GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TOTAL STRESS, EFFECTIVE STRESS

AND PORE WATER PRESSURE
By

PROF. Ir. DR. HJ. RAMLI NAZIR

Centre of Tropical Geoengineering Centre
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
SOIL STRESS

*TOTAL STRESS, 
*PORE PRESSURE, U
*EFFECTIVE STRESS, ’
 By: Kamal Tawfiq, Ph.D., P.E
Added
Stress
Stress Distribution in Soils
Geostatic
Stress

Geostatic Stresses Added Stresses (Point, line, strip, triangular, circular, rectangular)

Total Stress Westergaard’s Method

Effective Stress (For Pavement)
Pore Water Pressure Bossinisque Equations
1.Point Load
Approximate Method
2.Line Load y 1:2 Method
Total Stress= Effective Stress+ Pore Water Pressure 3.Strip Load
4.Triangular Load x
total = eff + u 5.Circular Load txy
6.Rectangular Load

Stress Bulbs
Influence Newmark Charts
Charts

A
 FULLY SATURATED SOILS

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Fully

Saturated
 TERZAGHI’S EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT
(1928)

′
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎 +∪
1. The total normal stress (𝜎𝑇 ) on a plane within the soil mass, being the
force per unit area transmitted in a normal direction across the plane,
imagining the s oil to be a solid (single-phase) material;

2 The pore water pressure (u), being the pressure of the water filling
the void space between the solid particles;

3 The effective normal stress (𝜎 ′ ) on the plane, representing the stress

transmitted through the soil skeleton only.
 PISTON AND SPRING ANALOGY

• t = 0 to t = ∞

T = ’ + U T – U = ’
U is decreasing
• Total Stress = SOIL + WATER

• Pore Water Pressure = WATER

• Effective Stress = SOIL

 STRESS
 (kN/m2)= .z
where:
 = unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
z = depth / thickness from ground surface (m)
 TOTAL NORMAL STRESS

• Generated by the mass in the soil body,

calculated by sum up the unit weight of all the
material (soil solids + water) multiplied by soil
thickness or depth.
• Denoted as , v, Po
• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and
the water influence is ignored.
• Total stress increases with depth and with unit
weight: Vertical total stress at depth z
 =   t .z
z = The depth of point
 PORE WATER PRESSURE (U)

Under hydrostatic conditions (no water flow) the pore pressure at a given point is
given by the hydrostatic pressure:

u = w .hw
Where
w = unit weight of water (9.81kN/m3  10 kN/m3)
hw = depth below water table or overlying
water surface
 NEGATIVE PORE PRESSURE
- Below the water table, pore pressures are positive.

- In dry soil, the pore pressure is zero.

- Above the water table, when the soil is saturated,

pore pressure will be negative.

u = -(w .hw)
 EFFECTIVE STRESS

• Defined as soil stress which not influenced by water pressure in

soil body.
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two type
of stress i.e.:
• Total Normal Stress ()
• Pore Water Pressure (u)
• Effective stress formula

' =  − u
 EFFECTIVE STRESS

' =  − u
 =  t .z u =  w .z

@
' = (  t −  w ).z =  '.z
SUMMARY

IF BOTH TOTAL STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE

CHANGE BY THE SAME AMOUNT, THE EFFECTIVE
STRESS REMAINS CONSTANT. A CHANGE IN
EFFECTIVE STRESS WILL CAUSE: A CHANGE IN
STRENGTH AND A CHANGE IN VOLUME.
SOIL STRESS AND PORE WATER PRESSURE
APPLICATIONS
• The total vertical stress (σv) acting at a point below the ground
surface is due to the weight of everything lying above i.e. soil,
water, and surface loading

• Total vertical stresses are calculated from the unit weight of the
soil

• Any change in total vertical stress (σv) may also result in a

change in the horizontal total stress (σ h) at the same point

• The relationships between vertical and horizontal stress are

complex (Δσv ≠ Δσh)
 TOTAL NORMAL STRESS

• Generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum

up the unit weight of all the material (soil solids + water)
multiflied by soil thickness or depth.
• Denoted as , v, Po
• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and the water
influence is ignored.

