Unit 1: Fundamentals of the Earth and its Processes

Life is definitely the most unique characteristic of planet Earth. Among the eight
planets of the Solar System, it is the only place where life exists as of today. In this unit,
you will learn why Earth is a perfect place for various life forms to exist, thrive and
evolve. This unit is composed of four modules and is expected to be finished on October
09, 2020.

Module 1
THE EARTH

Introduction

Our home planet is the third planet in the solar system from the sun, and the only planet
and place we know that can support life. It is also the fifth largest planet, and the only
planet that contains liquid water on its surface – where we all know water is one of the
basic human needs to live.
Some people are taking good care of it, but most, are not. This module will give you an
overview of what the planet Earth really is, how it started and the things that you might
be interested about our home planet.

Turn your book on the next page and come with me as we start learning about our own
planet.

Earth

Earth is the 3rd planet in the solar system next to planet Venus. It belongs to the
terrestrial type of planets or inner planets where planets are commonly made up of
rocks. Other terrestrial planets are Mercury, Venus, and Mars.

Earth, our home, is the third planet from the sun. It is the only planet known to have an
atmosphere containing free oxygen, oceans of liquid water on its surface, and life.

Earth has a diameter of roughly 8,000 miles (13,000 kilometers), and is round because
gravity pulls matter into a ball. Roughly 71 percent of Earth's surface is covered by
water, most of it in the oceans.

Earth’s History is divided into four (4) Eons:

• Hadean (4,540-4,000 Million Years Ago)

• Earth is formed out of debris in space.

• There is no life and the temperature is really hot and a frequent volcanic
eruptions.
• The atmosphere is nebular.
 • The moon is formed because of the Earth’s collision to a protoplanet named
Theia.
• Archean (4,000-2500 Million Years Ago)

• The first form of life is Prokaryote – a unicellular organism.

• Some continents exists
• The atmosphere is composed of greenhouse gases  Proterozoic (2500-541
Million Years Ago)
• Proterozoic means “early life”.
• Existence of Eukaryotes life form or the multicellular organisms.
• Bacteria begin to produce oxygen.
• The early and late phases of this Eon may have undergone “Snow Ball Earth”
period – where the earth reaches below-zero temperature.
• Phaneroic (541 - Present)
• Complex life forms
• Earth’s water (oceans) existed
• Pangaea forms and later dissolves in Laurasia and Gondwanaland, which turns
to the current continents
• Modern plants, animals, and humans
evolve.

Fig
1.1:

Planetary Collision
Theory source: universe.com

Earth and Earth System

Geology is the study of Earth. It is a disciplinary science that aims to understand

processes occurring within and on the surface of the planet. These processes are
important in explaining:

1. How the planet came to be;

2. The formation of materials we acquire from the Earth; and
 3. Preparing for natural phenomena that may pose threat to our survival.

Earth is also divided into layers based on physical properties, such as whether the layer
is solid or liquid.
The Layers of the Earth

Fig. 1.1: Earth’s Structure

Source: http://www.geosci.usyd.edu.au/

1. The Crust

 This layer of the Earth is made up of solid rocks and minerals. It occupies 1% of
the Earth’s volume.
 there are two types of rocks: Continental Crust and the Oceanic Crust
 The Continental Crust is typically 30 to 50 kilometers thick and is mostly
composed of less dense rocks compared to oceanic crust.
 The Oceanic Crust is approximately 5 to 10 kilometers thick and is primarily
composed of basalt, diabase, and gabbro.
 Some less dense rocks, like granite, is commonly seen in continental but are rare
in oceanic crust
 The crust and underlying relatively rigid mantle make up the lithosphere. 2. The

Mantle

 This layer is mostly solid-bulk of the Earth’s interior.

