Ghana Journal of Education: Issues and

Practice (GJE)

NYANSAPO – "Wisdom Knot"

Symbol of wisdom, ingenuity, intelligence and patience

Ghana Journal of Education: Issues and Practices (GJE)
Vol. 6, December 2020, pp. 61 – 81

Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic

Schools: Critical Contextual Evidence of
Stakeholder Participation
Christine Adu-Yeboah
Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast
Email Address: cadu-yeboah@ucc.edu.gh/nhyiraba.aduyeboah68@gmail.com

Abstract
Basic education has received much attention in national and international discourses,
with the formulation of national policies on free and compulsory basic education. In
many Ghanaian communities, the assumption is that the government is the sole
financier of public basic education. Therefore, parents take almost no responsibility
for their wards’ education. This study used the mixed method approach to explore the
perspectives of stakeholders at the basic school level to understand the teaching and
learning contexts for evidence of patterns of practice and innovative strategies that
promote stakeholder involvement towards meaningful learning. In three different
settlement areas and school types, copies of a questionnaire were administered to 384
teachers and head teachers in 28 schools; interviews were conducted with 28 head
teachers and 9 focus group discussions were held with primary 6 pupils. Some key
findings were that due to delayed government supplies, schools experienced
inadequate basic resources which hampered smooth running of academic work. While
some head teachers solicited for assistance from old students, philanthropists and
Non-Governmental Organisations, others did nothing about the situation but waited
for the government supplies. The study therefore concluded that irrespective of school
type and settlement area, it takes a proactive school leader to initiate strategies that
involve stakeholders in order to obtain resources for meaningful learning to take
place. The study makes recommendations towards the training of head teachers and
more awareness creation among stakeholders about their roles towards basic schools
in their communities and their wards’ learning, in spite of the fee-free policy.
Key words: Basic education, Free education, Meaningful learning, Mixed method,
Stakeholder participation
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 62
Introduction
Education is widely acknowledged as very important for the
development of individuals and nation-states (United Nations
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, [UNESCO] 2007,
2009a). The human skills and abilities that develop through education,
translate into individual social and economic benefits. These come
about through employment opportunities and higher incomes, national
economic growth and poverty reduction (World Bank, 2002; David,
2009). In middle and low-income countries where enrolment and
completion rates are low in primary education, research suggests that
the reading and numeracy skills acquired through basic education are
fundamental and relevant for learning skills in technical and vocational
education and ensure the trainability of youth for employment (Yuki &
Kameyama, 2013). Goal 2 of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) therefore required all nations to ensure that by 2015, children
everywhere would be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling (United Nations, 2000). Consequently, national education
agendas and international development agencies focused greatly on
primary education.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, statistics show that the sub-region had
made the greatest progress in primary school enrolment among all
developing regions; from 52 percent in 1990 to 78 percent in 2012
(Ghana National Development Commission, 2015). In Ghana, the 2015
report of the MDGs also indicates that the country has attained
universal primary education. This success story is the product of the
efforts and commitment of successive governments to ensure that all
children of school-going age are in school. Strategies that were adopted
to improve access to education include the policy of free and
compulsory basic education enshrined in the 1992 Constitution from
which the Education Act 2008 imposed fines on parents who failed to
comply, the capitation grant and the school feeding programme
(Ankomah, Koomson, Bosu, & Oduro, 2005; Ampiah, 2010).
Accessing basic education is not only about getting into school
but also of accessing meaningful learning, completing successfully and
being functional in the society. A UNESCO report of 2017 points out
that in 2015, about 387 million children (56%) of primary school age
were found not to have reached the minimum proficiency level in
reading after many years of primary school education (UNESCO,
2017). In under-served communities particularly, it is noted that
63 C. Adu-Yeboah
globally, when public systems do not provide good quality education,
the poor and marginalized lose out (UNESCO, 2017). This is especially
the case in many low-income countries where research shows that
access to basic education does not often commensurate with learning
outcomes in public basic schools. In Ghana for example, in spite of the
overwhelming progress in primary school enrolment, pupils’
performance in national standardized examinations such as the National
Education Assessment (NEA) and School Education Assessment
(SEA) continue to show little progress (MOE, 2014). This seems to
suggest that many children are gaining access to school buildings but
not to meaningful learning.
