PreLIMs

GE 5 – ETHICS
2nd Semester SY: 2023 - 2024

Introduction

Objective
- To understand the historical connection between philosophy and ethics by tracing back to the
origins of Western philosophy, with ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle delving into ethical inquiries as a central part of their philosophical investigations.
- To see how Philosophy equips individuals with critical thinking skills necessary for analyzing
and evaluating ethical issues.
systematic study/inquiry of general Reason/logic :
power of the mind to think
Fundamental question
,

ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY X

.

understand and make judgment

using logic

Greece is traditionally considered the birthplace of philosophy. The early Greek thinkers
realized they needed more than what poets and storytellers could tell about the world around
them. They began to ponder and study the processes of nature-the coming and passing away of
life, the changing seasons, the movement of the stars, the rising and the ebbing of the sea tide-
solely in their own terms, without appealing to pronouncements of oracles or narrations of the
whims of the Olympian gods. These early Greek thinkers believed it was possible to view nature
this way, commencing their search for the primary substance underlying the manifestations of
cosmic change. Hence, these Greek wise men were also recognized as the "first natural
scientists" because of their efforts to understand the inner workings of nature through
theoretical experiments.Thales of Miletus, a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, postulated this
primal matter to be water. Anaximander, a student of Thales, said this substance was
something unidentifiable and called it apeiron. For Anaximenes, a student of Anaximander, it
was air. Anaxagoras, another Greek philosopher, on the other hand, traced all natural
movements to the ordering power of a cosmic mind or nous. Despite these varying views about
the so-called primal substance of nature, these thinkers had one thing in common: their shared
motivation to inquire and understand the underlying principle of reality as they knew it. They
are the best examples of human's unquenchable desire to know. Pythagoras described their
pursuit as philo sophia or love of wisdom.
↳ wisdom Glove

With the appearance of Socrates in the fifth centuryB.C., however, the practice of inquiry
shifted from finding out the ultimate reason behind the changes in the natural world to asking
"how should one live his life"
-

what sort of person one has to be. Socrates might not be the first Greek person to philosophize
but he is recognized for being the first to redirect the focus of philosophy from the natural
world to the human person. Roaming the streets of Athens, he made it his crusade to teach the
importance of critical inquiry beginning from his assumptions about human beings. Among
thosestudent
>
who paid attention to Socrates' regular outdoor lectures was the young Athenian named
-
of Socrates
Plato. After Socrates was executed for allegedly corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens,
Plato took over the task left behind by Socrates. Some of the proverbial statements from Plato
such as "Know yourself" and "An unexamined life is not worth living" bear unmistakable traces
of the legacy of his former master.

Plato honored the memory of his teacher through his Dialogues, a set of philosophic
treatises written in a conversational style with no less than Socrates himself as the leading
GE 5 – ETHICS
2nd Semester SY: 2023 - 2024

mouthpiece. Plato further enhanced the ethical orientation of philosophy by presenting on

human life as a struggle to live more thoughtfully; that is, to live according to a certain idea or
form of what life ought to be. The student of Plato, Aristotle, carried on what Socrates and
of arguments for
~ series superiority of the philosophical life to
the

Plato started as evidenced in the famous Aristotelian work Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle also political life

referred to as "the Stagirite," discussed in this work the necessity of finding one's purpose and
Flourishing
~

of practicing moderation in life if one has to achieve eudaimonia or happiness. A happy life for
Aristotle is not merely an act of doing particular tasks or acquiring certain objects but also of
knowing what these are for. Whether it is the search for purpose or the determination of the
happy middle (moderation), a person needs to exercise the virtue of phronesis or in simple
terms, careful deliberation or prudence. An ethical person, as envisioned by Aristotle, is one
who weighs his or her options and actions with caution. This process of weighing options is an
activity of thinking, which, as suggested above, is the realm of philosophy.
>
- Socratic method : form of discourse/discussion based
entirely between teacher & students
in concerted effort to explore the
a

underlying beliefs that shape the students

views & opinions .
Ethics
Objectives
1. To define ethics as a philosophical study
2. To destinguish from ethics and morals.
3. To see the importance of ethics or being ethical.

Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the division of philosophy concerned with
how a person should behave in a matter that is considered morally correct or
good.

Ethics means trying to figure out why one should behave morally, as well as
understanding the motivating factors for that behavior. It also examines what,
exactly, makes something "good" or "bad."
E.g.
 Is that sense of good or bad something that's naturally inside of us, or is
that sense placed there by a divine being?
 Do we follow a moral code?
 Do we act morally because it is often in our self-interest to do so?
 Is ethical behavior all about the nature of the consequences of our
actions?

Ethics are arguably the one type of philosophy that is readily applicable to daily
life. Philosophy asks big questions; but only ethics answers the question how to
live one's life.

Ethics can and should be applied to regular life. You can tailor ethics to fit your
life, and you can use ethics to make decisions and take actions that are morally
"right" in fields such as medicine, business, and other disciplines.

The use of ethics also brings up another ethical conundrum— why is it important
to consider why a person should act a certain way? The answer lies in the
concept of happiness. Simply stated, happiness is an outgrowth of ethics, be it
one's own happiness or the happiness of others.

