UNIT SIX: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL

RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941

Overview: From 1800-1941, Ethiopia and the Horn

experienced:
the expansion of trade
 state formations
territorial expansion
creation of modern Ethiopia
 modernization, and
 major battles fought against aggression.
In the 19th c, several autonomous and semi-
autonomous states existed.
• They were found at different stages of socio-
economic and political developments.
• The political organizations of most of states were
monarchical system in nature.
• They maintained strong economic, social and political
relations with one another.
 6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples
and States of Ethiopia and the Horn
Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and
Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage
were autonomous and semi-autonomous political
entities during this period.
 In the second half of the 19th c Qabena emerged as a
strong political entity.
 It became a center of Muslim revivalist movement to
the northeast of the Gibe River.
 Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo, and with
possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan,
the movement swept across a large part of the region
and was attended by a fast spread of Islam.
B. The Gibe States: towards the beginning of the
nineteenth century, several monarchical states
(motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the
expense of the Gadaa system. These were:
Limmu-Enarya
It was the earliest monarchy founded through the
incorporation of Enarya.
Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established it.
It reached the height of its power during Ibsa/Abba
Bagiboo (1825-61).
Ibsa incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla
etc.
He was succeeded by Abba Bulgaa (1861-1883).
Guma
Initiated by Jilcha /Abba Bal’oo of Chira.
Jilcha was succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830)
who was in turn succeeded by Jawwe (1840-1854).
Gomma
formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829).
Abba Manoo (1829-1840) converted to Islam.
He occupied territories like Qattuu.
Jimma
Abba Dula Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) sought to take power
from Makahore, an influential female figure.
He was elected as a hereditary ruler.
Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the domain.
The process of state formation was completed by
Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55).
Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934) was the most
famous of is rulers.
Gera- the last in state formation of Gibe region.
It was fully formed by Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38).
Abba Basso & Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) successively
ruled.
Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam.
C. The Leqa/Wallaga States: Sibu, Jawwi, Leqa-Naqamte,
I. Leqa-Naqamte:
 founded by Bakare Godana in 1840.
 reached its height under his successors Moroda and
Kumsa.
 based on qoro system-essentially kingship.
 Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was
known for promoting handcraft work, gold washing,
coffee planting and game reserves/hunting.
II. Leqa-Qellam
 founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son,
Jote.
 centered at Gidami and controlled areas around Sayyo-
Dambi Dollo.
D. Ilu- the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (Abba Bor) set
up the well-consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the
early 19th c. It was one of the prosperous states in the
region.
o Each Oromo monarchical state had officials like:
o Abba Gurmu (next person to the king),
o Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister),
o Abba Dango (immigration chief),
o Abba Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger),
o Abba Qoro (district governor),
o Abba Ganda (village chief), Abba Busi (tax head),
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms- In the early 19th c, important Islamic
centers emerged in the lower course of the Abbay (by
Berta+Gumz+Sudanese Muslim merchants) .
 the Sheikhdom of Assosa or Aqoldi
 got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan.
 Bela Shangul=South of Abay
 became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale
 and Khomosha=South of Abay
 at zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
 Sheikhdom of Guba=North of Abay
•These four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders
of Sudanese origin who considered themselves as
‘Watawit’.
•Watawit refers to Arbaized Berta people who had entered
and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious
th th
 Trade and Trade Routes
During this period, two main trade lines linked various
territories of Ethiopia and the Horn.
One of the lines connected Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma),
Saqa (in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (in
Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifag and Darita (in
Begemider) and Gondar.
 From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through
Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat) and was
dominated by the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba.
 The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and
entered Massawa.
Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and
Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and
Rahe’ita in Djibouti.
II. The second major trade route also began from Bonga
and passed through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli to
Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer.
 Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul
Rasul in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar.
 From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera,
the most important commercial centers in Somalia.
 Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the
Middle East.
 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
State building remained an agenda of several powerful
individuals and groups that arose in the nineteenth
century.
States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia had
relative strength.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went
through two distinct phases.
A. Unifying northern and north central parts of the Christian
kingdom Ethiopia.
B. Territorial expansion into the southern parts adjoining the
heartland of the Christian kingdom.