The 2015-2030 Global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
make it clear that every human being is entitled to a decent education.
Target 4.1 of the Goals commits member nations to ensure that ‘all girls
and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary
education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes’ by the
year 2030 (emphasis mine). Access to good quality education is the
right of every child. Quality is at the heart of education, and a
fundamental determinant of enrolment, retention and achievement. The
target 4.1 of the SDGs therefore places emphasis on good quality
education which will culminate into children’s learning achievement.
The definition of quality has been expanded to address desirable
characteristics of learners, processes, facilities, learning materials,
content, governance and management, and learning outcomes
(UNESCO, 2015). Certain basic features are known to be critical for
producing educational outcomes. These include the quality of the
teaching workforce, the availability of adequate educational resources,
a supportive learning environment, and suitable access to basic services
such as sanitation, clean water and electricity in instructional settings
(UIS, 2012). The provision of good quality education is a shared
responsibility between various actors (e.g. government, parents,
schools, teachers, students, civil society and the private sector) who
play different action-oriented or moral roles based on political, moral,
and/or legal grounds (UNESCO, 2017). It is well acknowledged that
the government, schools and teachers have front-line roles to play in
this shared responsibility. The government is expected to provide
resources while schools and teachers make children literate and
numerate.
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 64
Teachers stand in the interface of the transmission of knowledge,
values and skills in the learning process in the school and classroom
(Akyeampong, Lussier, Pryor & Westbrook, 2013). However, to be
able to exhibit competence and professionalism, they need teaching and
learning resources such as textbooks and manuals that will facilitate
learning (UNESCO, 2015). Studies conducted in Africa show strong
positive effects of textbooks on learning achievement (UNESCO,
2005). Yet, in many public primary schools in low-income countries,
the supply of reading and mathematics textbooks is not sufficient for
pupils, which inevitably leads to sharing of textbooks among children.
In Cameroon and the Central African Republic for example, it is
reported that there is just one reading textbook for every 13 and 8 pupils
respectively, and in some cases, most pupils do not have textbooks of
their own (UIS, 2012). Schools that have no textbooks and learning
materials cannot do effective work. In a Country Analytic Report of the
Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and
Equity (CREATE) project in Ghana, it was reported that the absence of
teaching materials among other factors is likely to result in teacher
absenteeism (Akyeampong, Djangmah, Oduro, Seidu & Hunt, 2007).
In the shared responsibility of education delivery, parents and
communities also have a critical role to play in providing key
educational inputs for the cognitive development of their children
(UNESCO, 2017). In countries where the economic slump has led to
cuts in government spending, it has become even more imperative for
parents and communities to play more active roles. Ball, Maguire and
Braun (2012) and West (2014) report such a trend in England where as
a result, fundraising efforts in schools have become a prominent
phenomenon, with Parent and Teacher Associations (PTAs) being the
core charitable group (NCVO, 2016). In both high and low-income
countries, there is evidence that parents with some level of education
are most likely to participate in school-based activities with the view of
encouraging their children to excel academically (Lee & Bowen, 2006;
Boateng & Wilson, 2019).
Also, in the United States, depleting budgets have led to the
adoption of fundraising, which is accepted as part of school life, and as
a means of providing needed resources for schools. Philanthropic
activity plays a prominent role in this connection, as a way of
maintaining quality (Body, 2017). For example, Reich’s (2007) study
of philanthropic giving to schools in California and Chicago shows that
65 C. Adu-Yeboah
there is increasing reliance on philanthropy. He notes that parents of
children attending schools are the most likely group to volunteer or
fundraise for their school. In relation to this, Body (2017) reveals that
almost all donations occur as a response to ‘an ask’. For her, ‘being
asked’ is the most important factor that makes people donate. She
therefore strongly advocates for pro-active fundraising from a wide
spectrum of sources, as this is more likely to attract significant
philanthropic support to transform the school community.