Ethics versus Morality

 Ethics: Ethics refers to a system of moral principles or values that guide

the actions and decisions of individuals or groups. It is a branch of
philosophy that deals with questions about right and wrong, good and bad,
and the nature of human behavior. Ethics often involves critical thinking,
 reasoning, and analysis to determine the most appropriate course of action
in various situations.
 Morals: Morals, on the other hand, are the personal beliefs or principles
that guide an individual’s behavior and decisions. They are often shaped
by factors such as religion, culture, upbringing, and personal experiences.
Morals are more subjective and can vary from person to person, while
ethics tend to be more objective and universally applicable.

To conclude,
Morals are personal beliefs about what is right or wrong, influenced by individual
experiences and cultural factors. Ethics, on the other hand, are external
standards that guide the conduct of a group or profession, aiming for consistency
and fairness in decision-making.

WHY ACT ETHICALLY?

Philosophers have pinpointed several different reasons why humans can and
should act in a virtuous manner. Here are a few:
 It's a requirement for life. It's our biological imperative as humans to
survive and thrive, and ethics are part of the complicated structure of
humanity that helps us determine the best ways to act so that each of us
may live a long, productive life. Acting virtuously helps ensure that our
actions are not aimless, pointless, or random. By narrowing down the
vastness of the universe to a lived experience with purpose and meaning
especially if it's one shared by a society or cultural group goals and
happiness are more within reach.
 It's a requirement for society. To be a member of society in good
standing, one must follow the codes and laws that govern that culture.
Everybody has a role to play, and if the social fabric breaks down, the
happiness of others is threatened. Ethics builds relationships, both
individually and on a grand scale. Kindness matters, and it helps forge the
underlying bonds that unite a society.
 For religious purposes. Some people try to act in a way they have
decided is the most morally upstanding, and they get their cues from
religion. This plays into a type of ethics called divine command theory.
People who subscribe to this type of ethics act in accordance with the rules
set forth by an organized religion, and those rules are derived from holy
text or the direction of a divine entity. While some religions say it is
important to act appropriately just because it is the right thing to do, they
also provide the crucial incentive of consequences: be good enough, and a
person will reach paradise when they die; be bad enough, and an eternity
of torment awaits. In other words, we need incentives to act.
 For self interest. Some ethicists believe that humans ultimately act out of
self-service, that they do things with their own interests in mind. This
viewpoint even informs their moral behavior. As hinted at in "the Golden
Rule" (do unto others as you would have done unto you) and the similar
Eastern idea of karma, being good can be a self-serving pursuit. Hence, if
a person behaves morally, respectfully, and kindly to others-for whatever
reason, and even if those reasons are motivated by self-interest good
things will happen to that person in kind.
 Because humans are good. This is a major theme of moral philosophy.
The essential question is this: Are humans ethical because they have to
be, or do humans pursue a moral life because certain acts are just
naturally good, or naturally bad? As an action, this plays out in the idea
that humans, by and large, are themselves naturally good, and they try to
act accordingly.

-Distinguishment
:

ETHICS MORALS

- objective - subjective
- standard followed by a group of - personal standard

people.

>
- universal - Flexible
- encompasses societal norms and >
- personal belief

personal standard
 PreLIMs
reviewer

Ethics
- derived from the Greek word O “ethos” which can meanS character or-
disposition.
MWisdom
- Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the division of philosophy (Philo-love and Sophia –
M
wisdom)
love concerned with how a person should behave in a matter that is considered morally
correct or good.
- It is the ability to tell the difference between right and wrong behaviors.
- It refers to the reasonableness of a human act based on universally accepted standards.

Laws/Rules - - formal rules that O

governs how we behave as a member of a society. Basic

①
Enforceable Standard of Behavior.
A rule is a prescribed guide for conduct or action. Rules help guide actions toward the common
good – an experience of goodness common to all.

Moral Agent
- It is technically a human being.
- a human being has the capacity toO discern whether his actions are good or bad. (Every ACT is
CONSEQUENTIAL)
- It is anyone who can be held responsible for his actions.
- has a ‘moral responsibility’ not to cause unjustified harm.
- Is an intelligent being who has the power of Ochoosing and is capable of acting according to his
choice O (free).
-freedom

Moral Standard
Refers to theO norms that we have about the types of actions that we believe to be morally
acceptable and morally unacceptable, as well as values placed on what we believe to be - morally
O
good or -morally bad.
It promotes - “the good” – the welfare and well-being of everyone as well as animals and the
environment.
e.g. rape, murder
Non-Moral Standard
- Refers to standards by which we O judge what is good or bad, right and wrong in a- non-moral
way.
- Refers to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. It can be standards are
not necessarily linked to morality.
e.g. No ID no entry, 3-second violation

Moral Dilemma
choose between -
- Is a conflict in which you have to O two or more actions and have a moral
reason for choosing each action.
Crucial features:
- The agent is required to do each of two or more actions
-
* there is an urgency, thus the agent has to decide ASAP.
- The agent can do each of the actions
 However, the agent cannot do both or all the actions. (fall to moral failure, no matter what
he/she does)
S Even when organizations
Organizational Dilemma – is an ethical dilemma in the workplace.
have great policies and procedures and follow the laws and regulations, there's still a high risk
of unethical behavior.

Kant’s Freedom Concept

To actO - To act -
freely is to act autonomously. autonomously is to act according to aO law I give
myself. Whenever I act according to the laws of nature, demands of social convention, when I
pursue pleasure and comfort, I amO not acting freely. To act freely is not to simply choose a
means to a given end. To act freely is to choose the end itself, for its own sake.
Free Act – the capacity to make choices that are genuinely owned by the moral agent. Upon
making the decision the agent isO devoid of external determinants (substances like drugs or
alcohol, emotions, coercions, harm, etc.)
- A living creature, must be able to comprehend abstract moral principles and apply them to
decision-making.
- it is wrong to claim that intellect is a greater determinant/factor than freewill in being ethical.

