COMPUTER NOTES

DEFINE A COMPUTER

 An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept, process
& output data/information for use by the operator.

-A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program, generates
results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and control units.

-A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic
operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.

-It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures ) as input and processes
( works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form ) as output .

The computer is made up of hardware, software and peripheral devices.

Hardware- refers to the tangible, physical and mechanical components of a computer.

Software - refers to the intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions
of the computer. Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as
computer programs. The hardware needs these instructions to function

Computer program:
• A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer follows in
processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. See also software.
• A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a
computer in order to bring about a certain result.

NB: Software alone is useless, so is the hardware. The two are inseparable.

Peripheral Devices - These are devices that are external (not part of the computer) but can be
connected to a computer. They are not essential for the functioning of the computer but can be
connected to the computer for specific reasons. Examples are scanners, modems, printers,
speakers, digital cameras, etc.

CPU
The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

PROCESSING DEVICE
The only processing device on a computer is The Central Processing unit known as the CPU . It
is the main part of the computer as all other devices are built around it. It can be referred to as the
heart or brain behind the computer.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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 a) It interprets the instruction in the program according to the type and sequence of processing
operations that are to be performed on input data.
b) Performs the varied arithmetic and logic operations that are necessary to convert input data
into output information.
c) Stores intermediate results of data being processed on its registers.
d) Directs or controls output to all other devices (input, output, auxiliary storage units), telling
each what to do and when to do it.

CPU COMPONENTS
It consists of the control unit (CU) and Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). In most computers the
two components - CU and ALU units - are combined in a unit called the microprocessor (CPU).

The Control Unit

The Control Unit manages input/output to and from the main memory and to and from
auxiliary storage units and output devices. It interprets instructions in their sequence, It
determines what is to be done to follow the instruction and, transmits to the appropriate device
directions specifying the work to be done. For example, it advises each input device what data to
transfer, when to transfer it, and when to send the data. It arranges for data to move from the
main memory to the ALU and spells out the calculating and logic operations that are to be
performed, and then arranges to send the processed results to main storage or to an output device
for printing or display.

The ALU
The Arithmetic Logical Unit has 2 functions i.e. to perform calculations and logic operations at
a fast speed (measured in nanoseconds, i.e. billionths of a second). It consists of registers (special
storage locations to hold the data to be processed), and an accumulator to store intermediate
results of operations. Logic operations compare values for greater, smaller or equal.
CPU speed The CPU speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz) being millions of instructions that
can be executed per second (MIPS). Each computer has specified, the processor speed.

INPUT DEVICES
These are some devices that feed data into the computer for processing. Some examples include:-
1. KEYBOARD
2. MOUSE
3. TRACKBALL
4. LIGHT PEN
5. TOUCH SCREEN
6. MODEM
7. SCANNER
8. MICROPHONE
9.BAR CODE READER

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OUTPUT DEVICES
1. LOUD SPEAKER Allows a user to hear sounds and music from the computer provided the
system has installed a sound card.
2. MODEM
An Input/ Output electronic device with circuits which changes data to be transmitted from its
machine form (digital form) into a form suitable for transmission over the telephone line
(analogue form). At the receiving end it converts data vice-versa. It is only necessary when one
needs to communicate information over a long distance and when connected to the internet.

3. HEADPHONES
Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers, except they are
worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time
4. PLOTTERS
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They are
usually used for Computer Aided Design ( CAD ) and Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM)
applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts. 4.
5. SPEAKER
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built into the
computer and some are separate
6. VDU (Visual Display Unit) The VDU is output device. It displays images and text in colour or
black and white as it. It displays results of processing. It is also called a monitor.
7. PRINTERS It produces output on paper i.e. hard copy or on other print-key media. The 2
types of
printers are impact and non -impact .

