviet Union's electoral system also had a problem because it
only permitted the presentation of one candidate per election. This
action guaranteed that only candidates endorsed by the Communist
Party would be elected and that alternate candidate would not be
accessible to the public.

Many things contributed to Joseph Stalin's ascent to power,

including his membership in the Communist Party, his charisma,
his manipulative nature, and the ineffective political system in the
USSR. Stalin had been a member of the Communist Party for a very
long time and had been elected general secretary of the
organisation in 1922. He had authority over transfers, promotions,
and appointments inside the party thanks to this position. He was
able to eliminate his rivals and strengthen his position of power
thanks to this action as well as keep himself under the radar
enough to be underestimated as a threat after the death of Lenin.
Stalin was charming as well and was instrumental in the Soviet
Union becoming a major industrial force.

He was looked up to as a father figure and made a commitment to

the nation's future. He gained popularity as a result of this action,
which he then used to further advance his political goals. Stalin was
further assisted in his ascent to power by his capacity for
manipulation. He made use of his role as general secretary to
cultivate a following that would aid him in his campaign for the
Soviet Union's top leadership position. Along with that, he defeated
any rivals who threatened his authority.

In conclusion, the weak political system in the Soviet Union played

a significant role in the rise of Stalin. The centralised government,
the absence of opposition, and the flawed electoral system provided
the perfect environment for Stalin to establish his dictatorship.
Stalin's rise to power was aided by his manipulation tactics,
charisma, and his role in the Communist Party. The Soviet Union
suffered under Stalin's reign, with millions of people losing their
lives, as he implemented policies that favoured his personal
interests.

Essay 2
"Full authoritarian control could not be achieved.” With reference to
Nazi Germany and USSR under Stalin, to what extent do you agree
with this statement?

The procurement of complete authoritarian control is an enduring

desire for totalitarian regimes throughout history. This essay seeks
to evaluate the extent to which the statement "Full authoritarian
control could not be achieved" applies to Nazi Germany and the
Soviet Union under Stalin's rule. By dissecting key facets such as
institutional manipulation, suppression of opposition, and societal
control, this essay aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of
the postulation. Drawing upon diverse historiographical
perspectives, this essay will present a nuanced analysis of the topic.

Both Nazi Germany and the USSR under Stalin pursued strategies
aimed at manipulating institutions to consolidate authoritarian
control. Renowned historian Ian Kershaw posits that Hitler's
regime adeptly subverted democratic institutions in Germany,
exemplified by the Enabling Act of 1933, which vested Hitler with
legislative authority sans parliamentary consent. Furthermore, the
works of Richard J. Evans contend that the establishment of the
Gestapo and SS enabled Hitler to enforce compliance through
pervasive surveillance and terror. Conversely, critics such as
William Shirer highlight the limitations of Hitler's control,
underscoring the presence of competing power centres within the
Nazi Party that impeded the attainment of full authoritarian
control. Similarly, the scholarship of Sheila Fitzpatrick underscores
Stalin's capacity to manipulate institutions, as evident in the
establishment of a monolithic one-party state in the USSR.
Nonetheless, dissenting voices, including historian Robert
Conquest, argue that Stalin encountered significant hurdles in
controlling the Soviet bureaucracy, thus preventing the realisation
of complete institutional control.

The suppression of opposition played a pivotal role in upholding

authoritarian control in both Nazi Germany and the USSR under
Stalin. Historian Richard J. Evans contends that Hitler employed an
array of methods, encompassing censorship and the establishment
of concentration camps, to effectively stifle dissent. Moreover, the
notorious Night of the Long Knives in 1934 eliminated internal
opposition within the Nazi Party. Evans further asserts that Stalin's
regime executed widespread purges and orchestrated show trials to
eliminate perceived threats, thereby ensuring his authoritarian
grip. Similarly, the scholarship of Orlando Figes underscores the
extensive purges of the 1930s under Stalin, which eradicated
potential opponents within the Communist Party. Nevertheless,
alternative interpretations, including the works of J. Arch Getty,
question the extent of Stalin's control over the purges, suggesting
that they stemmed from a blend of personal paranoia and a desire
to maintain power, rather than a wholly coordinated effort to
achieve absolute control.

The attainment of full authoritarian control necessitates exerting

influence over society. As elucidated by Richard J. Evans, the Nazi
regime implemented diverse policies, encompassing propaganda
campaigns, the Hitler Youth, and the establishment of a
surveillance state, with the intent of moulding public opinion and
exercising societal control. Furthermore, eugenics policies targeted
specific societal groups, serving to promote the Nazi ideological
agenda. Similarly, Sheila Fitzpatrick posits that Stalin's USSR
endeavoured to exert control over all aspects of society through
centralised economic planning, collectivisation, and the
manipulation of education, media, and cultural activities.
Nevertheless, historians such as Richard Overy highlight the
limitations of Nazi control over society, emphasising the existence
of resistance movements and the regime's inability to entirely
eradicate opposition.

In conclusion, diverse historiographical perspectives offer valuable

insights into the extent of authoritarian control achieved in Nazi
Germany and the USSR under Stalin. While there were instances of
authoritarian control realised in both regimes, historians diverge in
their assessments regarding the degree of full control attained.
Institutional manipulation, suppression of opposition, and societal
control constituted significant factors that contributed to the
consolidation of authoritarian rule. Nevertheless, disparate
interpretations underscore the intricacies and constraints faced by
these regimes. Hence, while acknowledging the accomplishments
of authoritarian control, it is imperative to acknowledge the
nuanced historiographical debates surrounding the assertion that
"Full authoritarian control could not be achieved" in Nazi Germany
and the USSR under Stalin.

Essay 3
“The use of force was the most important method used to maintain
power in authoritarian states.” Discuss with reference to two
authoritarian states.

Essay 4
How did Mao and the CCP consolidate their power from 1949-53?

Essay 5
Compare the causes of two Cold War crises, each chosen from a
different region.

Essay 6

Essay 7
How did Mussolini Consolidate his power in the period 1925-39?