Culture
- Is a system of 000
beliefs, values, behaviors, and practices common to a particular group or
population that results from group experience interpreted in light of beliefs about the purpose
and meaning of life.
* Thus, it is a shared belief or practice of a group of people or community. This becomes the
- S by those who are part of the community.
traditional point of view which is followed
e.g. The Ilocanos are known to be hardworking, appreciative, simple, and stingy (kuripot- they
can live by their own means).
Norms(falling in line in a grocery store or giving your seat to a lady), values(code of conduct),
language(nodding or word expressions), symbol(genuflection, sign of the cross).

Ethnocentrism –C evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the

!
standards and customs of one’s own culture.
E.g. I condemn Muslim men who are polygamous (having more than one wife) because I am
catholic and my faith dictates that marriage should be monogamous.
judging one's own culture against another culture and can lead to judging someone else's cultureO
measuring orO negatively.

Cultural Relativism - is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make

↳
judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The goal of this is to promote
understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture.
James Rachel – cultural relativism fails to account for the existence of universal moral standards
or values. According to him, it discourages individuals from criticizing the practices and beliefs
of different societies.
not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong, instead, we understand cultural practices of other groups in its own
cultural context.
-
What is Culture?
Culture is derived from the Latin word -O O
"cultura" or "cultus" which means care or cultivation.
Culture as cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of his own social
group. He is endowed with certain innate qualities to make use of. However, he cannot develop
these inborn talents without the other people. He/she needs other people who can provide
him/her with the needed opportunities so he/she can translate these potentialities into
realities called achievements. These accomplishments not only help him achieve self-
actualization but also make him / her a contributing member of his society.
Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor, an Englishman - "Culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired as a
member of society." In other words, culture refers to the totality of the humanly created world,
from material culture and cultivated landscapes, via social institutions (political, religious,
economic etc.), to knowledge and meaning, something that human has created and learned in a
-
society. His theory defines culture in descriptive terms as the "complex whole" that makes up
social ideas and institutions.

Important Terms:
Female genital mutilation (FGM) refers to the practice of altering or injuring the female
genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is a harmful practice that has no health benefits and can
cause severe physical and psychological consequences for the affected individuals. FGM is
recognized internationally as a violation of human rights, the rights of children, and the rights of
women.
Law - formal rules that governs how we behave as a member of a society. Basic Enforceable
Standard of Behavior.

Rules and Its Importance

A rule is a prescribed guide for conduct or action. Rules help guide actions toward desired
results.

Rules are specific S sets of norms of behavior, regulations, and laws established on purpose to
regulate the life in the community. These norms secure the O order and allowSavoiding total
chaos.
S -

——

Moral Agent
A moral agent is aObeing that is "capable of acting with reference to right and wrong". A moral
agent is anything that can be held responsible for behavior or decisions. "It is moral agents
who have rights and responsibilities, because it is moral agents whom we take to have
-freely; freedom
choices and the power to choose".
A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the power of choosing, and scope to act
according to his choice.

—-
ACT OF MAN are man's actions which man shares with the animals.
-These are the acts of perception or sensation, actions that proceed without man's deliberate
free will.
-Acts of man or- actus hominis are actions performed without intervention of intellect and free
will. -O reflexes and involuntary bodily functions
It comprises all spontaneous biological and sensual processes, like nutrition, breathing,
sensual impressions.

HUMAN ACTS ↑ involve- deliberate choices made by a person with full awareness and moral responsibility
Human acts (actus humani) are actions that proceed from insight into the nature and purpose
of one's doing and from consent of free will.
These are rational and willed actions that are proper only to man, which man does not share
with the brutes, actions that require man's rationality.
Wisdom/knowledge -

discernment

Requirements I voluntariness I will

-
Freedom

1. The action must originate from a person having -

wisdom or knowledge or what we
called discernment.
2. should originate from a person having freedom. The person must be free.
3. The action must originate from person with voluntariness or will.

Freedom means you can choose whether to do it or not.

Voluntariness answers the questions: Are you willing to do it? Do you have the willingness to
do it?
If the agent has greater knowledge, freedom and voluntariness, the agent has greater
responsibility for the consequences of the act.
In contrast, if the agent has lesser knowledge, freedom and voluntariness, the agent has
lesser responsibility for the act.

Modifiers of Human Act

Ignorance is defined as the- absence of knowledge in a person who is required to know, to
know what he does not know. intense desire
Concupiscence They refer to the emotions and feelings of man in relation to his actions.
Since emotions and feelings belong to man's sensory appetites, they are in themselves
irrational.
Fear - It is the-
shrinking of the mind on account of an anticipated evil or threat. The emotion
that catch impending or anticipated evil and manifest itself to avoid, or escape from an
impending threat.
Violence or Force - The actual application ofSforce to a person by another for the purpose of
compelling him to do something against his will.
Habit is defined as a- constant and easy way of doing things acquired by the S repetition of the
same act.
Tendencies we have developed in ourselves from repeated acts.
This helps us to determine the degree of responsibility.