Impact printers
The printing device being a series of pins have a direct impact on the paper. The pins form
characters on the paper by pressing a printing element and an inked ribbon against paper. An
example of such a printer is the Dot Matrix. The printers are reasonably fast, inexpensive and can
produce both text and graphics. They also accommodate various paper sizes but are however
noisy.
Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The Laser printers
are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing technique similar to that used in
a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to form an image onto the paper using toner. The
print quality is high. Lasers are fast, and quiet. They print graphics but are more expensive. The
ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the image colour and
spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are slow, expensive and have a
high print quality.

STORAGE DEVICES
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary storage
devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-
a) THE HARD DISK A fixed device for storing information within the computer system unit.
The disk is not moveable and is also referred to as the C:\ drive. The amount of disk space a

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computer has determines the power of a computer. It provides fast access known as Random
access and has high-speed storage.
b) FLOPPY DISKETTE An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be
deleted and rewritten and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The
disks are either High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/
compactly than on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 3 1/2inches.
ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES
1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes
DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES
1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable

HARDWARE

Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it
contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the hardware to
accomplish tasks
Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and data held
in the storage of a computer for some purpose.

Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly
providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of
software.

TYPE OF COMPUTERS/COMPUTER CATEGORIES/MAJOR CLASSES

Supercomputers
Mainframes
Minicomputers
Microcomputers

Supercomputers
Describes a category of extremely powerful computers specifically designed for high-speed
numeric computation.
The computers can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
High capacity computers capable of executing instructions faster than main frame & are
extremely expensive.
The speed of executing these instructions generates extreme heat, and therefore the computers
require special cooling system to operate.
Uses include weather forecasting, scientific and mathematical research, and design of high-
speed aircraft and space exploration.
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 Mainframes
Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and usually have
one or more central processors with faster instruction processing speeds?
They typically process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
Mainframes have large primary storage capacities.
Many mainframe models have the ability to service hundreds of users at once.
Some commercial organizations require large amounts of data to be processed in the list
possible time.
Mainframes allow one to perform such functions
Uses of mainframes include: data warehousing, commercial airline ticketing & reservations,
government record keeping & financial servicing
Application categories: Host computers, Database servers, and Transaction processors.
Minicomputers
Are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than
most mainframe computer systems.
Serve in industrial process-control manufacturing plant computers and play a major role in
CAM.
Also take the form of powerful technical workstations for CAD applications.
Often used as front-end processors/computers to help mainframe computers control data
communications networks with large numbers of data entry terminals.
Also used as powerful Network servers to help manage large interconnected LANs that tie
together many workstations
Downsizing is a term that was commonly used in the early nineties when smaller computers,
capable of much of the functions of mainframes, began capturing the computer market.
Minicomputers are suitable for mid-sized companies that require the computing power of
mainframes to be efficient and at the same time be cost effective.
Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions, supermarket chains
and departmental stores.
Application categories: Network servers, and Application systems
Microcomputers
We refer to a microcomputer as a personal computer or PC.
Microcomputers categorized by size include: Desktops , Laptops for example.
Most microcomputers are single user computers.
The late nineties have seen a huge influx of microcomputers whose sole aim was to provide
affordable computing power to the general public.
They are now used as Network servers. The demand for microcomputers and the changes in
microchip technology have produced cheaper computers that are affordable to students and the
general public.
Can support CAD.
Users of microcomputers range from students, who use them for word processing, to a
salesperson. Who depend on the microcomputer for information?

The main differences among the above computer types are in:
• Processing speed,
• Memory capacity
• Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the computer

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• Usage.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN YOU WANT TO PURCHASE OR BUY A