The foregoing examples of civil society’s participation in
education in developed countries like the United States and England
serve as lessons for developing countries like Ghana. With
approximately 83% of the total expenditure accounting for the payment
of compensation to employees of the Ghana Education Service, leaving
about 17% for goods, services and assets (GES, 2015) for the entire
country’s education institutions, it is becoming increasingly imperative
for Ghanaian schools to seek alternative sources of support rather than
depending solely on government supplies which are inadequate and
untimely. This is more pressing as in recent times, education delivery
has been hampered by delays in the release of funds by the central
government for administrative budget, school maintenance and
capitation grants. Consequently, materials that are needed for the daily
running of schools such as lesson note books, reference materials,
manila cards, board markers and chalk are seriously lacking in many
public schools. This situation threatens the general processes of
teaching and learning, meaningful use of instructional time, and the
learning achievement of pupils.
In many basic schools however, it appears community members
and parents take almost no responsibility for their children’s education.
They assume that by the free basic education policy and the
government’s provision of capitation grant, the government is required
to provide all educational resources and inputs. It was therefore
important to empirically examine the teaching and learning contexts of
basic schools for evidence of patterns of good practice and innovative
strategies that could be disseminated and replicated. This constituted
the purpose of the study, which was located in the Central Region of
Ghana, and guided by these two research questions:
1. How do head teachers, teachers and pupils in selected
metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies in the Central
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 66
region interpret their experiences of teaching and learning in the
event of delayed or irregular government grants?
2. What innovative strategies do teachers and head teachers in the
selected metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies in the
Central Region adopt to promote teaching and learning in the
face of delayed or irregular government grants?
It was expected that the findings of the study would provide
contextual and empirical descriptions of innovative strategies for
involving different education actors in education provision. It was also
intended to showcase good practices, which would serve as exemplars
for adaptation or replication. The findings would also be important for
relevant stakeholders that are involved in basic education provision in
similar contexts in Ghana and elsewhere. The rest of the paper is
divided into four sections: methodology, results and discussion,
conclusion and recommendations.
Methodology
Research design and sampling
The study adopted the mixed method approach to survey a cross
section of schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Abura Dunkwa and
Komenda-Edina-Eguaafo-Abrem (KEEA) Districts in the Central
Region, based on proximity and convenience. A multi-stage sampling
method was used to select participants for the study. Firstly, the cluster
sampling was used to group the schools in each metropolis,
municipality or district into the three levels of settlement status (urban,
semi- urban and rural). Secondly, from each of the three settlement
groups, the purposive sampling technique was employed to select ten
schools (at least three from each metropolis, municipality or district:
one each of high, average and low-achieving) from the 2014 Basic
Education Certificate Examination results.
In all, a total of 30 schools was sampled for the study, but 28 were used
since 2 declined to participate. In each school, the head teacher and all
the teachers were automatically recruited for the study. There were 384
teachers and head teachers (161, 118 and 105 from high, average and
low performing schools respectively) of which approximately 61% was
female (Table 1).
67 C. Adu-Yeboah
Table 1: Gender distribution of teachers by school category
High Average Low
Gender Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Male 56 34.8 46 39.0 46 43.8
Female 105 65.2 72 61.0 59 56.2
Total 161 100 118 100 105 100

With regard to qualification, an average of 60% of the teachers

possessed Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees, with the majority being
holders of the Bachelor’s degree (Table 2). The highest percentage
(54.9%) of teachers with first and second degrees was teaching in high
performing schools.
Table 2: Qualification of teachers
Academic High Average Low
Qualification N % N % N %
SSSCE/WASSCE 36 25.2 20 20.4 24 27.0
GCE O Level 4 2.8 6 6.1 3 3.4
GCE A Level 1 0.7 1 1.0 1 1.1
HND 8 5.6 7 7.1 5 5.6
First Degree 86 60.1 58 59.2 53 59.6
Masters 8 5.6 6 6.1 3 3.4
Total 143 100 98 100 89 100
With regard to the pupils who participated in the study, between
6 and 8 primary 6 pupils were selected in each school type and
settlement area with the help of the class teachers for focus group
discussions. The teachers purposively sampled pupils who were vocal
in class and could provide information about the topic under
investigation. Primary 6 was used because the pupils have experienced
schooling for six years and were considered capable of describing their
experiences.