—-
Moral and Non-moral Standard

Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed
to be morally right or wrong. as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally
good or morally bad.
Moral standards normally promote "the good". that is, the welfare and well-being of humans
as well as animals and the environment.

Characteristics of moral standards:

1. Deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals, and the environment;
2. Not established or changed by the decisions
of authoritative individuals or bodies;
3. Overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards
and considerations, especially of self-interest;
4. Based on impartial considerations;
5. Associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or
wrong in a non-moral way.
Examples: standards of etiquette, the law,standards of aesthetics Non-moral standards are
matters of taste or preference.

WHAT IS A DILEMMA?
A dilemma is a situation
where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which
is acceptable.

Moral Dilemma
A situation in which a person (also called a "moral agent" in ethics) is forced to choose
between two or more conflicting options, neither of which solves the situation in a morally
acceptable way.

Three conditions that must be present in moral dilemmas:

1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision about which
course of action is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always
compromised.

——
Kant’s Freedom Concept
To act freely is to act autonomously. To act autonomously is to act according to a law I give
myself. Whenever I act according to the laws of nature, demands of social convention, when I
pursue pleasure and comfort, I am not acting freely. To act freely is not to simply choose a
means to a given end. To act freely is to choose the end itself, for its own sake.

——

Culture is derived from the Latin word "cultura" or "cultus" which means care or cultivation.
Culture
- Is a system of beliefs, values, behaviors, and practices common to a particular group or
population that results from group experience interpreted in light of beliefs about the purpose
and meaning of life.

* Thus, it is a shared belief or practice of a group of people or community. This becomes the
traditional point of view which is followed by those who are part of the community.
e.g. The Ilocanos are known to be hardworking, appreciative, simple, and stingy (kuripot- they
can live by their own means).

-Norms(giving your seat to a lady)

-Values(code of conduct)
-Language(nodding or word expressions)
-Symbol(genuflection, sign of the cross).

-Ethnocentrism – evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the

standards and customs of one’s own culture.
E.g. I condemn Muslim men who are polygamous (having more than one wife) because I am
catholic and my faith dictates that marriage should be monogamous.

•Cultural Relativism - is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make
judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The goal of this is to promote
understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture.
•James Rachel – cultural relativism fails to account for the existence of universal moral
standards or values. According to him, it discourages individuals from criticizing the practices
and beliefs of different societies.
 midterms Quiz reviewer

Reason and Impartiality

- for
The ultimate basis for ethics is clear: Human behavior has consequences
the welfare of others. We are capable of acting toward others in such a way as to
increase or decrease the quality of their lives. We are capable of helping or
harming. What is more, we are theoretically capable of understanding when we
are doing the one and when the other. This is so because we have the capacity
to put ourselves imaginatively in the place of others and recognize how we would
be affected if someone were to S act toward us as we are- acting toward others.
It is said that reason gives rise to ethical discourse and healthy debate and
engagement and if this is true, the question must be asked: Have we lost all
reason that we can resort to insults, that we fail to engage one another in a
constructive and thoughtful way, even as we differ ideologically and politically?
=
It is said that "reason requires impartiality" and this statement has serious
implications for truthfulness and reason. important
↳ to know

-
Reason and impartiality are -
-
not absolute to any particular group of people,
while morality is-
- -
absolute. Whatever is considered wrong morally within a certain
group of people cannot be debated through reason. Morality decides the
outcome first and then employs reason to justify it. For- impartiality, fairness is
given more importance where people are supposed to be treated equally before
- -

the law. While morality may apply generally to a particular group of people, the
same cannot be said of reason and impartiality because the two take a more
individualized approach. These are however important because they help in
understanding the moral perception, for example impartiality introduces an
aspect of treating people the same, which is a moral issue.

What is Reason?
Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing
-

and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices,

institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information (Kompridis, 2000). It
is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy,
science, language, mathematics, and art and is normally considered to be a
distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason, or an aspect of it, is
sometimes referred to as- rationality. - I
Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect. The
philosophical field of logic studies ways in which humans reason formally through
- -

-
argument (Hintikka, 2013): Reason is a declaration made to explain or justify
action, decision, or conviction. HD
The proper role of ethical reasoning is to highlight acts of two kinds: those
which enhance the well-being of others— that warrant our praise and those that
-

-
harm or diminish the well-being of others— and thus warrant our criticism.
-

Developing one's ethical reasoning abilities is crucial because there is in human

nature a strong tendency toward egotism, prejudice, self-justification, and self-
deception. These tendencies are exacerbated by powerful sociocentric cultural
influences that shape our lives— not least of which is the - mass media. These
tendencies can be actively opposed only through the systematic cultivation of
fair-mindedness, honesty, integrity, self-knowledge, and deep concern for the
welfare of others. We can never eliminate our egocentric tendencies absolutely
and finally. But we can actively fight them as we learn to develop as ethical
persons.
Reasons have everything to do with O ethics: If you have no good reasons for
an act or a belief, then you can't have thought it through very well and maybe you
shouldn't be doing it or believing it at all. It's quite scary to think that there are
people out there who are voting, protesting, financing causes, or running
campaigns without any clear idea of why they are doing it. Each and every one of
us should be clear about our reasons for our values, beliefs, and behaviors, and
we should each be able to give a reasoned account of them to others.
If someone asks you why you believe or act as you do, don't just say,
"Because I believe (or act) that way." Give them a reason why. But before you
give a reason why, ask yourself why—and keep on asking yourself why. Only
then will your life become meaningful to you.
Giving reasons for our actions is important socially, too. It either connects us
to others or divides us from them. So much of our social life depends on a shared
understanding of what's true, right, and appropriate. When this understanding
breaks down, the only way to restore it is by asking the reason why we disagree
with one another.
result of an action

