South African Journal of Education, Volume 38, Number 2, May 2018 1

Art. # 1551, 11 pages, https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v38n2a1551

Filling gaps and expanding spaces – voices of student teachers on their developing
teacher identity

William J Fraser
Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria,
South Africa
william.fraser@up.ac.za

It has often been said that any student engagement that is poorly monitored during teaching practice (TP) will not necessarily
contribute much to their professional development and teacher identity. This applies specifically to initial undergraduate
teacher training. This concern became the main focus of the study on which this article is reporting, as part of a broader project
– FIRE (Fourth-year Initiative for Research in Education), which commenced in 2015. We wanted to determine how we could
complement a community of practice engagement by using Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) as intervention that
could eventually contribute to the development of student teachers’ teacher identity during teaching practice. This article
reports on the outcomes of a study conducted on a sample of 2,309 final-year student teachers between 2015 and 2017 at a
tertiary institution in Pretoria. Data were generated by participating student teachers during three-hour, on-campus workshops
approximately a quarter of the way into their teaching practice. They were required to respond to a single question by
addressing how student teachers perceive the roles of expert teachers in terms of their curriculum and subject knowledge, their
expertise in teaching and learning, caring and providing learner support, and the managerial and professional skills of teachers.
The results confirmed that PRA is a dynamic research and data collection strategy to create networks through which
participants can benchmark their experiences against peers and other stakeholders. Furthermore, it is again confirmed that
traditional TP experiences often fail to expose student teachers adequately to the full dynamics of the educational landscape,
as certain interactions and activities are conflict-dependent, and only emerge when opposing and conflicting forces create
imbalances and inequity. PRA drew our attention to serious flaws in our teacher training programmes, urging a reassessment
of the objectives and actions of TP.

Keywords: community of practice; participatory reflection and action; subject methodology; teacher identity; teaching
practice

Introduction
Teacher training programmes at South African universities and Teacher Training Institutions have been subjected
to frequent transformation and change since the early nineties. The majority of these changes were not only
politically and ideologically driven, but in some instances, the dysfunctionality of systems and practices also had
to be addressed. For instance, when the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) introduced the
minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications in 2011, one of the aims was to “regulate teacher
education qualification programmes” (DHET, Republic of South Africa, 2011:5). However, not all changes were
proven effective. Major curriculum changes thus followed, which stretched capacity, time and resources. All of
the envisaged changes impacted the selection of appropriate space, subject content, subject methodologies and
assessment practices. The physical restructuring of education also saw significant changes in teacher education.
The incorporation of former provincial Teacher Training Colleges into universities (Jansen, 2002), and the
standardisation of teacher training programmes (DHET, Republic of South Africa, 2011) brought along new
requirements that had to be met by programme managers. Higher matriculation pass rates (Staff Writer, 2017)
contribute to more students entering higher education institutions. These increases in student numbers, and
especially student teacher numbers, strain resources, capacity, teaching, allocation, and supervision. Schools are
stretched to the limit to accommodate student teachers, and managers and mentor lecturers seek alternative models
and strategies to cope with the many students allocated to their fields of specialisation during teaching practice.
Teacher training institutions still apply numerous teaching practice models, but the most common
denominator, or ‘universal standard,’ that continues to define the praxis of teaching practice contains components
of monitoring and supervision. Apprenticeship models reflect classical post-positivist characteristics, meaning
that trainees are assessed against a set of criteria after which the outcomes of the assessment are discussed with
the participants. It is assumed that the shortcomings and defects will then be addressed and practice be improved.
There are, however, many flaws in this model, the most important being the sensitive nature of the ‘triad alliance’
between student teachers, university lecturers and mentor teachers.
Apprenticeship models, however, often lack the much-required feedback, counselling and mentoring viewed
by Kwan and Lopez-Real (2005) as the ‘relational aspects of working together.’ The main aim of the research
was to give student teachers the opportunity to engage in a simple participatory mode of inquiry, such as
Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA), and in doing so, experience the perceptions that they and their peers
have regarding important expert roles, forces that shape their teacher identity, their own shortcomings, and the
appropriate action one could take to address such inadequacies in a community of practice. We borrowed from
Korthagen, Loughran and Russell (2006) the idea that student teachers have huge impact on one another during
2 Fraser