Instruments
A questionnaire and an interview guide were used to gather data from
the teachers, head teachers and pupils of the selected schools to solicit
responses concerning their experiences of teaching and learning. The
teachers responded to the questionnaire while the head teachers and
pupils were interviewed. The questionnaire had 15 items and was
divided into two parts. Part One sought information about the teachers’
bio data and the Part Two, based on teaching and learning, asked
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 68
questions on the materials the teachers perceived to be critical to
teaching and learning, how they obtained such materials, the challenges
they encountered and their suggestions for improvement.
The interview guide for the head teachers had nine items which
also sought information similar to the questionnaire. The pupils’
interview guide had 12 questions seeking general information about
their experiences of teaching and learning, the adequacy of teaching and
learning resources that were placed at their disposal, how they thought
they were obtained, and what they wanted to see changed. The
questionnaire and interview guide were designed by the researcher, and
were validated by a research committee at the College of Education
Studies, University of Cape Coast. The questionnaire was pre-tested
with 30 teachers in another district in the Central Region with an overall
internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) coefficient of 0.78. The
interview guide was also pre-tested, producing valid responses which
were consistent with most of the responses from the questionnaire.
Data collection procedure
Four trained research assistants constituted two groups (two in
each group) to assist the researcher to collect data. The 28 schools
selected for the study were shared among the two groups. First,
permission was sought from the Education Directors of the three
selected metropolis, municipalities or districts to access the schools for
the study. In each school, a letter of introduction from the District
Office was presented to explain the purpose of the study and to obtain
permission to access the teachers, pupils and the head teacher. The
research assistants then made appointments with the head teachers for
the interviews and questionnaire administration.
On each day, the research assistants interviewed the head
teacher and the pupils during break time and gave out copies of the
questionnaire to the teachers who were at post on the day of the exercise
to be completed and collected on another day. While at the schools, they
took the opportunity to observe the classrooms for evidence of
availability or otherwise of resources and facilities for teaching and
learning. Thus, the research assistants spent about three days in each
school. Data were collected between May and July 2015. The
interviews were transcribed and analyzed using Nvivo while the
questionnaire was coded and analysed through the SPSS version 20.0
software and presented in frequencies and percentages.
69 C. Adu-Yeboah
Results and discussion
This section presents a discussion of the results according to the
research questions, beginning with the first.
Head teachers, teachers and pupils’ interpretation of their
experiences of teaching and learning

Government policies and implementation

Among the school types and respondents, there were some
common trends and also differences in experiences regarding
availability and adequacy (or otherwise) of teaching and learning
resources, and how they impact classroom activities. This is against the
backdrop that the government is responsible for providing capitation
grant and supplying resources such as textbooks, exercise books, lesson
notebooks and chalk. The head teachers of high, average and low
performing schools revealed that the capitation grant constituted
35.9%, 34.7% and 34.4% of their school budget respectively. Though
insufficient, according to the head teachers of all the sampled schools,
there were delays with the provision of the capitation grant and the
supplies, and this had a negative effect on teaching:
There are delays in the purchasing of TLMs and
other materials for the teaching and learning, hence
frustrating the teaching and learning process (Head
teacher, rural low performing school).
Since the capitation grant was the main source of funding for running
the schools, when it delayed, acquisition of other teaching resources
also delayed.
We plan, but don’t implement. How can we run the
school in the absence of government funds? (Head
teacher, high performing school).
All the head teachers talked about their School Performance
Improvement Plans (SPIP), which are prepared annually to outline the
key actions the school would take to improve management, the
environment and teaching and learning practices. It was required that
the schools prepared the plans in collaboration with the School
Management Committees (SMCs) to correspond with the amount of
money to be obtained from the capitation grant.