COMPUTER
1. COST; how much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal computers range from
a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more feature-rich PCs are usually more
expensive.
2. AREA OF USE; where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in your home or
office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need to take it with you, you
should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer.
3. APPLICATIONS PACKAGES; Which application packages will I run on my computer?
Make a list of applications for which you plan to use your PC. For example, will you use your
PC to prepare letters and reports? Analyze numeric and financial data? Prepare visual
presentations? Access the Internet? Listen to music? Create and work with graphics?
4. DURATION; How long will I keep this computer? Try to estimate the length of time (years)
you will use your computer before BUYING the next one. If you expect use your PC for several
years or if you think you may later want to add new applications, CONSIDER one that is
expandable, so you can add new components, such as a modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make
sure the PC has expansion slots so you can connect these devices to your PC.
5. MANUFACTURER AND SELLER REPUTATION. Check out the manufacturers and seller’s
reputations. Talk with friends, co-workers, classmates, teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask
about the performance of their PCs and get recommendations from persons you trust. Eventually
you may need to have your PC serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a service department that can
repair your PC. If not, you may need to locate a third-party to provide this service. Reputable
computer manufactures include: 1. Hewlett-Packard 2. Apple 3. Sun Microsystems 4. Dell 5.
Panasonic 6.Sony 7.Toshiba 8. Shuttle 9. IBM 10. Samsung Electronics 11. Hitachi 12.
Fujitsu Siemens
6. WARRANTIES & GUARANTEES
7. PC ARCHITECTURE. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of the PC and its
system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the architecture of an Apple
Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC. Therefore, software written for an
Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or IBM-compatible PC. Although some users
prefer a Macintosh PC, more software is available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.
8. MICROPROCESSOR SPEED. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely important.
Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is probably the first
consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the faster the processor will manipulate
data. If speed is important, consider choosing a microprocessor with a speed of 2 GHz or more.
PCs containing microprocessors with speeds up to 10 GHz and higher are available.
9. MAIN MEMORY (RAM). Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary storage of
programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application software requires a
considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer software versions usually require
more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now come with 2 gigabytes (GB), 5GB, or more
of RAM. Make certain the PC has sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.
10. SECONDARY STORAGE (ROM). What type(s) and amounts of secondary storage are you
likely to need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive, cd drive, USB port/ drive and a
hard disk drive already installed. A hard disk drive contains one or more rigid storage platters

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and provides for the permanent storage of considerably more data. However, the disk itself
cannot be removed from the drive.
The STORAGE CAPACITY of a hard disk is an important consideration because it is used to
store all system and application software. Typical hard disk capacities are 100, 200, 500GB or
2TB and more. Be certain the PC you are considering has sufficient secondary capacity for your
needs CD-ROM or DVD drives provide high storage capacities. Most software publishers store
their programs on CD-ROM or DVDs because of the high capacity and because DVD/CD-
ROMs operate faster than floppy disks. If you will use your PC to play movies, your purchase
should include a DVD (digital video disk) drive. If you will work with large files, consider
purchasing a computer that includes a DVD/CD-RW drive. A DVD/CD-RW disk is a reusable
high-capacity disk that allows you to store huge amounts of data and to erase data no longer
needed.
11. PORTS. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines the number
of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For example, you cannot connect a
printer to your computer unless you computer r is equipped with an appropriate port (slot). Be
sure the PC contains the necessary slots for the add-on boards and peripheral devices you will be
using with your computer.
12. INPUT DEVICES. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although other kinds
of input devices are available. Most keyboards and mice operate similarly. However, there are
slight differences in how each "feels" to the user. Before buying a PC, you may want to test the
keyboard and mouse for comfort and ease of use. Some sellers will allow you to exchange the
keyboard or mouse that comes with the computer for a different one.
13. OUTPUT DEVICES. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard copy form.
Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have to purchase a hard copy
device, such as a printer, separately.
14. MONITORS. There are wide differences among PC monitors, with resolution being perhaps
the most important variable.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.

1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidatise it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed to direct
sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded 24hours to
ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against electrical
faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power failures,
which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12.

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Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order to minimize
virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not criss cross
the room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.

COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a computer operates
without permission, to do harm to the computer.
-Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
-Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
-Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
DEFINITION2. A virus is a computer program designed to enter your computer and tamper
with your files without your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the
activated virus can not only infect other programs and documents on you computer , it can
duplicate and transmit itself to other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical
virus can move from one human host to another.

What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer .

Reduced memory or disk space
Files are overwritten or damaged
Hard drive may be erased
Data is modified /corrupted.
Change files & date stamp
Drive lights blink without reason
Longer times are experienced when loading programs
Slower system operation.