 It lies between the core and the crust
 It contains more magnesium and less aluminum and silicon than the crust.
 The rocks here are mostly silicates – a wide variety of compounds that shares
silicon and oxygen structure.
 The transfer of heat and materials in the mantle helps in determining the
landscape of the Earth
 The mantle is divided into several layers: the upper mantle, the transition zone,
the lower mantle, and D” (D double prime), is the region where the mantle meets
the outer core.
 Five (5) Parts of the Mantle:

a. Lithosphere

o It is the outermost, rigid of the Earth

o It is made of the crust and the rigid, upper part of the mantle o It is divided into
pieces called tectonic plates

b. Asthenosphere

o This layer is located below the lithosphere

o This layer is characterized as weak and soft mantle commonly made up of
solid rocks
o The temperature and pressure in this layer is so high causes the rocks to melt
o The slow motion of the tectonic plates on the asthenosphere is associated
with continental drift, earthquakes, formation of mountains and volcanoes.

c. Transition Zone

o About 410 kilometers to 660 kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface o Rocks
in this layer undergo radical transformation
o Rocks do not melt or disintegrate instead their crystalline structure changes
and
become more dense

d. Lower Mantle

o This layer is the strong and lies beneath the mantle o Much hotter and denser
than the upper mantle
o Rocks in this layer moves slowly than rocks in the asthenosphere o The
intense pressure in this layer keeps the mantle solid

e. D” (D Prime)

o This layer is the region where the mantle meets the outer core. o Has thick
accumulations of iron and silicates
o According to geologists and seismologists, they detected that this area
performs a huge melt.

3. The Core

 The very hot and dense center of the Earth

  Approximately 2,900 kilometers below the surface of the Earth and has a radius of
about 3,485 kilometers
 The core is made almost entirely of metal – iron and nickel
 There are two parts of the Earth’s core: the Outer core and the Inner core
Two (2) Parts of the Core:

a. Outer Core

o This is the liquid layer of the Earth’s core o It lies between the mantle and the
inner core
o It is made up of mainly metals iron and nickel and other small amounts of
substances
o It is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field
o According to studies, as the Earth rotates on its axis, the iron it contains moves
around that causes powerful electric currents

b. Inner Core

o This layer is characterized by a solid, hot, and dense ball made up mostly of iron
o The temperature in this layer is far above the melting point of an iron o The
pressure and density causes the iron atoms moves into a liquid state o
According to geophysicists, inner core is not actually a solid layer. This layer is
plasma that behaves as solid.

Hydrosphere is the combined mass of water found on, under,

and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural
satellite.

A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. On Earth,

liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes
and rivers.

According to studies, approximately 71% of the earth’s is

covered with water.
Fig. 1.2: The Planet Earth
Why is Hydrosphere Important? Source: http://www.nasa.gov

The major importance of hydrosphere is that water sustains various life forms and plays
an important role in ecosystems and regulating the atmosphere. Hydrosphere covers all
water present on the Earth surface. It involves saltwater, freshwater and frozen water
along with groundwater and water in the lower levels of the atmosphere.
The Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, describes
the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.

I. Evaporation

It is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation
is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water
cycle as atmospheric water vapor.

It is a fundamental part of the water cycle and is constantly occurring throughout

nature.

II. Condensation

It is a process in which water vapour (gaseous form) in the air changes into liquid
water when it comes in contact with a cooler surface. When the water in the air
comes in contact with a cold surface, it condenses to form water droplets.

III.Precipitation

It occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so
that the water condenses and "precipitates".

These are any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to
the Earth.

IV. Transpiration

It is the process where plants absorb water through the roots and then give off water
vapor through pores in their leaves.
An example of transpiration is when a plant absorbs water in its roots.
Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is a thin, gaseous envelope comprised mostly of nitrogen (N2)
and oxygen (O2), with small amounts of other gases, such as water vapor (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). Nested in the atmosphere are clouds of liquid water and ice
crystals.

The atmosphere contains of many gases, most in small amounts, including some
pollutants and greenhouse gases. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is
nitrogen, with oxygen second. Argon, an inert gas, is the third most abundant gas in the
atmosphere (NC State University).
Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

1. Troposphere

• It is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also

where nearly all weather conditions take place.
• It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's
mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and
aerosols.

2. Stratosphere

• It is abundant in ozone, a type of oxygen molecule

that absorbs the sun's ultraviolet radiation and uses it
to heat this layer in the atmosphere.

3. Mesosphere

• It is the coldest atmospheric layer surrounding the

earth. It becomes cold enough to freeze water vapour
in its atmosphere into ice clouds.
• In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases.