Since all the head teachers mentioned the SPIP as an important
aspect of school management, it was necessary to inspect it for a first-
hand information on its content, and how it impacted education
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 70
delivery. An examination of the plans revealed some commonalities
with regard to the items listed (e.g., Teaching and Learning Materials
[TLMs]), teacher professional development and sporting activities).
These were to be implemented when the capitation grant was provided.
For the head teachers in this study, the delays in the release of the
capitation grant hindered the implementation of the SPIP and their
school improvement efforts. According to them, they suspend the
implementation of the plans in the absence of the funds, as one head
teacher from a rural average performing school lamented: ‘How can we
run the school?’ The lamentation of this head teacher depicts the
helplessness they encountered in their effort to keep the schools
running. It also suggests the absence of pro-activeness on the part of the
head teachers in finding innovative ways of running the school. She
seems to suggest that until the government provides funds, teaching and
learning activities will continue to be derailed. One would have thought
that the PTA and SMC would meet to propose ways of obtaining funds
(for example from philanthropists, development partners in the locality
or institutions that have corporate social responsibilities to the
communities) to procure the most needed items.
It was revealing at the time of data collection at the end of June
2015 (which was one week to the end of the academic year), that the
third tranche of the capitation grant for the 2013/2014 academic year
had just been paid (three academic terms late). Moreover, each school
was supplied with three small boxes of chalk at the end of the academic
year when teaching and learning had ended, and schools were vacating
for the long vacation. This situation gives cause for concern about the
kind of teaching and learning that might have taken place in the absence
of very critical school supplies.
It was observed in some schools that there was inadequate
classroom furniture. Pupils brought their own furniture from home, sat
in threes or on the floor because broken down furniture had not been
repaired or replaced. This situation seems to be common and observable
in many basic schools in Ghana. Basic repair works to maintain school
facilities are abandoned, thus further deteriorating broken down
facilities and making some schools unattractive. It was not surprising
therefore that in these school types, enrolment was low, as is also
evident in some developing countries (UNESCO, 2014). In some cases,
this led to drop-out or transfers to more attractive schools. In one school
for example, the net enrolment figures of primary one, two and three
71 C. Adu-Yeboah
were 8, 8 and 14 respectively, far below the acceptable average class
size of 35.
Managing teaching and learning activities
The teachers also lamented about the lack of teaching and
learning resources. Untimely provision of the resources was more of a
concern for teachers of average (14.8%) and low (15.1%) performing
schools than those of high performing schools (4.8%). In high
performing schools, it is possible that parents (through the PTAs)
assisted to provide the needed resources. It was evident that in many of
the schools, the teachers taught without TLMs. According to one head
teacher, in the absence of TLMs, the teachers skipped some topics:
It makes teachers forego topics that they do not have
teaching and learning materials to teach. Some
topics are jumped over. (Head teacher, rural low
performing school)
Some teachers also resorted to abstract teaching, according to another
head teacher:
It reduces effective teaching because they have to
teach some of the practical topics abstract (Head
teacher, average-performing urban school).
Teaching and learning in abstract does not promote understanding of
concepts since the pupils have no materials to engage with. This
situation is worse in practical-oriented lessons such as ICT. Describing
how their ICT lessons were taught, pupils in an average performing
peri-urban school reported that the whole class clustered around the
teacher’s laptop computer, thereby making hands-on activity
impossible. In cases where the teachers do not possess laptop
computers, pupils would never have the opportunity to handle
computers in school. One of the pupils pointed out that although ICT is
his favourite subject, the teaching approach and irregular teaching of
the subject made him lose interest in it. Therefore, according to him,
the (termly) exam is difficult.
There is enough evidence of a strong positive relationship between
provision of foundational inputs in adequate measures, school quality
and learning outcomes (USAID, 2008; UIS, 2012; UNESCO, 2015).