How computers are infected with Viruses?

-Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or other media that users
can exchange.
-Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.
-Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.
-Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
-Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
-Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.
-Booting a PC from an infected medium.
-Executing an infected program.
-Opening an infected file.
-Shareware.
-Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,
-clicking on spam,
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-visiting corrupt websites and links online,
-Opening spreadsheets or even the original method—infected disks.
-But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.

ANTIVIRUS TOOLS/PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
1) Dr Solomon’s Antiviral Package
2) Norton Antivirus Package
3) AVG Antivirus
4) Microsoft Antiviral Package
5) McAfee VirusScan
6) F-PROT anti-virus package
7) Protector Plus 2000 for Windows ver 7.2.H03
8) Anti Trojan Elite ver 3.7.5
9) Panda Antivirus platinum 7 ver 7.06
10) AntiSpy ver 4.4.2
11) avast! 4 Professional Edition ver 4.6.652
12) DrWeb® Anti-Virus, Home Edition ver 4.30a
13) Dr.Web Anti-Virus for Workstations ver 4.30.a
14) File Sharing Sentinel ver 1.0.1
15) Real Password Protector 2005 ver 2.0
16) Code(Red) Hunter v1.5 ver v1.5
17) Digital Patrol ver 5.00.12
18) BitDefender
19) Kaspersky
20) F-Secure Anti-Virus
21) PC-cillin
22) ESET Nod32
23) CA Antivirus
24) Norman Virus Control
25) AntiVirusKit
26) AVAST!
27) Panda Titanium
28) Windows OneCare
29) ViRobot Expert
30) PCTools AntiVirus
31) WinAntiVirus
32) CyberScrub AntiVirus
33) The Shield AntiVirus
MEASURES/FACILITIES PROVIDED BY AN ANTIVIRUS PACKAGE.
1. Scanning – searching for viruses
2. Cleaning of the system (removal of viruses)
3. Rearrangement of corrupted data.
4. Repairing of corrupted data files.
5. Quarantine – separation of infected files from uninfected files.
6. Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk
authorization software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.

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7. Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes) disinfect
viruses..
8. Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
9. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or replacing
corrupted data.
PRECAUTIONS/SAFETY GUIDES AGAINST VIRUSES
Install a reliable antiviral package
Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
Never download unknown files from the internet
Boot the system from virus free disks
Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes should not be used

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
(a) Machine Language
- A computer language made up of binary digits (0s and 1s)
-The most fundamental way to program a computer, using instructions made up entirely of
strings of 0sand 1s.
-The language is far from English and any mathematical notation.
-Machine language is not portable and is machine dependent meaning it cannot be moved from
one machine to the other.
-Errors are very difficult to remove and programs are difficult to write using machine language.
(b) Low Level Language
-Low level means the language can better communicate with the system.
-LLL are closer to machine code
-They use mnemonics i.e. ADD to add SUB to subtract etc
-Easier for a programmer to write a program in LLL than machine language.
-Programs have to be translated from source code into machine language
(c) High Level Language
-A programming language that utilizes macroinstructions and statements that closely resembles
human language or mathematical notation to describe the problem to be solved or the procedure
to be used.
-Programs are much easier to write / read because the are next English
-A programming language where each instruction corresponds to several machine code
instructions. A compiler or interpreter must translate instructions in this language before they can
be processed.

MACHINE LANGUAGE ADVANTAGES

• A very powerful language
• No translation is needed
DISADVANTAGES
• Much harder to code for programmers because it’s a series of 1s & 0s.
• Not portable
• Machine Dependent
• Errors are difficult to remove
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE ADVANTAGES

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• Easier to use than machine language
DISADVANTAGES
• Machine dependent
• Harder to code than HLL
• Not portable
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE ADVANTAGES
• It is a portable language
• Programs are much easier to read/ write coz it’s close to English language.
• Programs are problem oriented.
• Errors are removed before translation to Machine code [during compiling].
DISADVANTAGES
• Slower in execution
• Programs tend to be wordy hence they take long to compile.
• Requires more memory.

GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA

Define Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system? Computer programs and procedures
concerned with the operation of a computer system. Definitions of software on the Web:
• Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
• Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
• System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS,
Communication control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming language
translators.
• Definitions of system software A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to
allow a computer, and other programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that
the user may have, system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with
the monitor display, the RAM, the hard drive and the rest of the computer.
OPERATING SYSTEM
• The main control of a computer system .
• It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer programs and
may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system accounting, compilation,
storage assignment, data management and related services.
Definitions of operating system on the Web:
• The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional. On most
PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other operating
systems often found in scientific and technical environments.
• A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates the
operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are common
operating systems.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

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 o Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of
specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing programs or
inventory or payroll programs.
o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal, organizational, or processing
task, such as graphics software
. o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating system software
allows the computer to work. A computer- aided dispatch system is application software, as is
each word processing program.
FREEWARE
Public domain software that is freely available in magazines and on the internet at no charge to
users though manuals may be offered at a cost. Freeware may or may not have copyrights and
may or may not have distribution restrictions.
SHAREWARE
Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as freeware BUT is always
copyrighted and includes a software license that requires its users to pay for the privilege of
using the software beyond a certain trial period. If you decide to use it, you are expected to pay
for the license. There is usually a disabling system in the program after a certain period of time
i.e. a month.

OPERATING SYSTEM
- Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
-Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU, controls the
input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer system, and provides various
support services as the computer executes the application programs?
-Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and the hardware?
-All communications go through the operating system.

ROLES (functions) OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

The operating system has various roles:
1. Management of the processor :
the operating system is responsible for managing allocation of the processor between the
different programmes using a scheduling algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally dependent
on the operating system, according to the desired objective.
2. Management of the random access memory : the operating system is responsible for
managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to each user. If
there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a memory zone on the
hard drive, known as " virtual memory ". The virtual memory lets you run applications requiring
more memory than there is available RAM on the system. However, this memory is a great deal
slower.
3. Management of input/output : the operating system allows unification and control of access of
programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral administrators or
input/output administrators).
4. Management of execution of applications : the operating system is responsible for smooth
execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to operate. This means an
application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".

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 5. Management of authorisations : the operating system is responsible for security relating to
execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only by programmes and
users with the relevent authorisations.
6. File management : the operating system manages reading and writing in the file system and
the user and application file access authorisations.
7. Information management : the operating system provides a certain number of indicators that
can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.

COMPUTER MEMORY
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Also referred to as Main Memory, Primary Memory or Working Memory is memory that is
accessed by the CPU as it processes information. The CPU also places results of processing on
the memory chip. The memory has the following characteristics.
1) can be read from
2) can be changed and can be rewritten
3) used for short-term storage of data i.e. it is temporary storage,
4) is volatile (data lost when power is turned off).
Types of RAM
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM) This is the most common type of computer memory. DRAM needs
refreshing and is refreshed hundreds of times each second in order to retain data. During
recharging it cannot be accessed by the CPS
• SRAM (Static RAM) SRAM is approximately 5 times faster (and twice as expensive, as
DRAM). It does not have to be constantly refreshed. Because of its lower cost and smaller size,
DRAM is preferred for the main memory, while SRAM is used primarily for cache memory.
• SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM) is the standard memory offering in the PC industry and
is faster than DRAM because it's synchronized to the system clock. . It is designed for
mainstream home and business applications, email, and basic audio and video streaming. It
provides single-channel memory and is available on our mainstream and value desktop system.
• DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM) takes all the features of ordinary
SDRAM and increases the frequency bandwidth to improve system performance and speed.
• RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM) is able to load a new stream of data before the previous
stream has completed, resulting in faster access speeds. The RDRAM memory features dual-
channel processing which doubles data throughput to further enhance performance. This type of
memory is optimized for high-end multimedia tasks involving video and audio. Dual Channel
RDRAM is shipped on our performance desktop systems powered by Pentium 4 processors
• VRAM: Memory designed for storing the image to be displayed.
• CACHE RAM is a small block of high-speed memory located between the Processor and main
memory and is used to store frequently requested data and instructions. When the processor
requests data, it will check in the cache first

The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit, known as RAM and ROM.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
This memory chip has essential programs that start up the computer hardwired on the microchip
during the manufacture of the computer. It forms what is known as FIRMWARE, being a
halfway between hardware and software. The characteristics of this memory are that:-
1) can be read from,

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2) cannot be changed
3) is permanent
4) non-volatile (data not lost when power is turned off).

ROM
- Stores instructions & data which do not change
- It is written once during manufacture
- It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.
- It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user
-It is static & non volatile
-It stores control routines for personal computers
-VARIATIONS OF ROM Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM

PROM [Programmable ROM]

- is not programmed during manufacture but can be programmed by the user.
-It is programmed according to the needs of the user organization.
- If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will became permanent to the effect that
any errors will never be corrected thus the user will throw away any chip if errors are made.

EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM]

- can be programmed and erased as many times.
- This time you don’t have to worry about errors too much because there is room for correction.
- The programming is done electronically.
- Stored data can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light over a period of minutes.

EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM]

- can be read, erased, rewritten, without removing from the computer.
-The erasing & rewriting process is very slow compared with reading, which limits their use.
- These can be erased & programmed with electrical pulses. Can be erased in a few Milliseconds

NETWORKING
LANs and WANs
There are two types of network: LAN and WAN .
- A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or
a college.
-A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.
• The Internet is a WAN.
• A network of bank cash dispensers is a WAN.
• A school network is a LAN.
• LANs are often connected to WANs, for example a school network could be connected to the
Internet. Telephone lines are often used to connect WANs. LANs use dedicated cables or
wireless technology.

LAN

Local Area Network.

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-Are privately owned network within a single building or even on a single floor.
-LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
factories to share resources e.g. printers and exchange information.
-Common LAN topologies are Bus, Ring and Star.
-Resources are shared e.g. as above
-Software is shared
-Enhances communication between workstations

File sharing Definitions of Local Area Network on the Web:

• A computer network limited to the immediate area, usually the same building or floor of a
building.
• (1) A computer network located on a user's premises within a communication across the LAN
boundary may be subject to some form of regulation
. (2) A network in which a set of devices are connected to one another for communication and
that can be connected to a larger network.
• Communications network connecting computers by wire, cable, or fiber optics link. Usually
serves parts of an organization located close to one another, generally in the same building or
within 2 miles of one another. Allows users to share software, hardware and data.

WAN- Wide Area Network.

-A WAN spans a large geographical area often a country or continent.

-Also called long-haul network .
-Transmission lines for a WAN can be leased or can be private lines. I.e. leased telephone lines,
fibre optics, coaxial cables, microwave radio links, satellite connections etc. Definitions of Wide
Area Network on the Web:
-A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network. The
term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local area network.
-A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually connotes the
inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An intermediate form of network in terms of
geography is a metropolitan area network (MAN).
Advantages of networks
1. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where resources
are shared and capacity problems reduced.
2. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different machines to
share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users can send network
messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource.
3. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can be
installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other machines and users.
4. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several machines.
If one machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the data to the applications.
5. Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between machines on
the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company newsletters, and other
information.
6. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the need to buy many peripheral
devices. Resource sharing also serves money. An installation can have several low-cost work
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stations accessing a single file-server. That puts a lot of processing power on the user’s desk
without the expense of large mainframe systems.
7. Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
8. Site licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone licenses.
9. Files can easily be shared between users.
10. Network users can communicate by email .
11. Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place

DISADVANTAGES
1. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data.
2. Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the network,
monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network integrity (ensure the network
runs smoothly)
3. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures become
catastrophic
. 4. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages. For
example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter the system via
the network.
5. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
6. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually
needs to be employed.
7. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail might
still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand alones.
8. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
9. There is a danger of hacking , particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are
needed to prevent such abuse.
10. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security concerns, therefore, network
security is a priority in the development of network applications.

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