 =   t .z
z = The depth of point

Bina Nusantara
 TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS
IN HOMOGENEOUS SOIL

Ground Level

σv

Depth, z
SOIL
ELEMENT

 v = z σv
TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS
BELOW A RIVER OR LAKE
Water Level
zw
Ground Level

 v = z +  w z w
TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS
IN MULTI-LAYERED SOIL

Ground Level

z1 Soil1

z2 Soil2

z3 Soil3

 v =  1 z1 +  2 z 2 +  3 z3
 TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS
WITH A SURFACE SURCHARGE LOAD
Very ‘wide’ surcharge, q (kN/m2)

Ground Level

 v = z + q
 PORE WATER PRESSURE
• The water in the pores of a soil is called
pore water.
• The pressure within this porewater is called
pore water pressure (u) or Normal Pressure
• The magnitude of pore water pressure
depends on:
a) the depth below the water table
b) the conditions of seepage flow
 PORE WATER PRESSURE
UNDER HYDROSTATIC CONDITIONS (NO WATER
FLOW)
Ground Level

Water Table

u =  wZ
 EFFECTIVE STRESS

• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in

soil body.
• Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base on the
experimental result
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two
type of stress i.e.:
• Total Normal Stress ()
• Pore Water Pressure (u)
• Effective stress formula

' =  − u

Bina Nusantara
 EFFECTIVE STRESS

' =  − u
 =  t .z u =  w .z

' = (  t −  w ).z =  '.z

Bina Nusantara
VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESSES

Water Table Ground Level

 = −u
'

 = z −  w z
'
 SHORT TERM & LONG TERM STRESSES
a) Initially before construction
Stress distribution profile at its original stage
b) Immediately after construction
The immediately effect after the construction is an increasing in
the pore water pressure – loading is too rapid and not allow any
significant out flow of pore water and the soils are in an
UNDRAINED stage
c) Few days after construction
Few days after the construction, the out flow of pore water
takes place at the Sand layer due to its high permeability and
the sand is in DRAINED stage. i.e. excess PWP is dissipated at the
Sand layer whereas Clay Layer is in contrast
d) Many years after construction
After many years, excess PWP will dissipated in clay layer
despite its low permeability and the soils are in drained stage
APPLICATION EXAMPLES
 EXAMPLE 1

1m
t,1 = 17 kN/m3 A = t,1 x 1 m
3m ·A d,1 = 13 kN/m3 = 17 kN/m2

·B B = t,1 x 3 m
= 51 kN/m2
t,2 = 18 kN/m3
4m
d,2 = 14 kN/m3

C = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
·C = 123 kN/m2
2m
t,3 = 18 kN/m3
4m
· D d,3 = 15 kN/m3
D = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
+ t,3 x 2 m
= 159 kN/m2
Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE 2

Sand
h1 = 2 m
t = 18.0 kN/m3
GWT
d = 13.1 kN/m3
h2 = 2.5 m

Clay
h3 = 4.5 m
t = 19.80 kN/m3

x
Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE 2 : SOLUTION

• Total Stress
 = d,1 . h1 + t,1 . h2 + t,2 . h3
 = 13.1 x 2 + 18 x 2.5 + 19.8 x 4.5
= 160.3 kN/m2

• Pore Water Pressure

u = w x (h2+h3)
u = 10 x 7 ’ = d,1 x h1 + (t,2 - w) x h2 + (t,2 - w) x h3
= 70 kN/m2 ’ = 13.1 x 2 + (18-10) x 2.5 + (19,8-10) x 4.5
= 90.3 kN/m2
• Effective Stress
’ =  - u = 90.3 kN/m2

Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE 2: (DIAGRAM)
Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress (’)

26.2 kPa GWT 26.2 kPa

-2.0

71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

-4.5

160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

-9.0

Bina Nusantara
Profile of Vertical Stress
 EXAMPLE 3
For the soil profile shown here, plot the stress distribution diagram including total
stress, pore pressure and effective stress

d= 18 kN/m3
1m
Dry sand

d= 19 kN/m3
0.5
Silty sand
m

sat= 22 kN/m3
Clay
2m
 EXAMPLE 3 (ANSWER)

Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress (’)

18 kPa 18 kPa
-1.0

27.5 kPa 0 kPa 27.5 kPa

-1.5

-3.5 71.5 kPa 19.62 kPa 51.88 kPa

Profile of Vertical Stress / Stress distribution Diagram

 EXAMPLE 4

The soil profile at a site consists of 2 m of clay (Gs = 2.7, e = 0.5)

overlying a deep deposit of gravel (Gs = 2.55, e = 1.0). If the
water table is at the top of gravel layer, determine the depth at
which the effective vertical stress is 100 kPa.
EXAMPLE 4 (ANSWER)
 EXAMPLE 5
Refer to the soil profile
shown in figure:

a. Calculate the variation of

σ ,u ,and σ′ with depth.