peer-supported teaching and learning. finally hoped that the approach would allow
In 1986, Boydell directed our attention to the researchers and student teachers to address
conflicting relationship between the three main role emerging profession-related challenges and
players that share ‘collective space’ (Miller, problems.
1990:24) in the teaching practice relationship, Taking into consideration the problems that led
namely, the student teacher, the mentor lecturer and to the investigation, we decided in 2014 to engage
the mentor teacher. What emerged during the early our fourth-years students in small research projects
stages of the investigation was that not the mentor where they had to establish how their own practices
lecturer (supervisor), but the class teacher appears to could affect classroom and school effectiveness.
have “a much stronger influence on the student’s This also then became one of the prime aims of the
learning than the supervisor” (Boydell, 1986:116). investigation. Our understanding of Korthagen’s
The author supported her argument by drawing the (2001) definition of ‘Practice-Theory’ guided the
reader’s attention to the fact that groups of three assumption. Teachers build their own theory (t)
appear to be uneven – and that any other two when they retrieve evidence from their own small-
members could “form a coalition (to) isolate the scale investigations as opposed to the findings
third” (Boydell, 1986:117). Survival or ‘self- generated from large-scale studies (T). Kwan and
oriented’ concerns appeared to be the prime Lopez-Real (2005:276) shared similar ideas when
concerns of student teachers entering the classroom they argued that the “theory/practice divide should
for the first time (Boydell, 1986; Heeralal & Bayaga, give way to a situation in which theory is both
2011; Kwan & Lopez-Real, 2005). One solution to derived and confirmed from the practical
this problem was to supplement the apprenticeship experiences of the school and classroom.”
approach with a model that would focus more on It was for this reason that we selected a
inquiry and activities that involve intensive research strategy that would give participants the
reflection. Boydell (1986:123) noted the importance opportunity to talk about their experiences during
of ‘reflection on practice’ in 1986. Furthermore, she teaching practice, and in doing so give us a glimpse
suggested that action should follow the reflections of the dynamics of teaching practice that many of us
that emerge from student engagement. Walkington have taken for granted. A better understanding of the
(2005) understands this argument well, and claims forces driving the development of their teacher
that reflection should remain a fundamental action identities during this critical period of time would
in which teachers should engage, while Leijen, allow programme developers to revisit the
Allas, Toom, Husa, Marcos, Meijer, Knezic, Pedaste envisaged objectives and outcomes of teaching
and Krull (2014) utilise guided reflection well to practice.
support the development of student teachers’
practical knowledge. Bergold and Thomas (2012) Underpinning Theory
distinguish between four ‘reflection types,’ of which The development of student teachers
reflection on personal attributes, reflection on social The literature points to the fact that the professional
relationships, and reflection in a social field apply development of student teachers concurs with the
well to student teachers. facilitation of subject knowledge, the application of
specific strategies often used to reveal given
The Research Rationale phenomena and processes, and the acquisition of
PRA is closely related to Participatory Action unique professional skills associated with the
Research (PAR), which has become known for its pedagogies of practice. The achievement of the
emancipatory and empowering qualities (Cham- curriculum objective is not divorced from subject
bers, 1994b:958; Von Maltzahn & Van der Riet, syntax; for example, science educators are familiar
2006:110). One could therefore claim that PRA with the fact that the teaching of science relates to
would have similar properties due to its reflective exploratory strategies that give science education its
and action-based qualities. We were looking for a unique characteristics (Capps & Crawford, 2013;
strategy with dual research and developmental Gaigher, Lederman & Lederman, 2014; Ramnarain,
qualities that would possibly strengthen the 2010). Finally, the development of teacher identity
development of student teachers’ professional (or the ‘self’ as Day, Kington, Stobart & Sammons,
teacher identity. The original PRA model of Von 2006:601 put it) also depends on how teachers
Maltzahn and Van der Riet (2006) – which they understand their learners. Renewed interest in so-
phrased Participatory Rural Appraisal – served such called ‘Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)’
a purpose (Fraser, Ferreira, Abrie, Van Heerden, confirms the importance of pedagogy as an
Botha, Bosman, De Jager, Van Putten, Kazeni & impacting factor on quality teaching and learning.
Coetzee, 2016). We trusted that the strategy would Best practices in dealing with primary and
have a “strong social justice orientation” as called secondary school learners are often regarded as
for by Von Maltzahn and Van der Riet (2006:110), ‘overarching competences’ related to teacher
which would allow student teachers to construct identity. These roles are well described by Beijaard,
knowledge within particular social contexts. We Verloop and Vermunt (2000), who have explored
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 38, Number 2, May 2018 3