With regard to textbooks particularly, studies conducted in some
African countries show that its availability and use give students greater
opportunities to learn, and thus, increase their learning achievement
(UNESCO, 2005; USAID, 2008). Nonetheless, a number of public
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 72
primary schools in some developing countries lack sufficient textbooks
(UIS, 2012). In Cameroon and the Central African Republic for
example, a study found that there is just one reading and mathematics
textbook for every 13 and 8 pupils respectively (UIS, 2012). In this
study, pupils in all the sampled schools reported that in all subjects,
there are between one and six copies of the textbooks. In many cases, 3
pupils shared a book. According to them, when there is only one copy,
the teacher uses it since the whole class cannot cluster around a single
textbook. A head teacher of a peri-urban average performing school
concurred with the pupils’ report thus:
We do not have any Religious and Moral Education
textbooks and in subjects like English and Fante, we
share the textbooks in the ratio of 4:1 (pupils to
textbook).
The gravity of the situation is captured in the words of a
pupil of a peri-urban average performing school as follows:
When there is no textbook and chalk, the teacher
dictates notes but sometimes some pupils can’t
write.
A dictation exercise meant to develop pupils’ spelling and writing speed
is a worthwhile activity. However, when it is used as a note-taking
activity for primary six pupils who neither have sufficient vocabulary
nor textbooks to make reference to, it becomes problematic. This is
particularly true in cases where pupils are unable to write at all, and
therefore sit idle through all the lessons. The most obvious implication
of these circumstances is that ‘engaged learning time’ (USAID, 2008)
is reduced, and teacher accountability and performance standards may
not be enforced since the needed resources are not supplied.
All the sampled schools adopted the strategy of levying parents.
These levies were mostly common among low performing schools
(14.6%) which seem to need resources more, as compared to high and
average performing schools respectively (9.9% and 11.3%). In many
schools, parents were unwilling to pay the levies because they thought
that education is free. In addition to the levies, pupils in different classes
of a high performing peri-urban school were asked to supply chalk in
turns. Again, at the beginning of every term, each pupil supplied items
such as chalk board ruler, toilet rolls, soap, cardboards and brown
cover-papers.
73 C. Adu-Yeboah
While the head teachers claimed the levies were used to acquire
basic teaching resources for the schools, the pupils said it was used to
pay the teachers for extra tuition. Although all school levies were
abolished in 2005 when the capitation grant was introduced for all
children (MOESS, 2007), the practice has resumed in many schools
because the release of the capitation grant experiences long delays. The
issues associated with levying were obvious especially in rural schools:
Our parents don’t have money to pay the fees [levy
of 20 pesewas daily] for extra classes. They are
farmers. Some of our friends don’t come [to school]
because they don’t have pencils and pens, because
some are poor. They don’t have school bags, no
sandals, no uniforms (pupils, rural low performing
school).
The untimely release of government funds, unavailability and/or
inadequate teaching and learning resources endanger the efficiency of
the decentralisation policy, school management and effectiveness of
instructional processes generally, and the achievement of learning
targets specifically.
The pupils in this study also revealed that the teachers’
frustration was sometimes evident in their use of the cane, especially
when parents and guardians failed to pay the levies. Pupils were either
caned or sent home on such grounds. To avoid being caned, some
pupils absented themselves from school:
There is too much caning in this school so some
(pupils) don’t come. I always get frightened when
I think of coming to school (pupil, low performing
rural school).
These two situations (i.e., levying and caning) show how
school regulations are flouted by some school heads and teachers,
disregarding the fact that by so doing they push some children out of
school. While the government institutes measures such as the
capitation grant, the school feeding programme and free school
uniforms, among others to sustain access and participation in school,
the actions of some school heads and inactions of some education
supervisors and directors push children out of school. This appears to
demonstrate that there is lack of 'consistency and sustainability in
policies and strategies meant to address the problem of dropouts'
(MOESS, 2007).
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 74
The literature shows that in certain poor communities and
traditional cultures with loose family structures, children are often left
on their own to care for themselves and also engage in economic
activities to support their families’ survival strategies (Grimsrud &
Stokke, 1997). Data from this study shows that pupils in some
communities engage in some minor jobs to get money to support
themselves and also pay their school levies:
Some (pupils) take care of themselves and when they
are not having anything to depend on, it becomes
difficult for them so it prevents them from coming to
school regularly (head teacher, peri-urban average
performing school).