b. If the water table is rises

to the top of the ground
surface, what is the change
in the effective stress at the
bottom of the clay layer?

c. How many meters must

the ground water table rise
to decrease the effective
stress by 15 KN/m2 at the
bottom of the clay layer?
(a)
EXAMPLE 5A (ANSWER)
• For Dry Sand Layer: dry=17.17 KN/m3
• For Saturated (S=1) Clay Layer: sat=18.4 KN/m3
 EXAMPLE 5B (ANSWER)
(b)
• For Sand Layer: sat=20.52kN/m3
 EXAMPLE 5B (ANSWER)
(b)
 EXAMPLE 5C (ANSWER)
(c)
 EXAMPLE 5C (ANSWER)
(c)
 EXAMPLE 6
A layer of sand 5 meters deep overlies a thick bed of clay. Draw diagrams
indicating the total and effective stresses and pore water pressure on
horizontal planes to a depth of 9 meters below the ground surface in the
following cases:
• If the water table is at 2 meters below ground level and the sand above
remains saturated with capillary moisture.
EXAMPLE 6 (ANSWER)
 4
6
QUICK CONDITION
 4
CONDITION FOR QUICKSAND 7

 v = a w + b t + qs − h w
When a = 0 and qs = 0 :
 v = b t − h w
 v = b t − b(i + 1) w
For quick conditions:  t =  w + ic w
 t −  w  sub
ic = =
w w
 EXERCISE 1
Plot the variation of total and effective vertical
stresses, and pore water pressure with depth for the
soil profile shown below
Ground Level

Water Table  sat = 18.5 kN/m3

4m GRAVELY
SAND  B = 17.8 kN/m3
2m

4m SAND  sat = 19.5 kN/m3

5m SAND GRAVEL  sat = 19.0 kN/m3

EXERCISE 2

The soil layers on a site consists of:

0 – 4 m Gravel-sand (ρsat= 2038 kg/m3; ρB 1957
kg/m3)
4 – 9 m Clay (ρsat= 1835 kg/m3)

Draw an effective stress and total stress profile

between 0 – 9m, when the water table is 1m above
the top of the clay
EXERCISE 3
On a certain site a surface layer of silty sand is 4m
thick and overlies a layer of peaty clay 7m thick,
which in turn is underlain by impermeable rock.
Draw effective and total stress profiles for the
following condition:
a) Water table at the surface
b) Water table at a depth of 5m, with the silty
sand above the water table saturated with
capillary water

Unit weight:
Silty Sand = 18.5 kN/m3
Clay = 17.7 kN/m3
EXERCISE 4
A confined aquifer comprises a 5m thick of sand overlain by a
4m thick layer of clay and underlain by impermeable rock. The
unit weight of the sand and clay respectively are 19.6 kN/m3
and 18.4 kN/m3. Determine effective overburden stress at the
top and bottom of the sand layer, when the levels of the water
in a standpipe driven through the clay into the sand layer are:
a) at ground surface
b) 1.5m below the ground surface
c) 3.0m below the ground surface
d) 1.5m above the ground surface
e) 3.0m above the ground surface

and hence comment on the effect of changing water

table
EXERCISE 5
A sediment settling lagoon has a depth of water of 4m above
the clay base. The clay layer is 3m thick and this overlies 4m of
a medium sand, which in turn overlies impermeable rock.
Calculate the effective stresses at the top of the clay and at
the top and bottom of the second layer under the following
condition:
a) Initially, before any sediment is deposited
b) After a 3m layer of sediment of silty fine sand has
been deposited
c) After draining the lagoon down to base level, with
same thickness (3m) of sediment still in place

Unit weight:
Sand = 20 kN/m3; Clay = 18 kN/m3; Sediment = 16 kN/m3
EXERCISE 6
Plot the variation of total and effective vertical stresses, and
pore water pressure with depth for the soil profile shown below
for the following condition:
a)initially before construction
b)immediately after construction
c)few days after construction
d)many years after construction.

Surface surcharge, q (100 kN/m2)

Ground Level

Water Table  sat = 18.5 kN/m3

4m SAND
2m  B = 17.8 kN/m
3

CLAY  sat = 19.5 kN/m3

 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
The ease with which water moves through soils

Strongly responsible for water distribution

within the soil volume.

Determines the rate of water movement in soil.