the three components in the context of teacher drawn from the major roles that teachers normally
identity. They argue that teachers will always define engage in on a daily basis. Beijaard, Meijer and
themselves in terms of their understanding of Verloop (2004), Beijaard et al. (2000), and Day et
teaching and learning strategies, command of the al. (2006:603) also reiterated the importance of
subject content, and knowledge of the cognitive aspects such as classroom management, subject
demands of their learners (Fraser et al., 2016). knowledge and pupil test results when it comes to
Student teachers and teachers therefore the development of identities.
undergo developmental change during the course of As this study concerns the developing
their careers. Such changes have been accommo- identities of student teachers, we were also led by
dated in Clarke and Hollingsworth’s (2002) Clarke and Hollingsworth’s (2002) model of
quadruple professional growth model in which they teachers’ professional growth, as explained earlier
claim that our beliefs and attitudes, our external in this article. The model applies specifically to
working environment, and our work of practice student teachers’ domain of practice where they,
constitute a domain of consequence. All of these through so-called professional experimentation,
experiences contribute to the development of a reflect and enact their development (Clarke &
professional identity, which is regarded as the Hollingsworth, 2002).
perception that teachers have of themselves, or also
‘their-selves’ (Verloop, 2003, in Lamote & Engels, The Research Sample and Unit of Analysis
2010). For this reason, Clarke and Hollingsworth’s Since 2015, 2,309 fourth-year student teachers who
(2002) model was accommodated in the conceptual have been attending the compulsory teaching
framework of this study. practice component of the teacher-training pro-
gramme at one higher education institution in South
Research Method Applied during the Study Africa, participated in the intervention (713 in 2015,
The Conceptual Framework that Applied to the 755 in 2016, and 841 in 2017). Thus far, the majority
Study of the student pool has been female (on average
Wenger’s (1998) understanding of the composition 75%), with 25% being male. The student intakes
of a Community of Practice and Engestrom’s (2000) became known as Block A and Block B students,
and Leontiev’s (1981) Activity Theory informed and were reported as such in the results and also
this study. Community of Practice (work-integrated further down in the article.
learning experience) defined student teachers’ world
of work while the Activity Theory demarcated the The Research Process and Ethical Consideration
role players, stakeholders and activities that form Methodology and data collection strategy
part of teaching practice. Engestrom’s (2000) model Traditional Participatory Action Research was too
describes the elements of teaching practice complex and too time consuming, as the partici-
(community of practice) in terms of the so-called pants only had one month to introduce their action
tools, rules or guidelines, subjects, community, plans during the last quarter of teaching practice.
division of labour, and outcomes. Two additional Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) (Cham-
dimensions informed the conceptual framework, bers, 1994a, 1994b; Naidoo et al., 2007) was thought
namely, Shulman’s (1987) understanding of the to be simpler, easier to implement, and yielding
importance of Pedagogical Content Knowledge quicker results. Furthermore, the assumptions listed
(PCK) to teaching, and the foundations of by Ferreira and Ebersöhn (2012) in support of PRA
Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) as as a research methodology and data collection
research methodology. Shulman (1987) explained strategy fitted the intervention well. Accordingly,
that PCK distinguished clearly between the content participants were taken as experts in terms of the
to be taught by the teacher, and the understanding of information required, and expected to map their
the pedagogy required, enhancing the retention of opinions regarding the tasks and functions (roles) of
information. Understanding the nature of a subject expert teachers, as highlighted in the first matrix
in terms of substance and syntax during teaching and (See Photo 1 and reference to Matrix 1). The second
learning remains the essence of student teachers’ activity (see reference to Matrix 2) expected the
world of work. It was thought that Participatory participants not only to list the contribution of
Reflection and Action (PRA) (Chambers, 1994a, different sources to their developing identities, but
1994b; Naidoo, Duncan, Roos, Pillay & Bowman, also to quantify the importance of each contributor.
2007) would create capacity for student teachers to This allowed the participants to identify prevailing
reflect on their own teaching experiences, talk about gaps or spaces in their repertoire of tasks and
these experiences, and then devise action plans to functions that remain unaddressed. The third
address shortcomings and limitations. activity (see reference to Matrix 3) expected the
We wanted to know from the participants how participants to list two activities or action plans that
they perceived the expert roles linked to Subject they would implement during the last month of
Knowledge, Teaching and Learning Strategies, teaching practice to address the shortfalls that they
Learner Support (Caring Role), and Professional identified in Matrix 2. This was prompted by
Classroom Management. The expert roles were Boydell’s (1986:123) question: “How do you
4 Fraser

stimulate reflection on efficacy of current practice campus. We attempted to cluster the students from
and follow with action based on this reflection?” We the Foundation Phase, Intermediate Phase, Senior
hoped that these would address the practical Phase, and Further Education and Training Phase
challenges that emerged during teaching practice, programmes into small groups, according to their
and relied on the empowering property of PRA as subjects and fields of specialisation where they
the participants had to suggest a number of actions would feel comfortable to talk about sensitive issues
that are required to address the problems that they and personal experiences. Referring to
encountered during their teaching practice. All ‘communicative and safe spaces’ specifically,
students returned to campus six weeks after the Bergold and Thomas (2012), as well as Rönnerman,
initial workshop to reflect on the outcomes of the Edwards-Groves and Grootenboer (2015) explain
two activities posted on Matrix 3. The outcomes of why communicative spaces are required to be
the school-based interventions were reported on in ‘enabling’ or empowering. We trusted that the
Matrix 4 during the second workshop. participants would, in terms of the validity claims of
All students were invited to attend two three- Habermas (in McCarthy, 1978:290), base their
hour workshops on-campus during the second and reflections on “comprehensibility, truth, truthfulness
third quarters of the year. Block A students did their and rightness.”
teaching practice in the proximity of the university We encouraged the participants at the work-
and were assessed by their mentor lecturers, while shops to reflect on each of the questions that formed
Block B students did their teaching practice at part of the four matrices, as set out in Table 1. We
schools at venues of choice away from campus talked the participants through the questions and
during the first term of the academic year. Their activities, and also prompted groups to clarify and
mentor teachers assessed their teaching. The justify their reflections. Each group leader then
supervision of students switched during the second reported on the group’s reflections at the end of each
semester to allow the initial Block B students to be session.
supervised by their mentor lecturers closer to

Photo 1 Completed Matrix 1 where participants reported on the four listed expert roles
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 38, Number 2, May 2018 5

Table 1 Main tasks and functions of the data capturing instruments (matrices or posters)
Matrix Task and Function
1 Mapping student teachers’ opinions on the four Teacher Expert Roles: group member had to reflect on the
teacher they would like to be by focusing on the teacher as subject expert (understanding subject matter or
content); the teacher as teaching and learning expert; the teacher as caring expert; and the teacher as
professional and managing expert. Sub-question: What is the group’s opinion regarding the characteristics of
an expert teacher in terms of the four roles listed? Rank the four expert roles in order of importance.
2 Mapping and quantifying the role of stakeholders (sources) in terms of their identity development. Sub-
question: List the sources that informed the development of your teacher identity and explain the contribution
of each.
3 Mapping Action Plans: list a number of activities that the group will perform back at school to address the
limitations and shortcomings they have identified. Instruction: Identify two gaps in your developing teacher
identity and propose two action plans you would implement back at school to address these shortcomings.
4 Mapping the outcomes of the selected action plans. Sub-question: How did your participation in the two
activities help to clarify the shortcoming you experienced during teaching practice?

Faculty management and the Ethics Commi- group suggested addressing the gaps that required
ttee of the Faculty of Education granted us per- immediate attention. The final matrix reported on
mission to engage university students in the the success that the participants experienced with the
intervention. implemented action plans.