4. Thermosphere
 • It begins at a distance of approximately 53-56 miles above the earth's surface
and extends to between 311 and 621 miles from the earth.
• “thermo” means heat, and the temperature in this layer can reach up to 4,500
degrees Fahrenheit.

5. Exosphere

• The air in the exosphere is very thin, and is made up mostly of helium, and
hydrogen.
• The upper level of the exosphere is the farthest point from earth that is still
affected by earth's gravity.
The thermosphere and exosphere are together called the Ionosphere because there is
so much UV radiation from the sun that gases split apart into charged particles during
ionization. Biosphere
Also known as the ecosphere, is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be
termed the zone of life on Earth, a closed system, and largely self-regulating.
It is defined as the area of the planet where organisms live, including the ground and the
air.
Why do we care about the Biosphere?
• The biosphere is as important as life itself because it is all of life. Without the
biosphere, the Earth would be a lifeless planet such as Mars or Venus.
• The growth of the human population on Earth means there is less room for
other species.
SOIL AND MINSERAL RESOURCES
Mineral Resources
• These are naturally occurring minerals in the Earth’s crust.
• It can be extracted and made into some useful products
that we are now using today.
There are three (3) types of Mineral resources:

1. Metallic Minerals - these are minerals that contain one or Fig 1.8: Mineral Resources
more metallic elements. source: https://www.chemistryhive.com

a. Ferrous Metallic Minerals – these minerals that mostly contains iron and small
amounts of other metals and elements. Examples are iron, cobalt, and nickel and
etc.
b. Non- ferrous Metallic Minerals – these minerals do not contain iron; they are not
magnetic, and is usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals.
Examples are copper, lead, tin, aluminum, brass, and etc.

2. Non-metallic Mineral Resources – these type of minerals do not contain metals.

Examples are limestone, mica, manganese, coal, salt, and etc.
3. Energy Mineral Resources – the last type of mineral resources. It is used to produce
electricity, fuel for transportation, and other economic benefits and jobs.
 Importance of Mineral resources
Mineral resources is said to be one of the most important natural resources that we
have on Earth. Because they provide raw materials to different economy, primary,
secondary, and of course even in tertiary sectors. Some uses of mineral resources:

• Constructions and Machinery

• Utensils and other kitchenware
• Used in making acids, used for chlorine, and some medical purposes.
• The roads that we ride or drive every day and the buildings where we go to work
also contain minerals.
• Of course, the food that we eat, it also contains minerals. Because some
mineral are used to flavor and preserved food.
• And the most important use of coal (mineral) is in electricity generation, steel
production, cement manufacturing, and a liquid fuel.
Soil Resources
These resources are a form of environmental asset providing a range of ecosystem
services.
Soil is a thin layer of loose material on the surface of the earth. Above it is the air, and
beneath it are rocks. It can be a few inches deep, or it can go down several feet. It is a
mixture of organic and inorganic materials. The organic part is consists of living things
and the remains of once-living things. The inorganic part is commonly made up of
particles of rocks and minerals- that is, of substances that were not formed by living
things.
The word soil came from the Latin word “solum” which means floor or ground.
The soil in one place can never be exactly the same as the soil in other places. You
have probably noticed that when you travel in some places or different countries, soils
are different in colors.
Soils contain different amounts of the basic minerals needed for plant growth. Since
each kind of plant has its own characteristics and needs, each are grown for best type
of soil that suits them.
Among the things that determine the soil type are the size of rock particles, the climate
of the region, the location of the particular place, and the way how people uses the soil.
Importance of Soil Resources
• Soil provide medium for plant growth. It support root and keep them upright for
growth.
• It provides plants with essential minerals and nutrients.
• Provides air for gaseous exchange between roots and atmosphere.
• Protect plants from erosion and other destructive physical, biological, and chemical
activity.
• It holds water (moisture) and maintains adequate aeration.
Agriculture is one of the most important components of our society. Farmers plant
crops, vegetables, rice, and etc for us people to eat. Soil is one part of the success of
the agriculture and is the original source of nutrients that we use to grow crops.
Just imagine life without plants, rice, vegetables, and other crops to eat. How can we
live like that? That is why this part of the module helps you to understand the
importance of different resources we have.