Predicting Consequences
Moral reasoning involves predicting the consequences of an action before
we act. There are always consequences when we take the action we think is
right, and when we try to be good persons, and usually these include unintended
as well as intended outcomes.
When the likely beneficial outcomes of acting on an ethical presumption
seem to outweigh the likely adverse outcomes, then predicting consequences
confirms our presumption.
But when we predict that the adverse consequences will outweigh the
beneficial consequences, even when we are obeying an ethical rule or following
an inspiring story, then we should consider whether to make an exception to the
rule or to look to a different story for guidance.
We must remember, however, that before we act we can never know for
certain what the consequences will be. Therefore, we should take care in
predicting what will result from acting on an ethical presumption.
In doing O
ethics, we look at rules (about duty and rights) and at stories (about
character and relationships) to construct a presumption, and then test this
 presumption by predicting what we do know (and don't know) about the likely
consequences of acting on it.
prequal; fairness
Impartiality
Impartiality also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness is a principle of
justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis ofS bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over
another for improper reasons (Wikipedia).

Someone who is impartial is not directly involved in a particular situation, and is,
therefore, able to give a fair opinion or decision about it. We might be impartial
because this promotes our desire to be O fair or because it promotes our well-being
and self-respect and earns us social approval. Or we might appeal to the social
good, or to the inherent badness of violating impartiality.
Impartiality makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class
or political opinions. It endeavors to relieve the suffering of individuals, being
guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgent cases of
distress.

Reason and Feelings orgut ; instinc-ability to know

Broadly stated ethics is "concerned with making sense of- intuitions" (Light, et. al,
2003) about what is right and good. We do reaso about our feelings. Biologists
verify that "Emotion is never truly divorced from decision making, even
when it is channeled aside by an effort of will" (Blakeslee, et. al,
2007). Physicists now confirm that seeing the world with complete objectivity is
not possible, as our observations affect what we perceive (Werner, 2002).
 Being good involves feeling and thinking.
- -

We rely on our reason to guard against feelings that may reflect a bias, or a
sense of inadequacy, or a desire simply to win an argument, and also to refine
and explain a felt conviction that passes the test of critical reflection and
- to move us to act morally, and to ensure that
discussion. We rely on feelings -

our reasoning is not only logical but also humane.

- - -

Ethics is also a matter of emotions.

>
Feelings are important in making a moral judgment. ⑪
 Instinct
 Kutob
 Conscience
Feelings are necessary in making moral judgment

Empathy involves feeling, at least to some extent, what another person is feeling.
Empathy enables us to identify with others, and may generate a "perception of
the other as a being who deserves concern and respect."

Ethics vs. Feelings

According to recent research, feelings or emotions have positive effects on
-

decision making.
A totally emotional decision is very fast in comparison to a rational decision. This
is-
>reactive (and largely subconscious) and can be useful when faced with
immediate danger, or in decisions of minimal significance.
Decisions that start with logic may need emotions to enable the final selection,
particularly when confronted with near equal options.
• Emotions often drive us in directions conflicting with self-interest.
Emotional decision making can also come with a number of negatives.
We make quick decisions without knowing why, and then create rational reasons
to justify a poor emotional decision.
Intensity of emotions can override rational decision making in cases where it is
clearly needed
Immediate and unrelated emotions can create mistakes by distorting and
creating bias in judgments. In some cases this can lead to unexpected and
reckless action.

Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development it

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, was among the pioneers of moral
development
research. Building on from the original propositions of - Jean Piaget, Kohlberg
theorized that humans develop their moral judgements in 6 stages. Kohlberg
-

interviewed boys between the ages of 10 and 16. He then analyzed how they
-

would justify their decision when confronted with different hypothetical moral
dilemmas. ence& Punishment
·

Obed'
of Self-interest
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the- earliest period of moral development. It lasts until
around the
age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the
-
- -

expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are
- -

two stages within this level:

erules
-
-

• Stage 1 (OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT): The earliest stages of moral

development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young
children. People at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules
- -
is important because it is a way to avoid punishment. At this stage before making
judgement, one asks: how can I avoid punishment?
• Stage 2 (SELF-INTEREST): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions
- - -

based on how they serve individual needs. The person acts for his own best
interest. At this stage before making judgement, one asks: What’s in it for me?
accord & Conformity
Level 2. Conventional Morality ~ Interpersonal
Maintaining Social Order / Law
The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding
what is good and moral. This level shows the importance of considering the
norms, practices, and views of society to which the individual is now being
- - -

exposed to. There are two stages at this level of morality:

• Stage 3 (INTERPERSONAL ACCORD AND CONFORMITY): This stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social
-

expectations and roles to avoid being outcast or boxed as E

-
- “kill joy”. Thus,
interpersonal accord and conformity guide our moral judgments. At this stage
before making judgement, one asks: What do others think of me?
• Stage 4 (MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER/LAW): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is maintained. The focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority. At this
stage before making judgement, one asks: How can I maintain law and order?
Level 3. Postconventional Morality soSocial Contract
niversal Principles