Pupils in upper primary are left to fend for

themselves and support their parents financially so
the parents don’t encourage them to come (head
teacher, rural poor performing school).
School-going children who engage in income-generating activities to
support themselves and their parents are most at risk of dropping out of
school due to the fact that they have to skip school very often to attend
to their jobs. Consequently, they would lack trainable skills, thus
leading to lack of proper employment and the reproduction of the cycle
of poverty.
In both rich and poor countries, children from disadvantaged
socio-economic backgrounds are the most at risk of dropping out of
school (Nesselrodt & Alger, 2005; Akyeampong, 2009). Especially in
developing countries including Ghana, school drop-out is most
prevalent in rural areas, and attributable to a series of events and a range
of interrelated factors (Hunt, 2008; Ampiah & Adu-Yeboah, 2009).
One of such factors is poverty that necessitates occasional absenteeism
and thus puts children at risk of eventually dropping out of school.
Absenteeism is also likely to affect the academic foundation of the
pupils and their progression in later years.
Head teachers are instructional leaders, and are therefore
expected to possess mastery over their subject matter and good
pedagogical skills in order to support and supervise teachers to
demonstrate same. However, in this study, internal supervision by the
head teacher was noted to be poor because basic supplies such as chalk,
lesson note books and TLMs had not been provided due to the delay of
75 C. Adu-Yeboah
the capitation grant. This situation was found to be common in all the
schools. Consequently, some head teachers claimed they did not find
it morally justifiable to inspect lesson notes and observe teaching.
Sometimes, the head teacher could not insist on teachers doing the right
things in the classroom since head teachers were aware of the
unavailability of the teaching resources. Though these claims seem
reasonable, they are not justifiable since head teachers are duty-bearers
who should ensure that teachers improvise appropriately to facilitate
knowledge construction in the classroom.
The section that follows highlights issues emerging from the data in
response to research question 2.
Alternative management strategies: Doing things differently
In some high-income countries like England and the United
States of America, schools are finding alternative sources of funding to
run their activities as a result of cuts in government spending per pupil
(Ball, Maguire & Braun, 2012; West, 2014). In England for example,
PTAs have become the core charitable group (NCVO, 2016). Similarly,
some pro-active schools in this study adopted a number of strategies to
keep their schools running. The major strategies that came to light in
this study were (a) asking for donations and (b) head teachers’
initiatives.
Donations in response to ‘an ask’
Pro-actively focusing on fundraising or asking for donations for
education provision is becoming an acceptable and common
phenomenon in many contexts (England, Ball, Maguire & Braun, 2012;
West, 2014; NCVO, 2016; Body, 2017). To attract significant financial
support that will increase schools’ income, schools in the USA and UK
are encouraged to vigorously source for assistance to transform the
school community. These are usually from a wide spectrum of sources
like philanthropists, PTAs, corporate partners and charitable trusts or
foundations (Body, 2017).
In mostly urban areas in this study, some ingenious head
teachers approached philanthropists and old students of the schools for
assistance in meeting specific itemized needs. This is an innovation
which is not common to many basic schools in Ghana. In one urban
high-performing school for example, the head teacher had compiled a
list of old students in prominent positions, which she consulted from
time to time for assistance. Through this, she had obtained a library and
organised a speech and prize-giving day where such personalities were
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 76
commended. In one peri-urban high performing school, the head
teacher had contacted some American immigrants in the community for
assistance on the basis of their interest in the school. According to her,
the immigrants had linked the school to other philanthropists abroad,
thus culminating into regular supply of stationery items and library
books.
These philanthropists had also sponsored some high achieving
students in tertiary institutions. In that same school, through the
assistance of some Non-Governmental Organisations, a number of
projects had been undertaken, including the construction of a 3-unit
classroom block; furniture for teachers and pupils; construction of an
8-seater toilet, a kindergarten block and provision of pipe-borne water.