A. Unification of Old provinces
#It was began by Kasa Haylu (shifta and later Emperor from
1855-1868).
-Kasa beat war lords of his times turn by turn. For exa. He
beat:
 Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on Nov. 27,
1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four
dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign)
on April 12, 1853;
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and
 Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8
February, 1855.
 After victory, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the
Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855,
with the throne name of Tewodros II.
 The coronation marked the end of Zemene Mesafint.
 He also campaigned to Wollo & Shewa.
 He wanted to create a strong central government by
appointing both hereditary and non-hereditary rulers
Factors behind the downfall of Tewodros II include:
Internal Challenges-opposition of regional lords & the EOC.
External challenges-diplomatic crises & conflict with British.
However, Tewodros’s policies of unification and building
central government were preserved by his successors.
These were:
ii. Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta (Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II
(1868−71).
 Tekle-Giyorgis carried out military expeditions to different
regions.
 He controlled central Amhara except Shewa.
 However, Ras Kasa Mircha of Tigray challenged his power
in the north.
iii. Kasa Mircha of Tigray (Emperor Yohannes IV
(1872-1889).
-attempted to introduce a decentralized system of
administration.
e.g. recognized Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by
the Liche agreement.
Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in
1881.
-wanted to bring religious unity=at the Council of Boru
Meda (1878).
-Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC.
iv. Negus Menilek of Shewa/Emperor Menelik II(r.
1889-1913).
-completed formation of modern Ethiopia that involved
B. Territorial Expansion
 The most successful of territorial expansion was
managed by Menilek of Shewa.
 This was because Menilek had, among other factors,
access to modern firearms.
 The control of resourceful areas that enabled the
emperor to build military muscle.
 The determination of his generals also contributed for
his successes.
 Menilek’s expansion involved both forceful
subjugation and peaceful submissions.
 His expansion can be discussed in three phases:
When he was king of Shewa (1865-89),
 From 1889-96 (Emperorship to Battle of Adwa) and
 Aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
 First Phase- Before the 1870s, Menilek had already
incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo
territories. He controlled local leaders notably:
Ashe Rufo of Salale,
Dula Ara’e of Gullale,
Tufa Muna of Gimbichu,
Ture Galate of Soddo and others.
 Meanwhile, other Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena
Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach
Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others cooperated
towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state.
 In 1875-76, northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully
submitted.
 Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Jifar
submitted to Menilek peacefully.
 Arsi in 1886 by Menelik’s force led by Ras Darge Sahile-
Selassie.
 In 1887 by Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el defeated Emir Abdullahi
OF Harar and Bakar Ware.
#2nd Phase=1889-1896
Menelik’s army controlled:
 Dawuro-Konta in 1889
 Kambata in 1890.
 From the early 1890s to 1894 Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa
and Wolayta.
 #The 3rd Phase-(1896-1900): Menilek's force incorporated
Kafa in 1897
 Maji in 1898/99
- Beni-Shangul in 1897/98, and
-Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in
Gambella.
The process of territorial expansion was consummated
with the singing of boundary agreements with the
neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908.

Boundary between
No. Year of delimitation
Ethiopia and
French
1 March 1897
Somaliland
British
2 June 1897
Somaliland
3 Eritrea 1900
Boundary Agreements, Misikir T., Mirror History, 2020.
4 The Sudan 1902
British East
5 1907
Africa
Italian
6 1908
 6.3. Modernization Attempts
The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to
adopt western ideas and technology by Ethiopian
monarchs. Emperor Tewodros:
introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa,
and Yeshi Aleqa.
 tried to organize and replace the regional armies of
the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army.
attempted to manufacture firearms at his workshop,
Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European
missionaries and artisans.
 tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.
introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning
everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the
merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough.
tried to separate the church and the monarchy.
reduced the church land & the number of priests &
deacons.
began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic
road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam,
and Maqdela.
also attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
attempted to ban polygamy.
the use of Amharic became more developed,
established a traditional library at Maqdela.
tried to solve the doctrinal controversy within the EOC.
 However, Tewodro’s reforms were not fully
materialized owing to internal oppositions and
external challenges.
Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several
important reforms and innovations. From among these,
he:
was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign
consul who served as his representative in London.
hired personnel (French mechanic, a Hungarian
gunsmith, and an Italian construction worker).
 sent some individuals abroad for modern education.
was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine
against smallpox replacing traditional inoculation.
 realized extensive treatment of syphilis in several
towns.
oModernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek
II are mostly post-Adwa phenomenon and had diverse
elements.
  construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa,
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and
 the introduction of paper money.
In terms of administration, the emperor introduced
European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907.
Name of the member Position held
Afe-Nigus Nesibu Mesqelo Minister of Justice
Fitawrari Habte-Giyorgis Dinegde Minister of War
Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebre-Sillase
Minister of Pen
Welde-Aregay
Bejerond Mulugeta Yiggezu Minister of Finance
Neggadras Haile-Giyorgis Welde- Minister of Commerce and
Mikael Foreign Affairs
Azazh Metaferya Melke-Tsadiq Minister of Imperial Court

Members of Menelik’s Council of Ministers, Misikir T., Mirror History, 2020 .

oMenelik’s reign also witnessed the opening of:
o a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel),
omodern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and
othe foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906
and
oRussian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
6.4 Socio-Economic Developments
Agriculture
Changes in slavery and slave trade
 introduction of manufacturing
 expansion of urbanization and urban life
e.g. Dire-Dawa, Adama, Bishoftu
-politico-religious centers (royal camps and garrison
towns ) e.g. AA, Gore, Gobba.
 6.5. External Relations
6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
• Zemene-Mesafint ended of the 'close door policy’ that
was introduced by Emperor Fasiladas.
• Regional rulers made independent foreign contacts
and signed treaties.
• During the 19th c, the agents of these external relations
were mainly travelers.
Motives of Travelers:
•adventure and scientific research
•fostering friendship and trade relation.
•covert mission of colonialism.
•E.g. of traveler Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras
Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805.
Relation increased
#During Tewodros
#Yohannis IV: preferred to solve peacefully with Egypt,
Sudan…e.g. Hewett /Adwa Treaty (3 June 1884 at Adwa).
#Menelik II
In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external
threats, Emperor Menilek II was more successful through
maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the
period.
E.g. the Wuchale Treaty=2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo
between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on
behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy.
•The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in
Amharic and Italian languages.
•The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective
occupation” of Italy to legitimize its further expansion
towards the Mereb River.
• However, Article XVII has major difference in the two
language versions.
•While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could
optionally conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the
Italian version indicates that Menilek’s foreign contacts
must be through the agency of Italy.
•As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII,
Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal with
Ethiopia only through Italy.
•European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia.
•In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared
Eritrea as its colony.
•Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties;
persuasion and the subversive methods failed.
•This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the
Wuchale Treaty in February 1893 and Tigrian lords
including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi
and Dajjach Hagos Tafari, began to fight against the
Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek.
• Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian
resistance against colonialism led to the battle.
•This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter
became victorious.
•After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries
opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish
relations on official basis.
•International politics of the twentieth century also shaped
Ethiopia’s foreign relations.
•For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu
showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany,
Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire) believing that
the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would
allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia.
•He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid
Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain.
•Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the
Somali against the European occupation.
•In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a
forerunner of modern Somali nationalism.
•One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the
early 20th c was her admission to the League of Nations
in 1923.
•A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour, which
shaped his ideas of modernization.
•Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did
not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors
and Patriotism
Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign
threats during the period under discussion. There were
patriotism,
determination and cooperation
 the successes and limitations of Ethiopian peoples in
the course of defending their country.
A. The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought
between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in
1848.
B. The Battle of Maqdela (1868): British Vs Tewodros II
C. The Battles of Gundet (16 November 1875) & Gura
(7–9 March, 1876)
Egypt Vs Ethiopia
-Emperor Yohannis & Ras Alula among leading figures.
-It is important to understand some Europeans were in
the service of Egyptians.
For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan,
Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born adventurer and
former French Consul in Northeast Africa.
Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and
General Charles Stone was fellow American.