Transcription and analysis of the data The Teacher as a Subject Expert

Data from the four matrices were transcribed We invested in Day’s (2004:9) position that the best
followed by the clustering of the reflections in terms teachers at all levels are those who have strong
of consistencies and contradictions. In analysing the intellectual and emotional identities and commit-
data, an inductive thematic approach was followed ments both to their subject(s) and to their students.
as proposed by Mason (2002) as well as inductive- Day et al. (2006:604) further emphasised that “a
deductive options described by Cohen, Manion and positive sense of identity with subject, relationships
Morrison (2007). For this purpose, data on each of and roles” is important to maintain an identity.
the four expert roles were analysed across the Participants had a good understanding of what
various groups, identifying recurring themes and was required from them in terms of subject
subthemes. knowledge. One group (2015/A/6) reported a basic
premise claiming that ‘a teacher’s role as subject
Results expert requires one to know and understand the
Introduction content of the subject.’ This knowledge ranges from
The results were collected in four matrices (posters) having a broad knowledge base to specific
that served as data collection instruments. The knowledge (2015/A/24; 25; 28; B/71; 75). Other
groups were numbered and the four completed groups (2015/A/12; 23; 24; 29; B/71) reported on
matrices (three from the first workshop and the the importance of consulting different resources,
fourth from the second workshop) were analysed as and relating to what is being taught, and appreciated
a unit. We transcribed the data and followed the importance of conducting research to remain in
inductive and deductive approaches in the search for command of the subject. Many also reported the
similarities and differences as explained earlier. importance of remaining life-long learners and
These emerging patters were used to explore the understanding the ‘rules’ set out in the national
participants’ awareness of their developing iden- curriculum statements (2015/A/14; 18; 25; 26; 27;
tities and also to come to a better understanding of B/70). To many, it meant remaining relevant and
the existing gaps or spaces that still need further updated, and being able to accommodate change
development. The findings reflect the year of (2015/A/27; 28; 30). The groups (2015/A/18; 25;
application, the Block (A or B) that applied, as well 28) saw it as important to be able to answer learners’
as the group number. The data from the first matrix questions, and to inspire learners through teachers’
reported on the kind of teacher the participants passion and subject knowledge.
would have liked to be in terms of subject
specialisation, teaching and learning, caring expert The Teacher as a Teaching and Learning Expert
(including learner support), and management The participants not only reflected on which
(professional role). They then linked areas lacking teaching and learning strategies an expert would use,
development to the four expert roles and also but also how teaching and learning need to be
indicated where development was ongoing. The data conducted, as well as the conditions fit for their
from the second matrix not only reflected the roles application. Some groups suggested that experts
of different stakeholders in terms of their should move away from using textbooks only
professional and identity development, but also (2015/B/71) and also indicated the importance of
revealed the importance of each in terms of function. enthusiastic engagement, interaction, approach-
The last matrix reported on the actions that each ability and adaptability (2015/B/71; 84; 87). The
6 Fraser

groups also regarded a focus on group work as an aspects such as confidence, good relationships
indication of a more mature approach to teaching (2016/B/7; 61) credibility, passion, communication
and learning (2015/B/71), while the accommo- (2016/B/43), adaptability, mutual respect
dation of learners’ different learning styles was also (2017/B/7; 27), life-long learning, every-day
seen as an advantage (2015/B/72; 80; 81; learners, independence, accommodation, research,
2016/B/61). Good communication skills and leadership. What emerged from another group’s
(2015/B/73; 75) were also regarded as an asset to close association with the school community during
expert teaching, while the variation of techniques teaching practice was the need to establish good
and strategies was thought to be an advantage by professional relationships with colleagues, parents
some groups (2015/B/75; 80; 82; 83; 84; 86; and students (2016/B/8).
2016/B/61). The groups also saw diversification as Towards the end of the first activity, we
a valuable asset in achieving excellence requested the participants to rank the importance of
(2015/B/81). each of the four roles of expected excellence in
terms of their own experience and expectations. One
The Teacher as a Caring Expert of the intake cohorts consisting of Foundation Phase
One has to agree with Beijaard et al. (2000:3) that and Intermediate Phase students attached the highest
“teaching is much more than the transmission of value to the caring and supportive role of the
knowledge.” It was for this reason that we saw the teacher, followed by professionalism, teaching and
caring role of the teacher as an important component learning, and subject specialisation, consecutively.
of identity, which links to the teacher’s pedagogical A quick analysis of the opinions of the Senior and
expert role, justifying its inclusion in the matrix. Our Further Education and Training students revealed
decision links well to Day’s (2004:2) explanation as the opposite. They attached more value to becoming
to why we should not ignore the caring role of the subject experts than becoming caring experts. Our
teacher, who posit that passionate teachers will be excitement grew on recognising a potentially
aware of the challenge of the broader social contexts emergent pattern, but as our analyses ultimately
in which they teach, harbour a clear sense of concluded that we could not draw clear associations
identity, and believe that they can make a difference between student teachers’ phase specialisation and
to the learning and achievement of their pupils. preference for a specific expert role. However, Day
These teachers care deeply about their pupils and et al. (2006:605) looking specifically at the primary
like them. They will also care about how and what teacher’s role, draw our attention to “the tensions
they teach and are typically curious to learn more and contradictions between the impulse to ‘care and
about both in order to become and remain more than nurture,’ and the impulse … to ‘control.’”
merely competent.
The participants in this study argued that Sources and Forces Informing the Student
teachers in caring capacities should be acquainted Teachers’ Developing Identities
with the cultural characteristics, the socio- Lamote and Engels (2010) agree that student
economical backgrounds, as well as with specific teachers are exposed to the expectations of various
environmental issues that are usually associated external sources such as “teacher educators,
with learners from a particular setting or comm- colleagues, head teachers, (and) the government
unity (2016/B/7). One group listed that one has to through national standards,” and that these
find ways to learn about each other’s backgrounds expectations are embedded in teachers’ professional
and be aware of each individual child’s need identity, resulting in them striving to meet such
(2016/B/27; 61). Another group raised the im- stipulated expectations. The participants
portance of ‘sharing,’ arguing, ‘you might be the acknowledged the fact that various factors affected
only person they look up to’ (2016/B/43). They also their professional development during teaching
realised that the creation of a safe learning practice. One of the groups had the following to say:
environment is a prerequisite for the achievement of Through this study, we identified the importance of
educational aims and objectives (2017/B/8). the relationship between teacher’s identity
formation and surrounding factors. We have
understood the importance of certain practices such
The Teacher as a Professional and Managing
as building a positive ongoing relationship (with)
Expert
the (fellow) student teachers, with our families,
Many of the participants argued that in becoming a school and community.
professional, it is important to have a good Various stakeholders and forces affected the
understanding of learners’ home and socio-econo- development of participants’ identities since the
mic environments. This background knowledge was interception of the study in 2015. The groups were
a critical impact factor when planning teaching and reasonably unanimous that various sources or
learning in the classroom, especially when having to factors affected the development of their teacher
integrate components from learners’ life-worlds into identities significantly. These are: previous teachers;
the curriculum. Student teachers saw the importance mentor teachers; mentor lecturers; the university;
of being accessible to learners. It became possible family and friends; and their own acquired
from the findings to link professionalisation with
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 38, Number 2, May 2018 7