Faith-based schools also had financial assistance from the churches to
which they were affiliated.
Head teachers’ initiatives and school- level income generation
One of the initiatives of the schools was to engage in commercial
activities, such as operating a small-scale stationery shop. Proceeds
from such sales were then used to purchase some materials for the
school. Some obtained ‘silver collection’ during Christian worship
services, and others generated income from the rental of school
facilities for various activities such as church, and services like canteen.
Another strategy involved giving lunch and/or monetary incentives
to teachers from the levies parents paid towards the pupils’ extra classes
to boost teachers’ morale. This way, the schools’ high achievement in
national examinations helped to increase enrolment and also served as
motivation for the parents to support the school in any way they were
requested. In urban high achieving schools, there were also annual
school durbars and graduation activities where hardworking teachers
and students were awarded.
Conclusion
The success stories of attainment of universal basic education in
Ghana mask contextual evidence of the actions and inactions of some
key players in education that positively or negatively affect meaningful
learning. In reference to the first research question that guided this
study, it is clear that while some communities are supportive of their
children’s education, others look to the central government for all
educational resources. The findings suggest that in spite of the
government policy regarding free and compulsory basic education,
77 C. Adu-Yeboah
basic education is not totally free. The government alone cannot fund
basic education, as this study shows. The examples of support from
civil society organisations and prominent persons presented in this
study show that there are well-meaning individuals who are keen to
provide educational assistance, but such groups must be identified and
approached for the needed support.
In relation to the second research question, it is also evident that
school management style is one of the critical factors that bring about
differences in school types, learning achievement and equal/unequal
provision of good quality basic education. The proactive school
managers in this study took certain initiatives such as identifying and
approaching old students in prominent positions, civil society
organisations and philanthropists for assistance. Others organised
events such as durbars and open days to involve the community in the
activities of the school. Therefore, irrespective of school type and
settlement area, it takes a proactive and visionary school leader to
initiate strategies that will involve well-meaning individuals and groups
in achieving meaningful and successful learning.
Also, irregular school attendance, drop-out and unsuccessful
completion are some of the unfinished businesses of the MDGs, as
demonstrated in the findings of this study. When schools are
unattractive due to lack of resources and good facilities, and pupils are
sent home or caned for failing to pay school levies, school attendance
and learning achievement are likely to be affected.
Recommendations
Good quality education is the right of every child. It is therefore
important that District Directors of Education ensure equity in the
provision of quality basic education through equal distribution of basic
resources.
The study recommends that district directors of education,
SMCs/school heads and PTAs sensitize parents and communities to
take ownership of the schools in their communities and support them in
any way they may be requested. For example, parents should be made
to provide exercise books and certain essential stationery items. Based
on the study’s finding that parental involvement is an important key to
improving schools generally and teaching and learning particularly,
parents should be encouraged to visit schools and classrooms regularly,
particularly on open days.
 Meaningful Learning in Ghanaian Basic Schools 78
In most of the schools in this study, the head teachers pointed out
that parents were unwilling to support schools financially because they
think that education is free. In the head teachers’ opinion, if parents are
made aware of their responsibilities towards their children’s education,
they might be supportive. One way of doing this is for the management
of the Ghana Education Service to make School Performance Appraisal
Meetings (SPAM) mandatory for parents and enforce the
operationalisation of those meetings. At these meetings, awareness can
be created about communities’ and parents’ roles. Moreover, schools
with alternative means of resourcing should be commended and good
practices shared with stakeholders.
Particularly revealing in this study is the finding that some head
teachers keep record of old students, consult and engage them actively
in the schools’ activities. This awareness will help to forge strong links
with old students’ unions so that schools could consult them for
assistance. These have implications for the training of head teachers to
find innovative strategies for resourcing their schools, and not wait for
the government to provide the funds which sometimes never get
supplied. Above all, regular school attendance in a safe environment
devoid of caning and threats, and successful completion should be
prioritized by the education sector in the context of the Sustainable
Development Goals.

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