50

SQL interview
questions
along with their
answers
1. What are the different types of
SQL commands?

ANSWER: SQL commands can be

categorized into four main types: Data
Definition Language (DDL), Data
Manipulation Language (DML), Data
Control Language (DCL), and Transaction
Control Language (TCL).

2. What is the difference between

CHAR and VARCHAR data types?

ANSWER: CHAR is a fixed-length

character data type, while VARCHAR is a
variable-length character data type.
CHAR will always use the same amount of
storage space regardless of the actual
length of the data, while VARCHAR will
only use as much storage as needed.
 3. What is a primary key?

ANSWER: A primary key is a column or a

set of columns that uniquely identifies
each row in a table. It must contain
unique values and cannot contain NULL
values.

4. What is a foreign key?

ANSWER: A foreign key is a column or a

set of columns in a table that establishes
a link between data in two tables. It
enforces referential integrity by ensuring
that the values in the foreign key
column(s) match the values in the primary
key column(s) of another table.
 5. What is a JOIN?

ANSWER: JOIN is used to combine rows

from two or more tables based on a
related column between them. There are
different types of JOINs such as INNER
JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL
JOIN.

6. What is an INDEX?

ANSWER: An index is a database object

used to speed up the retrieval of rows
from a table by creating a sorted list of
values from one or more columns.
 7. Explain the difference between
the WHERE and HAVING clauses.

ANSWER: The WHERE clause is used to

filter rows based on a specified condition,
while the HAVING clause is used to filter
groups based on a specified condition
when using aggregate functions.

8. What is a subquery?

ANSWER: A subquery is a query nested

within another query. It can be used to
return a single value, a list of values, or a
result set that can be used in the main
query.
 9. What is a stored procedure?

ANSWER: A stored procedure is a

precompiled collection of SQL
statements that can be stored and
executed in a database. It allows for code
reusability and improved performance.

10. Explain the difference between

UNION and UNION ALL.

ANSWER: UNION is used to combine the

results of two or more SELECT
statements into a single result set,
eliminating duplicate rows. UNION ALL
also combines the results of SELECT
statements, but it retains all rows,
including duplicates.
 11. What is normalization?

ANSWER: Normalization is the process of

organizing data in a database to minimize
redundancy and dependency by dividing
large tables into smaller tables and
defining relationships between them.

12. What is denormalization?

ANSWER: Denormalization is the process

of adding redundant data to a
normalized database to improve read
performance by reducing the number of
joins needed to retrieve data.
 13. Explain ACID properties in the
context of database transactions.
ANSWER: ACID stands for Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
Atomicity ensures that a transaction is
treated as a single unit of work,
Consistency ensures that the database
remains in a consistent state before and
after the transaction, Isolation ensures
that the transaction is isolated from other
transactions, and Durability ensures that
the changes made by a transaction are
permanent.

14. What is denormalization?

ANSWER: Denormalization is the process

of adding redundant data to a
normalized database to improve read
performance by reducing the number of
joins needed to retrieve data.
15. What is the difference between a
clustered and a non-clustered index?

ANSWER: A clustered index determines

the physical order of rows in a table and
is created on the primary key column(s)
by default. A non-clustered index does
not affect the physical order of rows and
is stored separately from the table data.

16. What is the difference between

DELETE and TRUNCATE
commands?

ANSWER: DELETE is a DML command

used to remove rows from a table based
on a specified condition, while
TRUNCATE is a DDL command used to
remove all rows from a table without
generating a log of individual row
deletions.
 17. What is a view?

ANSWER: A view is a virtual table created

by a query that can be treated like a
regular table. It does not store data itself
but provides a way to present data
stored in one or more tables in a specific
format.

18. What is the difference between a

view and a table?

ANSWER: A table is a physical structure

that stores data, while a view is a virtual
table that does not store data itself but
provides a way to present data stored in
one or more tables.
 19. What is a self-join?

ANSWER: A self-join is a join that is used

to join a table to itself. It is often used
when a table contains a hierarchical
relationship or when comparing rows
within the same table.

20. What is the purpose of the

GROUP BY clause?

ANSWER: The GROUP BY clause is used

to group rows that have the same values
into summary rows, such as sum, count,
max, etc., based on a specified column or
expression.
 21. What is the difference between
the GROUP BY and ORDER BY
clauses?
ANSWER: The GROUP BY clause is used
to group rows, while the ORDER BY
clause is used to sort the result set.
GROUP BY typically includes aggregate
functions, while ORDER BY does not.

22. What is a trigger?

ANSWER: A trigger is a database object

that automatically executes a specified
set of SQL statements when certain
events occur, such as inserting, updating,
or deleting rows from a table.
 23. What is a constraint?

ANSWER: A constraint is a rule defined

on a column or a set of columns that
enforces data integrity by limiting the
type of data that can be stored in a table.

24. What is the difference between a

unique key and a primary key?

ANSWER: Both unique key and primary

key enforce uniqueness in a column or a
set of columns. However, a table can
have multiple unique keys, but only one
primary key.
 25. Explain the difference between
an inner join and an outer join.
ANSWER: An inner join returns only the
rows that have matching values in both
tables, while an outer join returns all rows
from one table and the matched rows
from the other table. Outer joins can be
further categorized into left, right, and
full outer joins..

26. What is the difference between a

correlated and a non-correlated
subquery?