D. The Battle of Dogali (1887)
-Italy vs Ras Alula
E. The Battle of Metemma (9March 1889)
 የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤ 2ኛ
ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት።
እንግዲህ የእናትን ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን
ደስታ፣ የመቃብርን ከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!
#Internal divisions and acrimonies among rulers would
result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples.
Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very good
testimonies.
F. The Battle of Adwa (1 March 1896 and Its Aftermath
Ethiopia vs Italy
-Fundamental cause= Italian colonial ambition and
Ethiopian commitment to defend sovereignty.
-Immediate cause=Article XVII of the Wuchale Traety.
Prominent Leaders of the Battle of Adwa include:
• Emperor Menilek,
• Empress Taiytu
•war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula,
Ras Mangasha, Negus Tekle-Haymanot, Fitawrari
Gebeyehu Gurmu.
Reasons for Ethiopian victory include:
-unity of Ethiopians irrespective of gender, regional, and
ethnic differences.
Consequences of Adwa include:
a positive implication for success and national
integration.
 witnessed independence and national pride for
Ethiopians, Africans and Black race in general.
Encouraged Africans fighting against colonialism.
The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey,
inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement
with the success of Ethiopians (Pan-Africanism
Movement).
Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial
movements.
6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic
Resistance
• After their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians were
just waiting the right time to fulfill their interests in any
possible way.
• The Fascists were determined to avenge Italy’s
shameful scar at Adwa.
• Italians followed two policies as it was the case before
the Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’.
• Italians made all necessary preparations to invade
Ethiopia.
• They were searching for a pretext and then fortunately
they found it in Walwal Incident (5 December 1934).
• The Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935.
• Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle In January 1936, Ethiopian
counter offensive marched north.
• On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a
major offensive against the Italians.
• A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian
forces in the northern Front culminated in Maychew on
31 March 1936.
• The Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur
Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor was
unable to conclude the battle with victory.
• Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis
Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
• The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better
equipped and well led.
• The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major
battles in the Southern Front:
• Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14
January 1936).
• On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country.
• B/n Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry,
Addis Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting
and random shooting.
• Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in
foreign legations.
• The Italians were able to bring peace and order to the
city.
• Mussolini announced that “Ethiopia is Italian!”
• Then Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale
Italiana (AOI) was declared with six administrative
regional divisions.
• Eritrea (including Tigray) at Asmara;
• Amhara at Gondar;
• Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and
Southwestern provinces) at Jimma;
• Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
• Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at
Mogadishu;
• AOI was govrned by these successuve personnels:
– Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936),
– Marshal Graziani (till February 1937),
– And finally Amadeo Umberto da Aosta (the Duke of
Aosta).
• A top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption
characterized the Italian administration of IEA.
• The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors
of trade and industry as compared to the agricultural
sector.
• Italian legacy was also largely reflected in the towns
than the rural areas, which were actually out of the
Italian effective rule.
• Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be
summarized in the following brief points:
• Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in
towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar,
Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
• Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and
electricity;
• Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of
European habits-including eating and dressing styles,
and adoption of Italian words);
• The consolidation of cash economy;
• Road construction and development of motor
transport;
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
 Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost
all regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with
varying degree of intensification. Here is list of famous
patriots that organized resistance against Fascist
occupation.
Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach
Gebre Maryam Gari, Asfawesen Kasa, Aberra kasa, Dejjach
Balcha Safo, Balambaras, Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-
Mariam Yinnnadu, Abune Petros, Abreha Deboch, Moges
Asgedom, Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga,
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot
Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay, Woizero
Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello,
Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras Amoraw Wubneh,
Lij Haile Mariam Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach
Habte Mariam, Colonel Belay Haile-ab, Major Matias Gemeda,
Captain Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach
Geresu Duki, Bekele Woya
Lekyelesh Beyan, Kebedech Seyoum, Shewareged Gedle ans
so many others.
• The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian
collaborators called the Banda.
• In1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally.
• In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate led
the Gedeon Force ans accompanied the Emperor from the
Sudan into Gojjam.
• Major General Sir William Platt attacked the Italians in
Eritrea.
• General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya.