To what extent is plastic and microplastic pollution in the coastal

areas of the Mediterranean affecting marine turtles?

Aarhus Gymnasium Tilst

May 2024

Subject: Environmental Systems and Societies

Word count: 3887

1
Table of contents:

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………3-4
2. Plastic pollution……………………………………………………………...5
2.1 What is plastic pollution ………………………………………………………….4
2.2 The case of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………6

2.3 Case study (Cyprus)……………………………………………………………..7-8

3. Turtle’s characteristics………………………………………………….........9
3.1 Reproduction………………………………………………………………………9
3.2 habitat…………………………………………………………………………….10
4. Effects of plastic in turtles……………………………………………....11-
14
4.1 How plastic affects sand temperature………………………………………..11-12

4.2 Ingestion…………………………………………………………….…13

4.3 Entanglement……………………………………………………...…...14

5. External anthropic activities affecting turtles………………………………15

5.1 Fishing bycatch…………………………………………………………………..15
5.2 Shrinking coastline ………………………………………………………………16
5.3 Light pollution………………………………………………………16-17

6. Analysis of threats to turtles………………………………………………..18

7. Evaluation…………………………………………………………………..19
7.1 Strengths………………………………………………………………………….19
7.2 limitations………………………………………………………….…..19

8. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….20
9. Bibliography……………………………………………………………21-27

2
Introduction
It has been established that the use of plastic has significant negative impacts on the environment

and major global implications for sustainability.

The world produces 350 million tons of plastic waste every year.1 Around 82 million tons are

mismanaged or littered.2 This means it’s not stored in secure landfills, recycled, or incinerated.

One-quarter of that, 19 million tons, is leaked to the environment, of which 1.7 million to the

oceans.3

What this tell us, is that 0.5% of world’s plastic waste ends up in the oceans. Of this, around 90%

is made up of so-called 'microplastics'.4 These are tiny fragments of all kinds, up to 5mm in

length, that have recently been identified as particularly dangerous to the earth's wildlife.

These small plastic particles are damaging the oceans and, as a result, marine biodiversity. They

can come from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic waste, microbeads

in personal care products and fibers from synthetic textiles.5

A particular accumulation of microplastics has been found in the Mediterranean Sea, where

concentrations of fine particulate matter exceed 100 micrograms per cubic meter in certain areas

of the Mediterranean basin, considering the global average stands at 39.6 μg/m3.6

1
Ritchie, H. (2023, October 5). How much plastic waste ends up in the ocean? Our World in Data.
2 Ritchie, H. (2023, October 5). How much plastic waste ends up in the ocean? Our World in Data.
3
Ritchie, H. (2023, October 5). How much plastic waste ends up in the ocean? Our World in Data.
4 We underestimated the amount of microplastics in the ocean– by a lot. (2021, March 30).
5 We underestimated the amount of microplastics in the ocean – by a lot. (2021, March 30).

6
Pollution in the Mediterranean | UNEPMAP. (n.d.).

3
A study found out that beaches in Northern Cyprus have the second highest microplastic level in

the world7 and in the Mediterranean only, which accounts for 1% of all water, 7% of all global

microplastics are found.8

Among the most affected marine species, turtles are the most studied ones by far. Plastics and

microplastics have an especially detrimental effect against turtles, who are hurt when they ingest

these materials, often mistaking them for food, leading to internal injuries, digestive problems,

and potentially death, while also getting entangled in plastic debris, impairing their movement,

and causing injuries.

In this essay, my approach to the research question “To what extent is plastic and microplastic

pollution in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean affecting marine turtles” will consist of

explaining the characteristics of turtles, the facets of plastic pollution and how this material is

toxic to them and comparing the toxicity of plastic and microplastics to major human polluting

activities. Finally, the essay will include an analysis, an evaluation and a conclusion.

7
Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtles. Global Change Biology
8
Plastics in the Mediterranean. (n.d.). IUCN

4
Plastic Pollution

What is plastic pollution

Macro and microplastics reach the sea both from the coasts and from places that do not overlook

the sea, through the transport of rivers. Primary microplastics enter the environment already in

the form of small particles. These derive from the consumption of tires (53%), washing of fabrics

(33%), cosmetics (12%) and the production and transport of plastic pellets (2%).9 The most

polluting countries in terms of tons of plastic waste within the Mediterranean geographical

sphere have found to be Egypt, Italy, and Turkey. These countries together make up around 50%

of all the plastic waste that ends up in the sea of the Mediterranean, approximately 132.000 tons

a year. Italy comes first as the most microplastic polluter that accounts for circa 3413 tons a

year.10 Plastic, however, represents 95% of the waste floating in the Mediterranean and lying on

its beaches.11 Most of this plastic is released into the sea from Turkey and Spain, followed by

Italy, Egypt, and France, with tourists visiting the region increasing marine litter by 40 per cent

each summer.12

9
Ritchie, H. (2018, September 1). Plastic pollution. Our World in Data.
10
Ritchie, H. (2018, September 1). Plastic pollution. Our World in Data.
11
Ritchie, H. (2018, September 1). Plastic pollution. Our World in Data.

12
Plastic Pollution by Country 2023. (n.d.).

5
The Case of The Mediterranean

The Mediterranean Sea is an immense treasure of biodiversity and at the same time one of the

most threatened environments in the world. It is the victim to one of the greatest disasters caused

by man: plastic pollution. The Mediterranean Sea consists of about 1% of all global sea waters

while containing nearly 7% of all sea microplastics.13 According to the report "The

Mediterranean: Mare Plasticum" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature

(IUCN),14 there is over one million tonnes of plastic in the Mediterranean basin and 1.25 million

fragments of microplastics per kilometer square.15 Every year, around 230,000 tons of plastic

waste reaches the sea. The largest percentage (89%) is made up of microplastics, while

microplastics – fragments smaller than 5 mm – account for 11%.16 Amongst all the causes of all

plastic pollution, two have been identified to be the main culprits and result in most microplastic

waste. The first one is the high population density: which usually means increased consumption

of goods, including single use plastics. In today’s world, high population density areas often

correspond with increased urbanization and thus fully paved surfaces. It is this way that

rainwater can carry plastic litter from streets, sidewalks, and open spaces into storm drains,

eventually ending l with all the discharge into rivers and oceans, contributing to marine plastic

pollution. Additionally, in densely populated areas it is difficult to find space suitable for landfills

and this could in some places lead to improper waste management. The increased demand for

products also creates more plastic waste which can end up in the environment if not handled

properly, which brings it to the next point. The second reason is incorrect waste management.

13
Ghosh, D. (2021). Mediterranean Sea. WorldAtlas.

14
Over 200,000 tonnes of plastic leaking into the Mediterranean each year – IUCN report. (2022b, June 27). IUCN.
15
Over 200,000 tonnes of plastic leaking into the Mediterranean each year – IUCN report. (2022b, June 27). IUCN.
16
Over 200,000 tonnes of plastic leaking into the Mediterranean each year – IUCN report. (2022b, June 27). IUCN.

6
Every year, 0.57 million tons of plastic enters Mediterranean waters17 - the equivalent of

dumping 33,800 plastic bottles into the sea every minute.18 Plastic pollution will keep growing,

with plastic waste generation in the region expected to quadruple by 2050.19

Case study – Cyprus

A new study has found that beaches in Northern Cyprus have the second highest amount of

microplastics among beaches studied across the world. Only one other beach, in Guangdong,

southern China, has recorded greater microplastic levels. The Cyprus beaches that the

researchers studied are crucial nesting sites for two species of turtles: green (Chelonia

mydas) and loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Both species are threatened, and their

reliance on Cyprus’s beaches makes the high levels of microplastics there especially dangerous

for the animals. Ingesting the tiny particles of plastic is an obvious threat to the nesting turtles

and their hatchlings.

The researchers found very high levels of microplastics on all 17 of the beaches they studied.

They collected an average of 130,000 plastic fragments per cubic meter (about 3,700 per cubic

foot) on the surface of the sand. In the sand column, at depths of up to 60 centimeters (2 feet),

they found an average of 5,300 particles per cubic meter, or 150 per cubic foot.

17
Flawed plastic system hits the Mediterranean Sea and its economy. (n.d.-b).
18
Flawed plastic system hits the Mediterranean Sea and its economy. (n.d.-b).
19
Flawed plastic system hits the Mediterranean Sea and its economy. (n.d.-b).

7
The reason for such a high accumulation of microplastics on beaches is due to ocean currents

washing the plastics to the shore.

Microplastics can enter the water in two main ways: the first is direct entry via industrial waste

in the form of “nurdles,” the pellets used in plastic production, or microbeads or in industrial

spills. The second is indirectly, by larger plastic pieces breaking down and fragmenting.

Most of what the researchers found in Cyprus were a combination of both direct and indirect

sources.

Beach habitats are important nesting sites for sea turtles to lay and incubate their eggs at a

critical stage in the species’ life cycle. A sufficiently high concentration of microplastics in

nesting sites poses a significant threat to turtle hatching success.

Turtle Characteristics

Reproduction

As of today, only two species remain breeding in the Mediterranean, the loggerhead, and the

green turtles.20 The loggerhead normally breeds in Greece, Turkey, Libya, Tunisia, Cyprus, and

southern Italy, but it has recently been observed laying eggs in Catalonia and Corsica21. Whether

20
Institut Océanographique de Monaco. (2021b, July 22). Which sea turtles live in the Mediterranean?

21
Institut Océanographique de Monaco. (2021b, July 22). Which sea turtles live in the Mediterranean?

8
reproduction is affected by the existence of microplastics and plastic in the beaches is a discussed

topic.

In a study published on the National Library of Medicine22, researchers examined the

reproductive traits of the Mediterranean stripe-necked turtle (Mauremys leprosa) in two

contrasting habitats in Algeria: one highly degraded and polluted and the other undisturbed.

Surprisingly, in the highly polluted habitat, the turtle population exhibited a remarkable ability to

adapt and flourish. The females in the polluted habitat had significantly larger body sizes and

were able to produce larger clutches, even exceeding the largest reported clutch sizes. The mean

clutch size, egg dimensions, and egg mass in the polluted habitat were also higher than in

previous studies. In contrast, the turtles in the undisturbed habitat displayed typical reproductive

traits. This suggests that M. leprosa has adapted to polluted environments and is capable of

thriving under challenging conditions, with potential benefits for reproduction, despite the

environmental degradation.

Habitat

The common sea turtle ‘Caretta Caretta’ is the most widespread species in the

Mediterranean, but other species are also present, including the green turtle (Chelonia

mydas) and, although rarer, the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea).

Figure 1.

22
Gahmous, S. A., Tiar, G., Tiar-Saadi, M., Bouslama, Z., & Široký, P. (2022b)

9
1. Institut Océanographique de Monaco. (2021, July 22). Which sea turtles live in the Mediterranean? -

Institut océanographique.

Turtles spend most of their lives in the sea, but they occasionally make long journeys to

the shore of specific beaches to lay eggs. After mating, which takes place in the water,

female turtles lay their eggs on a beach between May and August. The eggs are incubated

in the heat of the soil for about a couple of months. The temperature determines the sex:

eggs found at temperatures higher than 29°C will give rise to females, while below this

temperature they will be males. This is an important fact to state out as plastic pollution

will affect this process quite substantially.

10
Effects of plastic and microplastic in turtles

Sand temperature while nesting

Researchers with the University of Florida and the University of North Carolina Wilmington

have published a study recently in which they found how plastic, microplastic, microbeads,

and synthetic fibers may significantly change the composition and temperature of sandy

beaches where marine turtles lay their nest and incubate their eggs.23

Since the sex of marine turtle eggs is determined by the sand temperature during egg

incubation, warmer sand produces more females and cooler sand produces more males.

Temperatures between approximately 24-29.5 degrees C produce males while above 29.5 to

34 degrees C, females. Since plastics warm up when exposed to heat, when combined with

sand, microplastics may increase the sand temperature, especially if the pigment of the

plastic is dark. This could potentially affect the nesting environment of marine turtles,

biasing the sex ratio of turtles toward producing only females and affecting the future

reproductive success of the species. Researchers mixed sand from beaches at the FSU

Coastal and Marine Laboratory with black and white microplastic. Concentrations of

23
Fuentes, M. M. P. B., Beckwidth, V., & Ware, M. (2023). The effects of microplastic on the thermal profile of sand:
implications for marine turtle nesting grounds.

11
 microplastic ranged from 5% to 30% of the total volume of the sediment sample. Then they

recorded temperatures from July through September 2018 by burying digital thermometers at

the same depth at which loggerhead sea turtles typically lay their eggs. They found that

samples with higher microplastic concentrations had greater increases in temperature, with

the sample containing 30% black microplastic pieces having the highest mean difference in

temperature. Those samples were 0.58 degrees Celsius warmer than the control group, an

increase that could potentially significantly alter sea turtle hatchling sex ratios, physiological

performance, and mortality of embryos. The 30% concentration of microplastics in those

samples equates to about 9.8 million pieces per cubic meter, a much higher concentration

than has been currently found on beaches worldwide. Current research has found the highest

reported concentrations collected from beaches is about 1.8 million pieces per cubic meter.

It is also good to mention that the amount of microplastics at nesting sites has only recently

been explored. It could be higher in locations that haven't been studied yet, and keeping in

consideration the fact that demand for plastic is forecast to increase in the future.

Ingestion

Amongst marine mammals, birds and sea turtles, there are around 260 animal species that risk

their lives due to this waste: by ingesting it or becoming trapped. Turtles are especially affected;

a study from the University of Queensland has found that up to 52% of all turtles have ingested

12
some form micro or micro plastic.24 Surprisingly, the biggest reasons for this isn’t the common

thought - Sea turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish – but rather the fact that turtles in

particular are attracted to the smell of food covered on the plastic debris lost in the sea. This has

been proven by a study conducted by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill which

aimed to look at the truthfulness of this hypothesis. In the study conducted, 15 loggerhead turtles

(2nd most present turtles’ specie in the Mediterranean) were examined, which remained in

captivity for five months; therefore, a series of odors were emitted through a pipe. It was noticed

that the turtles ignored the scents of plastic and clean water but reacted to the smell of food and

ocean-soaked plastics by pushing their noses out of the water to smell.

The researchers were surprised that the turtles responded to the biospun plastic, which refers to

the accumulation of microbes, algae, plants and small animals on its surface, exactly as they

responded to their real food.

Hence, the conclusion of the researchers were clear: Sea turtles mistake the smell of plastic for

food. The findings of this study help explain the disastrous situation in the Mediterranean, since

the turtle specie (loggerhead) used in the study is the most present turtle specie in the

Mediterranean waters. Secondly, the Mediterranean accounts for 7% of the world water

pollution, elevating by far the chances for turtles to fall trap to the odor of plastic and eventually

to get seriously hurt, if not perish.

24
Risk analysis reveals global hotspots for marine debris ingestion by sea turtles. Global Change Biology

13
Entanglement issue

After ingestion, the biggest issue regarding plastic for marine life is entanglement. hundreds of

thousands of sea turtles worldwide every year die because of the issue of entanglement25 The

dangerous objects that turtles must face the most at sea include: fishing gear such as fishing nets,

lines and traps; or the most problematic “ghost gear” (lost fishing gear), plastic debris like plastic

bags and plastic wraps, balloons and balloon ribbons, which disguise as jellyfish, (main turtle

pray), discarded fishing lines, which persist in the environment for a long time; packaging

materials and more. These items can harm turtles, limiting their ability to swim, breathe and

feed. Turtles can die due to asphyxiation, inanition or injuries caused by plastic. The WWF has

found that in an entire year, almost 570 thousand tons of plastic are released into the waters of

the Mediterranean, thus causing the death of almost 40,000 sea turtles who become entangled in

some waste or are poisoned by ingesting it.26

External anthropic activities affecting turtles

The main dangers for the survival of sea turtle species in the Mediterranean Sea are linked to

anthropic activity: fisheries bycatch, intensive tourism, and shrinking coastlines.

Fisheries bycatch

25
Fisheries, N. (n.d.). Entanglement of marine life: risks and response. NOAA.
26
Admin, & Admin. (2021, May 12). Salviamo le tartarughe anche dalla plastica. WWF Italia.

14
Turtles that accidentally get caught in longlines, gill nets, and trawls frequently drown and end up being

discarded as bycatch. Sometimes broken or abandoned fishing nets and lines entangle sea turtles and other

marine creatures as they float freely in the ocean. Animals caught in abandoned fishing gear, also known

as "ghost gear," frequently can't swim or feed properly and don't survive.

A 2010 study by Duke University researchers estimated as many as 1.5 million sea turtles are caught in

fisheries around the world over an 18-year period. In the interested geographical area of this paper, the

Mediterranean, the analysis of sea turtle by-catch reveals a critical issue; as found by Casale P.(2010) over

132,000 turtles were captured and possibly 44,000 would be dead every year. Small vessels, the most

common fishing vessel in the region, using specific gear types pose the greatest threat to Mediterranean

green and loggerhead turtles, especially in the eastern Mediterranean basin.

Due to the high risk, fisheries are regarded as the greatest threat to sea turtles in the Mediterranean.

Shrinking coastlines

Because of receding coastlines, sea turtle habitats are destroyed every year. Sea turtle nesting

areas are affected whenever a new hotel or high-rise is built up along the shore, and wherever

the sea floor is dug up and the beach erodes. Shrinking coastlines can reduce the available

nesting habitat for sea turtles. These creatures rely on sandy beaches and dunes to lay their

eggs. As coastal development and erosion reduce the extent of these nesting areas, sea turtles

have fewer places to lay their eggs, potentially leading to lower nesting success and reduced

population growth. While it is more challenging to create data determining the number of

turtles affected directly, it is known that this issue is affecting turtle’s nesting success.

15
Light pollution

As one of the favorite tourist hotspots worldwide, the Mediterranean geographical area boasts

continually extensive coastal developments and activities of all sorts. Due to this,

The impact of numerous sources of artificial light present in the area can create a barrier for

turtles, affecting their nesting, hatchling survival, and overall population health.

The presence of artificial lighting can discourage female sea turtles from nesting, or it could

cause them to abandon their nesting attempts. Additionally, lighting pollution in the

Mediterranean is especially toxic for turtles as when hatchling Sea turtles emerge from their

nests at night, they use the moonlight to find their way to the ocean. Artificial lights can confuse

them, leading them away from the sea and towards roads, buildings, or other dangerous areas,

which increases the likelihood of hatchling mortality. While research containing detailed data on

this issue remains undiscovered, A study of the Sea Turtle Conservancy (STC) can help us

understand the significancy of this issue. In 1999, 33 of 65 nests (51%)27 that hatched had levels

of disorientation where at least 25% of the hatchlings emerging from the nest cued in on the

wrong direction.28 Since this finding is surely applicable to the situation in the Mediterranean, it

is certain how the overall nesting success of sea turtle populations in the Mediterranean is being

hindered everyday by this issue.

27
Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Artificial Lighting – Sea Turtle Conservancy
28
Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Artificial Lighting – Sea Turtle Conservancy.

16
Analysis

As seen in the research presented, plastic pollution clearly presents a direct threat to turtles in the

Mediterranean. The extent to which plastics and microplastics affect turtles compared to other

human activities is however difficult to assess. From the paper’s insights, the answer to the

research question seems to be: overall to a lesser extent; although this issue may become more

serious in the future. The impact of potential influence of plastic pollution on reproductive traits

in turtles for example may not be of vital importance for the specie’s survival as we have seen

from the Algeria study, since turtles seem to very adaptable. They may mitigate the effect by

simply choosing to nest in beaches with less microplastic contamination. This said, if all beaches

saw a rate of increase in microplastics, this problem would be substantially more difficult to

ignore. On the other hand, the essay further explores the critical aspects of ingestion and

entanglement, which pose immediate threats to turtle populations in the region, highlighting the

abundance of plastic and microplastics, making the situation more catastrophic.

This said, the casualties from anthropic bycatching alone reach the 45.000 every year in the

Mediterranean, which is a much higher concern than ingestion and entanglement now.

As such, by comparing the different factors, plastic and microplastic pollution via ingestion

issues causing and entanglement distinguishes itself by a more unstable, -depending on the

region- effect, than the other harmful activities caused by humans, which are constant and

uncontrollable. Thus, my conclusion is that at the moment, the anthropic activities harming

hurtles have clearly a worse effect. However, the increasing levels of microplastics showing for

example in Northern Cyprus, indicate how the severity of the problem could shift in the not too

far future.

17
Evaluation

Strengths

In the essay, the approach taken to answer the research question provides a comprehensive

introduction with an overview of plastic pollution and its global implications, while throughout

the essay, the vast inclusion of specific statistics and studies enhances the credibility of the

content. In this essay, the impacts of plastic pollution with other external anthropic activities are

discussed and compared, helping readers understand the relative significance of each threat and it

presents different case and research studies, offering a better multi-angled view at the problem.

Limitations

The essay highlights the need for further research in various subtopics. For instance, the extent of

light pollution's impact on turtles in the Mediterranean remained highly undefined, or the beach

erosion, or even the entanglement issue. More data and more studies are required on these topics

to assess the issue and find solutions more clearly.

It's important to also acknowledge that even in the research that has been done, that is

established, there are holes and incongruencies difficult to extrapolate anything from. An

example is the Algeria study, which found that female turtles in the beach are adapting to the

increasing levels of microplastics, indicating that the generalization of ‘increased amount of

18
microplastics in the beach = higher risk for turtles wellbeing’ cannot be established too quickly.

A simple conclusion cannot be extrapolated to all conditions, as this unique interesting study is

an example.

Conclusion

In conclusion, as established in the analysis, the issue of plastic and microplastic pollution poses

still a threat to marine turtles in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. These tiny and small

pollutants have direct, short-term consequences on turtle populations, on their ingestion,

entanglement, and cause alterations to nesting environments. In comparison to other external

anthropic activities like fisheries bycatch, coastal development, and light pollution, plastic

pollution exerts a more immediate uncontrolled but also more contained impact on sea turtles,

although this could change in the future. While human activities contribute to more concerning

challenges at the moment, plastic pollution remains a visually pressing and significant concern.

This said, it's vital to recognize that there is still a need for further research, studies and data in

certain areas to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the effect of plastic and

microplastic pollution and in sea turtles in the Mediterranean to address the gaps in the

knowledge and to be able to identify primary problems and make easier conclusions to

successfully attack the problem more efficiently.

19
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