Texture
Density
Structure
Water content
 Texture
Density
Structure
Water content

Texture – small particles = small pores = poor conductivity

Density – high density suggests low porosity and small pores

Structure – inter-aggregate macro pores improve conductivity

Water content – water leaves large pores first.

At lower water contents, smaller pores conduct water, reducing
conductivity. Maximum conductivity is under saturated conditions.
HOW TO MEASURE WATER IN SOIL
 OBJECTIVE FOR INSTALL
STANDPIPE

TO MEASURE GROUND WATER LEVEL

IMPORTANT!!
Ensure that borehole have a ground water level
 MATERIAL

• PVC pipe (50mm uPVC tube with 2mm wall thickness).

• Sand (Filter 600 to 1200 m Graded) .
• Bentonite pallets.
• Filter fabric terram 1000 or equivalent
• Wires or tape.
• Concrete mortar.
• Steel protection cover 75 mm.
• Lockable screw cap.
• Top and bottom CAP.
 PREPARED STANDPIPE

• The uPVC pipe needs to make a hole around the

pipe.
• The standpipe must be covered with the filter
fabric terram 1000 or geotextile.
• The filter fabric terram 1000 or geotextile shall been
tightened with wires or tape around the pipe.
• Caps have been covered at the bottom part and
after installing have been covered at the top.
 HOW TO INSTALL
STANDPIPE?
• Standpipe is consisted of an open-ended tube which perforated near
the base, and inserted in a borehole.
• The space between the tube perforations and the wall of the
borehole is normally packed by sand (filter 600 to 1200 m graded)
• In the middle of the hole is sealed with well tamped bentonite pallet
to prevent the ingress of surface.
• The surface seal, with cement mortar or other material, is needed to
prevent surface runoff from entering the borehole and a vent is
required in the pipe cap so that water is free to flow through the well
point.
 HOW TO MEASUREMENTS
OF WATER LEVEL?

• Measurements of water level in the standpipe are made by lowering an

electrical dipmeter down the open standpipe.
• The standpipe is plastic, typically 10-20mm diameter so and the
dipmeter normally consists of a coaxial or twin cable connected at the
surface to a battery and some device to detect closure of the electrical
circuit.
• This may consists either of a millimeter or an oscillator, giving either a
visual or a audible signal when the the water level is met.
• The base of coaxial cable, which is lowered down the standpipe, is
covered with a metal probe so designed that the electrical circuit will not
be closed by stray water clinging to either the cable or the inside of
standpipe.
C
R
O
S
S
1)
S
2)
E
C
T
I
O
N
 COMPLETED
STANDPIPE

MEASURING
DIPMETER
GEOTEXTILE

INSTALLING
PROGRESS
STANDPIPE

FIBER TERRAM
WITH A CAP
 DEFINITION OF PERMEABILITY
• Darcy’s law
• Permeability is defined as the ability of water, or any
other fluid, to flow through a soil by traveling through
the void spaces.
• Using an engineering approach, Darcy’s Law defines
permeability by the equation:
q=iAk

k = permeability of the soil (cm/s)

q = seepage rate (cm3/sec)
i = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)
A =area perpendicular to q (cm2)
 PERMEABILITY FACTOR IN SOIL

1) The size and shape of the soil’s particles

2) The density of the soil

3) The detailed arrangement of the soil grains,

called structure

4) The presence of discontinuities in the soil’s

stratigraphy
 PERMEABILITY IS LARGELY DEPENDANT ON THE VOID BETWEEN
SOIL PARTICLES. ITS SHOWN BY THE LARGER VALUE FOR (K) FOR
COARSE GRAIN SOILS AND SMALLER VALUES FOR (K) IN FINE
GRAIN SOILS.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST
1) Calculation of seepage through earth dams or
under sheet pile walls.

2) Calculation of the seepage rate from waste storage

facilities (landfills, ponds, etc.)

3) Calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil

deposits
 MEASUREMENT METHOD

• Laboratory Tests
• Field Tests
 FIELD TEST

• An advantage because they evaluate a volume

of soil in its natural environment
• Important to avoid stratification disturbed.
 FALLING HEAD METHOD
𝐴 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐻1
𝑘= ×
𝐹 𝑡2 −𝑡1 𝐻2

A= is a cross section area of the water column

F= is a shape factor; depend upon the condition at the
bottom of the hole.
H1 and H2 are water levels in the BH measured from the rest level,
at times t1 and t2
THANK YOU