experiences. However, the student teachers’ regarded as tasks and functions of specific pro-
reflected experiences showed consistency, claiming grammes and stakeholders, more specifically in
that the effect of mentor lecturers or methodology relation to the following: development of teacher
lecturers on their development had not always been identities; working outside the framework (box); and
breaking with formality.
that favourable. For this reason, we also focus on the 5) Expectations of participants that had not been met by
mentoring role of mentor lecturers in the following stakeholders, in particular with regards to poorly
paragraph. The participants had high expectations of guided professional encouragement and support
their mentor teachers and thought them to be (2016/B/7).
influential in their development. Nevertheless, such The participants were very specific in term of the
discrepancies between their expectations and problems they experienced during the student-
experiences emerged as paradoxes. A discussion of mentor lecturer interactions. One group remarked
these observations will follow in the next paragraph. that some mentor lecturers were no longer aware of
the requirements of practice, that they had un-
Gaps and Spaces in the Development of Fourth- realistic expectations, and that they had not always
year Students’ Teacher Identities been accessible for consultation. Another group
One of the advantages of PRA was that the action criticised the absence of moral and spiritual support,
plans and interventions allowed the participants to as well as the impersonal demeanour of the mentor
assess their own progress in terms of the lecturers, their lack of involvement, and apparent
documented expert roles. Moreover, as the imple- poor communication styles. One participant spoke
mentation of the action plans progressed, it allowed about her/his ‘worst experience ever,’ while a group
them to come to terms with the shortcomings or lamented the inconsistency of the mentor lecturer.
classical limitations that beginner teachers would Kwan and Lopez-Real (2005) describe four
experience. One group summarised their obser- prominently ranked mentor roles. These are, in order
vations as follows: of prominence: ‘provider of feedback,’ ‘counsellor,’
In this research, we also saw the shortcomings that ‘observer,’ and ‘role model.’ It is interesting to note
we faced as student teachers who were doing their
teaching practice for the first time and by seeing
that the three managerial roles, namely, ‘quality
those short comings, we got information on where controller,’ ‘manager’ and ‘assessor’ occupied the
to improve in order to add value in our profession. lowest positions on the ranking scale. The student
We conducted the interview with the principal and teachers’ concerns are better understood if we take
with the mentor teachers at the schools where we heed of Kwan and Lopez-Real’s (2005) argument
were doing our teaching practical. As a result, we that judgemental roles and functions conflict with
now know what the management of the school will inter-personal roles such as feedback, support, and
expect from us when we start working. help. Furthermore, the concerns and criticism listed
We clustered the limitations that the three cohorts earlier in this paragraph are better understood if one
(2015–2017) of student teachers experienced during weighs them against Izadinia’s (2016) components
teaching practice into the following five broad cat- of a good mentoring relationship. Izadinia (2016)
egories: describes the importance of encouragement and
1) Limitations due to information, competences and support, open communication, and feedback, as
skills not acquired during formal training, including
the following: lacking subject content knowledge
opposed to the traditional quality assurance and
(2016/B/7); limitations in terms of teacher strategies assessment approach taken by many mentors. These
and teaching styles; limited understanding of how elements are, according to Izadinia (2016), essential
learners read; challenges with classroom discipline; for the establishment of a positive mentoring
inadequate special needs education skills; limited relationship.
understanding of learner nutrition; and need for better
communication skills. Actions Taken by Student Teachers
2) Formal training in theoretical knowledge and The participants had to come forward at the end of
applications, yet with the development of skills only the first workshop with action plans that they would
occurring during classroom teaching and learning, in implement to improve practice, prior to attending
terms of the following: learner support; establishing
concepts; and dealing with challenges of curriculum
the second scheduled workshop. The following
differentiation. topics and themes emerged prominently over the
3) Competences and skills that can only be acquired three years:
during hands-on engagement with stakeholders during Mastering more classroom management skills
teaching, related to the following: proper classroom (2016/A/7; 44; 59; 60; 61; 66; 70; 71; 2017/A/4; 6;
management; weak relationships with parents; 7; 12; 16; 19; 24); Improve self-motivation
parental involvement; unsatisfactory time (2016/A/21); Acquire more teaching and learning
management; classroom discipline; understanding strategies (2016/A/7; 48; 2017/A/10; 13; 22);
Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS); Improve planning and preparation skills (2017/A/7;
dealing with learner absenteeism; having difficulty in
balancing social and work life; and managing poor
17); Adaptation of the curriculum and curriculum
learner behaviour. differentiation (2016/A/66; 2017/A/5; 17);
4) Limitations in terms of competences and skills not Improving time management skills (2016/A/61; 62;
8 Fraser