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract

-

principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

• Stage 5 (SOCIAL CONTRACT): The ideas of a social contract and individual
rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values,
opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
O
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
• Stage 6 (UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning
is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage,
people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules. It is often mistakenly be interpreted as under the Pre-

-
Conventional Stage for it is seen as -
-
egoistic for the personal values.hlberg’s 6

-
Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, was among the pioneers of moral
-
development
research. Building on from the original propositions of Jean Piaget, Kohlberg
theorized that humans develop their moral judgements in 6 stages. Kohlberg
interviewed boys between the ages of 10 and 16. He then analyzed how they
would justify their decision when confronted with different hypothetical moral
dilemmas.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
=>>
Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until
around the
age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the
expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are
two stages within= this level:

HUMAN ACTS
Human acts (actus humani) are actions that proceed from insight into the nature
and purpose of one's doing and from consent of free will.
These are rational and willed actions that are proper only to man, which man
- -

does not share with the brutes, actions that require man's rationality.
-

Requirements ⑪DFV/W
1. The action must originate from a person having wisdom or knowledge or
what we called-discernment.
2. should originate from a person having >
freedom. The person must be free.
- orO
3. The action must originate from person with voluntariness will.
s
Modifiers of Human Rights Act
Ignorance is defined as the absence of knowledge in a person who is required to
know, to know what he does not know. st desire

Concupiscence They refer to the emotions and feelings of man in relation to his
actions. Since emotions and feelings belong to man's sensory appetites, they are
in themselves irrational.
Fear - It is the shrinking of the mind on account of an anticipated evil or threat.
The emotion that catch impending or anticipated evil and manifest itself to avoid,
or escape from an impending threat.
Violence or Force - The actual application of force to a person by another for the
purpose of compelling him to do something against his will.
Habit is defined as a constant and easy way of doing things acquired by the
repetition of the same act.
Tendencies we have developed in ourselves from repeated acts.
This helps us to determine the degree of responsibility.
 midterms exam reviewer

Reviewer (GE5: Ethics)

Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development OSIMSU

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, was among the pioneers of moral development
-
research. Building on from the original propositions of Jean Piaget, Kohlberg theorized that
humans develop their moral judgements in 6 stages. Kohlberg interviewed boys between the
ages ofO10 and O16. He then analyzed how they would justify their decision when confronted
with different hypothetical moral dilemmas.
/obediencedpunishment
the

Level 1. Preconventional Morality OS

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the
age of G9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and
the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:
Stage 1 (OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT): The earliest stages of moral development,
obedience and punishment are especially common in young children. People at this stage
see rules as-
-
fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment. At this stage before making judgement, one asks: how can I avoid punishment?
Stage 2 (SELF-INTEREST): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development,
children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve
individual needs. The person acts for his own best interest. At this stage before making
judgement, one asks: What’s in it for me?
~ interpersonal accorda conformity
Level 2. Conventional Morality IM maintaining
~ social order/law

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding
what is good and moral. This level shows the importance of considering the norms, practices,
and views of society to which the individual is now being exposed to. There are two stages at
this level of morality:
Stage 3 (INTERPERSONAL ACCORD AND CONFORMITY): This stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles to
avoid being outcast or boxed as “kill joy”. Thus, interpersonal accord and conformity guide
our moral judgments. At this stage before making judgement, one asks: What do others
think of me?
Stage 4 (MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER/LAW): This stage is focused on ensuring that social
order is maintained. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing
one’s duty, and respecting authority. At this stage before making judgement, one asks: How
can I maintain law and order? ~
social
contract

Level 3. Postconventional Morality SU -universal principle

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of
-

morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (SOCIAL CONTRACT): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause
people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of
 other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 (UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on
universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. It is often
mistakenly be interpreted as under the Pre-Conventional Stage for it is - -for
seen as egoistic
the personal values.

A human person is considered a Moral Agent due to its ability to think, feel, and act.
hominis humani
stactus actus

Act of Man vs. Human Act

Act of Man – is an act which man performs but he is not the master of it for he has not
consciously controlled it, has not deliberately willed it, and is not subsequently not responsible
for it.
e.g. Scratching your head because it is itchy.

Our instinct is the first one to respond/react when faced with a situation/problem.

-
Human Act – is an act is proceeded from the deliberate free will of man. Man is the master of
the act, one that is consciously controlled and deliberately willed. Thus, a human act is always
consolidated by ourO intellect and-
free will.
object
/circumstance
Three conditions of a Human Act -end/intention
The goodness of a moral act is assessed based on three conditions: object (and its goodness),
intention (or end as expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas), and circumstances. For a moral act to
be considered good, all three conditions must be met. Thus, if one factor is seen as bad or
negative, it will affect the moral evaluation of the human act; however, it does not take the
-
whole human act to be totally negative.
-

1. The Object of the Human Act

It refers to the effect which an O
action primarily and directly causes. It is necessarily the result
- - -

of the act without taking into account the circumstances or the end. For example, the object is
the ---
student did not enroll for him to find a work whereas the O end might be to help his
-

parents who are having financial difficulty. The object is usually regarded as the primary factor
-
-

for moral judgement of a human act.