ANSWER: A correlated subquery is a

subquery that depends on the outer
query for its values, while a non-
correlated subquery can be executed
independently of the outer query.
 27. What is a transaction?
ANSWER: A transaction is a logical unit of
work that consists of one or more SQL
statements that are executed as a single
unit. It is either committed (made
permanent) or rolled back (undone) as a
whole.

28. What is the purpose of the

COMMIT and ROLLBACK
commands?
ANSWER: COMMIT is used to
permanently save the changes made by a
transaction. Once a COMMIT statement
is executed, the changes become
permanent and cannot be undone.
ROLLBACK is used to undo the changes
made by a transaction that has not been
committed. It restores the database to its
state before the transaction began.
 29. What is a SQL injection?
ANSWER: SQL injection is a type of
security vulnerability that occurs when an
attacker is able to manipulate SQL
queries through input fields on a website
or application. This can allow the attacker
to execute arbitrary SQL code,
potentially gaining unauthorized access
to the database or causing data loss.

30. What is the difference between a

database and a schema?
ANSWER: A database is a collection of
related data and tables, while a schema is
a logical container for database objects
such as tables, views, indexes, etc., within
a database.
 31. What is a stored function?
ANSWER: A stored function is a
subroutine stored in the database that
encapsulates a set of SQL statements and
can be called by other SQL statements or
applications. It typically returns a single
value.

32. What is the purpose of the CASE

statement?
ANSWER: The CASE statement is used to
provide conditional logic within a SQL
query. It allows you to perform different
actions based on different conditions.
33. What is the difference between a
view and a materialized view?
ANSWER: A view is a virtual table that
does not store data itself, while a
materialized view is a physical copy of the
result set of a query stored as a table.
Materialized views are updated
periodically to reflect changes in the
underlying data.

34. Explain the difference between

an aggregate function and a scalar
function.
ANSWER: An aggregate function
operates on a set of values and returns a
single value summarizing the data, such
as SUM, AVG, COUNT, etc. A scalar
function operates on a single value and
returns a single value based on that
input, such as UPPER, LOWER, etc.
 35. What is the purpose of the
ROW_NUMBER() function?
ANSWER: The ROW_NUMBER() function
is used to assign a unique sequential
integer to each row in a result set based
on a specified ordering.

36. What is the purpose of the

TRIGGER?

ANSWER: A trigger is a database object

that automatically executes a specified
set of SQL statements when certain
events occur, such as inserting, updating,
or deleting rows from a table.
37. What is the difference between a
LEFT JOIN and a RIGHT JOIN?
ANSWER: In a LEFT JOIN, all rows from
the left table are returned, along with
matching rows from the right table. In a
RIGHT JOIN, all rows from the right table
are returned, along with matching rows
from the left table.

38. What is the purpose of the

COALESCE() function?

ANSWER: The COALESCE() function is

used to return the first non-null value in a
list of expressions. It is commonly used to
handle null values in SQL queries.
 39. What is the difference between
the CHARINDEX() and the INSTR()
functions?
ANSWER: CHARINDEX() is a function in
SQL Server that returns the position of a
substring within a string, while INSTR() is
a function in Oracle that performs a
similar function.

40. What is the purpose of the

EXISTS operator?

ANSWER: The EXISTS operator is used to

test whether a subquery returns any rows.
It returns true if the subquery returns one
or more rows, and false otherwise.
41. What is the difference between a
natural join and an equi-join?

ANSWER: A natural join is a join that

automatically matches columns with the
same name in the two tables, while an
equi-join is a join that explicitly specifies
the columns to be matched using the ON
clause.

42. What is a cursor?

ANSWER: A cursor is a database object

used to retrieve and manipulate data row
by row. It allows for sequential
processing of query results.
 43. What is the purpose of the
ROWID pseudocolumn?

ANSWER: The ROWID pseudocolumn is a

unique identifier assigned to each row in
a table by the database. It is typically
used for low-level operations and should
not be relied upon for application-level
logic.

44. What is the difference between

the MIN() and the MAX() functions?

ANSWER: The MIN() function returns the

minimum value in a set of values, while
the MAX() function returns the maximum
value.
 45. What is the purpose of the
RANK() function?

ANSWER: The RANK() function is used to

assign a rank to each row in a result set
based on a specified ordering. Rows with
the same values are assigned the same
rank, with gaps in the ranking sequence
where there are ties.

46. What is a correlated subquery?

ANSWER: A correlated subquery is a

subquery that depends on the outer
query for its values. It is executed once
for each row processed by the outer
query.
 47. What are the advantages of
using CTEs?

ANSWER: CTEs improve readability and

maintenance of complex queries, allow
recursive queries, and can be referenced
multiple times within the same query.

48. Can a CTE reference itself or

another CTE?

ANSWER: A CTE can reference itself in

the case of a recursive CTE. However, a
CTE cannot reference another CTE unless
they are chained in successive WITH
clauses or in the main body of the query.
 49. What are the differences between
local and global temporary tables?

ANSWER: Local temporary tables are visible

only to the current session, and their names are
prefixed with a single hash symbol
(#TableName). Global temporary tables are
visible to all sessions, and their names are
prefixed with double hash symbols
(##TableName).

50. In what scenarios would you use a

CTE over a temporary table, and vice
versa?
ANSWER: Use CTEs for simpler temporary
result sets where recursion or readability is a
primary concern, and no physical table creation
is necessary. Temporary tables are preferable
for more complex scenarios requiring
significant manipulation of the temporary data,
when indexing is needed for performance, or
when the data needs to persist across multiple
queries or stored procedure calls.
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