2017/A/2; 4; 17); Development of classroom he/she had learnt more during the practical period
discipline skills (2016/A/8; 9; 34; 44; 69; 2017/A/2; than in the three years at university, while another
17; 23); Improve teamwork (2016/A/70); Linking recommended that one has to be ‘open for new
content to real-life situations (2016/A/60); Selection knowledge’ and be pre-pared to ‘engage in more
of appropriate subject content (2017/A/3); self-reflection about your own progress in the class
Becoming more patient (2016/A/8); Rendering setting’ during teaching practice.
better support to learners (2016/A/9; 2017/A/8; 12;
18; 19); Understanding learners better (2016/B/34); Reflections on the way forward
Acquire more resources (2016/A/40; 66; When the participants were requested to rate the
2017/A/24); Improvement of assessment skills importance of the different expert roles at the
(2016/A/48); Enhance approachability yet remain commencement of the teaching practice, the
professional (2016/A/59); Enhance professionalisa- majority highly emphasised the importance of
tion (2016/A/69); Improving relationship with par- adequate guidance and mentoring on subject con-
ents (2017/A/13; 21); Better understanding of how tent knowledge and teaching and learning strategies.
Learners Read (2017/A/16); Role model identities This is what Kwan and Lopez-Real (2005:282) refer
of teachers (2012/A/21); Understanding when to fol- to as “survival strategies” for student teachers.
low your own rules (2017/A/3); Strengthening con- Gibson (1976, in Boydell, 1986:119) shared a
ceptualisation (2017/A/1); Understanding the needs similar experience, and noticed that students move
of sick children (2017/A/5); Managing bad learner away from the notion of “teaching as service”
behaviour (2017/A/8); Becoming more flexible and towards a view of school practice, as a time for
adaptable (2017/A/9); and improving communica- “safety and survival.” There was little emphasis on
tion skills (2017/A/10). their own professional development, or on the
The participants found that the implemented development of the school, and the community.
action plans were successful in dealing with pitfalls Their immediate concern fell on their own
and limitations. They were asked to report on the performance in the classroom, good grades and a
effectiveness of the action plans and one of the secure pass. It was only during this final stage of the
groups reflected as follows: intervention where we noticed a more critical stance
The implementation of actions contributed greatly towards their own professional development and
to the development of our identities as a leader. It interactions outside the classroom.
taught us how to become effective teacher in the Members from Group 87 (2015/B) committed
classroom because we became aware of the themselves as lifelong learners who would never
different factors that could influence our learners. hesitate to consult colleagues for advice. Groups 88,
Working together with the community and staff
members provided us with a sense of belonging and
89 and 91 (2015/B) stressed the importance of
a sense of purpose. Throughout our imple- communication and also consulting more with
mentation, we built stronger relationships with the colleagues and peers, while ongoing research also
participating role players such as colleagues, emerged as a vision for the future. The setting up of
mentor teachers and parents and learners. We found functional networks with fellow teachers
that our reflective process was crucial for our (2015/B/90; 91) was also a dream of two groups, as
identity formation, because satisfactory results well as a closer working association with learners to
provided us with a good sense of self. Reflecting determine their needs (2015/B/90). Yet another
back on the entire process gave us a variety of group realised the importance of multiple teaching
solutions to consider.
and learning strategies, the creation of a better
It is for this reason that Day (2004:7) has argued that
learning space, and the attendance of conferences
“to be a professional means having a lifelong
(2015/B/93). Many understood the importance of
commitment to inquiring practice.”
advanced educational technology and e-learning
Feedback on the implemented action plans and
environments well, suggesting that this would be a
activities futuristic route to take (2015/B/94). Some realised
The reader will recall that the groups had to the importance of further studies, not only in terms
implement the selected action plans during the of academic skills development, but also to be of
remaining five weeks of teaching practice. The main more value extramurally (2015/B/95). Members of
purpose was to determine the extent to which the Group 97 (2015/B) saw themselves developing as
action plans could enhance the professional the best teachers within their abilities, while Group
development of student teachers in the areas of 98 (2015/B) saw the importance of including parents
neglect. and their views on classroom management and
Feedback from the groups in workshops linked learning support.
to the teaching practice period was very positive and Finally, two groups emphasised the value of
many thought that the activities had been extremely Participatory, Reflection and Action in their pro-
beneficial to their professional development. One fessional development as follows:
even argued that the mentorship specifically This project and the module as a whole have helped
us to know precisely what the teaching community
contributed to his/her own identity. One agreed that expects of us. Moreover, it has given us great
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 38, Number 2, May 2018 9