2. The Circumstances contextualizing the Human Act
These include all the particulars of the concrete human action which are capable of affecting its
morality. They are such things as the person involved, the time, the place, the occasion, which
are distinct from the object, but can change or at times even completely alter its moral tone.
3. The End or the Intention of theO Agent in performing a Human Act
The end or intention of a human act is the purpose that prompts - one- to perform-such an act. It
is the effect that the agent subjectively wills in his/her action. In other words, it is the
-
consequence of one’s action. ~' norancea
Impediments for Human Acts IPHF Fear
- habit
In the process of performing a human act the individual might encounter certain obstacles
which though may not nullify the human act and make it involuntary but they may reduce the
immutability or culpability of the individual, thereby making him less responsible for the
particular act.
1. Ignorance: This to a great extent affects the intellectual dimension of the human act. It is
O-
elucidated as lack of adequate knowledge in an individual with regard to the nature or moral
quality of an act one is performing or proposes to perform. Ignorance is mainly of two
categories:
• Invincible ignorance is that ignorance which O cannot be dispelled by reasonable
diligence of a prudent individual would be expected to exercise in a given situation.
• Vincible ignorance is that which could be eliminated by the application of reasonable
diligence. It is a deliberate act of not knowing something before choosing and doing a
- - -

dika nag-isip bago qumawa ng

certain act.
-
act

2. Passion: It is often connoted as a powerful or compelling emotion or feeling for instance an

experience of strong hateO or sexual - desire. Passion is said to be a strong tendency towards
the possession of something good or towards the avoidance of something evil. The more the
-
-
- -

intensity of the emotions, the less the capability for making balanced and objective
deliberation.
3. Habit: Habit is an acquired tendency for doing something as a result of repeated
-
- practice. It
may be voluntary or involuntary, depending on whether it was imbibed with consent of a
person or without. Habits usually do not render an act non-human, because though they
exert certain coercion they can be overcome by a committed effort. As such increases or
decreases depending upon the effort exerted.
4. Fear: It is defined as the shrinking back of the mind on account of an impending
-
- evil
considered to be difficult to avoid or even impossible at times. Fear in general does not fully
destroy the voluntariness of action but merely reduces its gradation and as such usually
lessens its culpability. Human Acts become involuntary for it hampers the use of reason.
Thus, actions
- done - outside of - rationality and free will could be caused by fear.
- -

Important Concepts
Subjectivism
- is a position that asserts that moral judgments are ultimately based on individual
subjective experiences and preferences. According to subjectivism, there areO no
objective or universal moral truths that exist independently of human thoughts and
- - -

feelings. Instead, ethical judgments are seen as expressions of personal attitudes,

emotions, or desires.
 Moral Courage - is a concept that refers to the ability of an individual to stand up for their
-

beliefs and values, even in the face of opposition or potential negative consequences. It
-
-

involves taking a moral stance and acting in accordance with one’s principles, regardless of
societal pressures or personal risks. Thus, it stems from- Willpower. ability to delay gratification, resisting short-term
-
temptations in order to meet long-term goals
Ot S begin to make their own moral decisions which are normally
Naïve Hedonism - where children - -

pleasure is the
only intrinsic good based on what serves their own needs and what is negotiated in line with their understanding
-

and pain is the

only intrinsic bad of the social rules.
E.g. Children starts to disobey their parents and follow the social norms.

Reason and Impartiality

The ultimate basis for ethics is clear: Human behavior has consequences for
the welfare of others. We are capable of acting toward others in such a way as to
increase or decrease the quality of their lives. We are capable of helping or
harming. What is more, we are theoretically capable of understanding when we
are doing the one and when the other. This is so because we have the capacity
to put ourselves imaginatively in the place of others and recognize how we would
be affected if someone were to act toward us as we are acting toward others.
It is said that "reason
- requires
- impartiality" and this statement has serious
implications for truthfulness and reason.
Reason and impartiality are not absolute to any particular group of people,
while morality is absolute. Whatever is considered wrong morally within a certain
group of people cannot be debated through reason. Morality decides the
outcome first and then employs reason to justify it. Morality; outcome justify
· -

reason ;

What is Reason?
Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, -

establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying

practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information
(Kompridis, 2000). It is closely associated with such characteristically human
activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art and is normally
considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason, or an
aspect of it, is sometimes referred to as -rationality. TCI
Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect. The
philosophical field of logic studies ways in which humans reason formally
through argument (Hintikka, 2013): Reason is a declaration made to explain or -

justify action, decision, or conviction.

-

The proper role of ethical reasoning is to highlight acts of two kinds: those
whichS enhance the well-being of others— that warrant our praise and those that
- -

harm or &
S diminish the well-being of others— and thus warrant our criticism.
-

Developing one's ethical reasoning abilities is crucial because there is in human

nature a strong tendency toward egotism, prejudice, self-justification, and self-
deception.
Reasons have everything to do with ethics: If you have no good reasons for
an act or a belief, then you can't have thought it through very well and maybe
you shouldn't be doing it or believing it at all.
• There are people out there who are voting, protesting, financing causes, or
running campaigns without any clear idea of why they are doing it.
•Give them a reason why.
- connects us to others or divides us from them.
outcome ; result of an action
&
Predicting Consequences
Moral reasoning involves predicting the consequences of an action before
we act. There are always consequences when we take the action we think is
right, and when we try to be good persons, and usually these include unintended
as well as intended outcomes.
We must remember, however, that before we act we can never know for
certain what the consequences will be. Therefore, we should take care in
predicting what will result from acting on an ethical presumption.
In doing S
ethics, we look at rules (about duty and rights) and at stories (about
- -

character and relationships) to construct a presumption, and then test this

presumption by predicting what we do know (and don't know) about the likely
consequences of acting on it.
Sequal; fairness

Impartiality
Impartiality also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness is a principle of
justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over
X
-

another for improper reasons (Wikipedia).