enlightenment in terms of knowing that not only contribute towards freedom and emancipation.
does the teaching staff contribute to school The following comment from one of the
effectiveness but also the non-teaching community, groups illustrates the success that the members
parents included. experienced with the FIRE-project during the inter-
As for our personal development, we have gained so
much in terms of the importance of subject
vention.
The research opened our minds. We are now able to
knowledge and teaching creativity. We see this
think outside of the box. In this research, we have
research report as a good preparation for post-
acquired new knowledge, values and skills. We have
graduate studies, it has polished our research skills
learnt to work with one another, which will help us
and in a way enabled us to improve our skills of
in the workplace in order to be able to work with
writing an assignment.
other teachers so that we can produce equipped
learners with good results. We were able to acquire
Discussion
the listening, communication, critical thinking and
Leijen et al. (2014:315) caution readers that re- cooperative skills and with these skills we can be
flection on practice (and not in practice) is often able to create an effective classroom.
disappointing as it often results in “mere de-
scriptions of practice and not a critical evaluation or Conclusion
re-framing of their understandings.” However, the The revelations of this study were by no means
use of PRA as a strategy to ‘reflect on practice’ was canonical, nor will the findings alter the course of
quite effective, as it gave the participants a better teaching practice at teacher training institutions.
understanding of their developing teacher identities. However, small paradigmatic, methodological and
If we accept the definition that professional conceptual changes could impact on the quality of
identity is the perception that teachers have (or teaching practice as a community of practice.
should have) of themselves (Verloop, 2003, in
Lamote & Engels, 2010), then one has to agree that Acknowledgements
student teachers enter teacher-training programmes I thank the National Research Foundation (NRF) -
with a reasonably good understanding of their https://doi.org/10.13039/501100001321 - for
expected roles and functions as educators. Past funding the project, Prof. Ronel Ferreira who
teaching and pre-service experiences have exposed designed and led the PAR interventions, and the 14
them to a plethora of perceptions that became the co-researchers who assisted with and participated in
standard or description of practice with which they the on-campus PAR workshops.
identified themselves.
The PRA interventions served their purpose in Note
creating a platform where participants could reflect i. Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.
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