Someone who is - impartial is not directly involved in a particular
situation, and is, therefore, able to give a fair opinion or decision about it.
- -

We might be impartial because this promotes our desire to be fair or because it

promotes our well-being and self-respect and earns us social approval. Or we
might appeal to the social good, or to the inherent badness of violating
impartiality.
Impartiality makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class
or political opinions. It endeavors to relieve the suffering of individuals, being
guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgent cases of
distress.

Reasons and Impartiality as Requirement of Ethics

 by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue whose events occur in the weeks before the trial of Socrates (399 BC),
o between Socrates and Euthyphro
S Socrates expresses astonishment that a young man would
In the Euthyphro,
prosecute his own father for murder. The conventional assumption he seems to
-

be making is that filial relationships impose special constraints that may override
other considerations, even in the gravest matter. For Euthyphro, by contrast, a -

murder is a murder. The fact that it was committed by his father has no bearing
upon what he is required to do about it. He must prosecute his father just as he
would a stranger.
In the dialogue, the issue is quickly dropped, unresolved. This brief passage
can serve as an emblem of a perplexing range of problems that bedevil ethical
theory
- problems now typically grouped together under the heading of impartiality. In
one way or another, all of these problems concern the way in which modern
moral philosophy seems to force detachment from self-interest, privileged
personal relationships, the demands of the moment, and a fully situated first-
person point of view, in favor of aggregate or common good, equal and universal
relationships, long-range considerations, and the point of view of a disinterested,
omniscient observer.

Reasons and Feelings segut

Broadly stated ethics is "concerned with making sense of S intuitions" (Light,

et. al, 2003) about what is right and good. We do this by reasoning about our
feelings. Biologists verify that "Emotion is never truly divorced from decision
making, even when it is channeled aside by an effort of will" (Blakeslee, et. al,
2007). Physicists now confirm that seeing the world with complete objectivity is
not possible, as our observations affect what we perceive (Werner, 2002).
Moral philosopher Mary Midgley (1983) writes "Sensitivity requires rationality
to complete it, and vice versa. There is no siding onto which emotions can be
shunted so as not to impinge on thought." We O rely on our reason to guard - -

against feelings that may reflect a bias, or a sense of inadequacy, or a desire

- - -
- -
simply to win an argument, and also to refine and explain a felt conviction that
passes the test of critical reflection and discussion. We rely on feelings to move
us to- act morally, and to ensure that our reasoning is not only logical but also
- -

humane.
- -

Scientific evidence supports this approach to ethics. As children, we

manifest empathy before developing our rational abilities, and there is evidence
for the same order of development in the evolution of the human brain (Carey,

---
2007). "Empathy is a unique form of intentionality in which we are directed
toward the other's experience" This involves feeling, at least to some extent,
-

what another person is feeling. "In empathy we experience another human being
directly as a person— that is, as an intentional being whose bodily gestures and
 actions are expressive of his or her experiences or states of mind" (Thompson,
2007).
Empathy enables us to identify with others, and may generate a "perception
of the other as a being who deserves concern and respect." This does not
guarantee ethical conduct, but it makes morality possible. "Aid to others in need
would never be internalized as a duty without the fellow-feeling that drives
people to take an interest in one another. Moral sentiments came first; moral
principles second" (de Waal, 2007).
e Conscience, at its best, reflects our integration of moral sentiments and
ability of every
healthy human
principles. We should test our conscience, however, by explaining to others the
being to perceive reasons for our moral presumptions, and we should listen carefully to concerns
what is right and
what is wrong they may have. This is especially important when dealing with ethical issues
among family members or friends, but applies as well to concerns about the
environment.
Moreover, both our feelings and our reason reflect our participation in a
moral community, or more likely several moral communities. As - children, our
moral community is our family, which soon broadens to include our friends and
-

S our moral community

then is defined by the rules of our school. As adults,
-
extends from our family to our friends (at work, in our neighborhood or a support
group, and perhaps in our religious community), to our city, our country, the
people of the world whose moral and legal rights are defined by international law,
and perhaps also to a moral community that includes non-human organisms and
ecosystems.
Ethics is not based on whether we feel something is right or wrong. Sometimes, our feelings signal

Ethics vs Feelings to us that we are facing an ethical dilemma, and we want to “do the right thing,” but feelings also
-

may prevent us from behaving ethically, perhaps out of fear or conflicting desires.

Many times, there's a conflict between what we naturally feel and what is
considered to be ethical. Our subconscious reaction to a news event might be
hatred, jealousy or other negative feelings, but we might not be able to morally
argue why we feel that way.
My guess is that the human race developed those subconscious reactions
as an evolutionary mechanism to survive. Our ancestors wouldn't have been
able to find and obtain food if they hadn't fought for it. Arguing about ethics
would've meant that you'll have to stay hungry and die.
The problem is most of our feelings in today's world are unethical, politically
incorrect or even outright harmful. It takes a great deal of effort to retrospect and
self-analyze our feelings to judge whether they are ethical or not.
Let us take a few common examples and see how to tackle those feelings:
Groupism, Patriotism, Dunbar's number, Negative feelings to content on Social
Networks.