SCHOOL OF ENERGY AND OIL & GAS INDUSTRY

Rock and Fluid Properties

Prepared by
Gaziz KYRGYZBAY
Five Reservoir Fluids
Classification based on p-T diagrams
Classification based on laboratory data
Classification based on production data
Review: p-T diagram of multicomponent
mixture
• Saturation envelope
Cricondentherm

• Bubble point line Cricondenbar All gas

• Dew point line

• Iso-vols
Phase separate into

• Critical point gas and liquid

• Cricondenbar
• Cricondentherm
Reservoir fluid classification
• Classification is based on the position of the phase envelope relative to the
production path (reservoir – pipes – separator)

Reservoir conditions (well/field

Saturation envelopes (well/field
dependent)
dependent)

Production paths

T
Separator
Why do we need to classify reservoir fluids?
• Determine sampling method
• Determine surface equipment types and sizes
• Depletion strategy
• Selection of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods
• Determine material balance calculations
Reservoir classification
• Dry gas reservoirs
(single phase) p

• Dew-point reservoirs
• Wet gas
• Retrograde gas
• Bubble-point reservoirs
• Volatile oil
• Black oil
Separator
T
Dry gas reservoir
• Simplest reservoir fluid – remains single-phase all the time
• Dominated by methane, p
low in heavier molecules
• Shale gas is usually very
dry (there are exceptions)
• Dry gas well also produces
water

Separator
T
Dry gas reservoir
• Newark East field, Barnett
Shale, Texas
• Daily production 1.97 bcf gas
and 6000 bbl condensate
Wet gas reservoir
• Production path crosses dew point line
• Reservoir temperature > cricondentherm
• Condensation in pipes and separators
• No condensation in the
reservoir p cricondentherm

• Characteristics
• Richer in heavier alkanes
• Surface liquid – condensate
• Surface gas – condensate-gas
• Wet or dry has nothing to
do with moisture T
Separator
Wet gas reservoir
• Wattenberg field, Denver
-Julesburg (DJ) basin
• Production gas-oil ratio in
average 40-50 Mscf/STB
Retrograde reservoir
• Fluid starts as all gas but crosses dew-point line during
depressurization
• Reservoir temperature
is between critical point p
and cricondentherm
• Condensation occurs in
the reservoir
• Produced gas is called
retrograde gas

Separator
T
Retrograde reservoir
• Characteristics
• Richer in heavier alkanes than wet / dry gas
• Composition of (surface gas + surface condensate) DOES NOT EQUAL original composition of
reservoir fluid
• Hydrocarbons condensed in the reservoir generally cannot be recovered –
besides, condensation hinders gas production
• Wetting / interfacial tension
• Remedies – injection of dry gas
Retrograde reservoir
• Wharton field, Texas
Black oil
• When fluid is depressurized, the path crosses bubble-point line; the point of
crossing is well below the critical point.
• Iso-vols: lines of constant
liquid volume – nearly
evenly spaced. p
• Above the bubble point line: Critical
point
undersaturated
• Below the bubble point line:
saturated

Separator T
Black oil
• Example:
• Ghawar, Saudi Arabia – largest oil field in the world
• Since 1948, Ghawar has
produced 65 billion bbl
of oil (2010 data)
• Initial solution gas-oil
ratio = 550 scf/bbl
Black oil
• Characteristics
• Production above the bubble point – vaporization occurs in pipes and
separators
• Production below the bubble point – vaporization also occurs in the reservoir
• As gas comes out of solution, oil shrinks in volume and viscosities increase.
• Gas associated with black oil is dry (nearly all methane)
Volatile oil
• Volatile oil contains more intermediates (ethane ~ hexane) and less heavy
molecules than black oil
• Volatile oil, when
depressurized, crosses p
Critical
the bubble point line point
near the critical point
(near-critical oil)

Separator T
Volatile oil
• Characteristics
• Iso-vols are not evenly distributed – slight decrease in pressure may lead to
large volume of gas emitted from solution
• Gas associated with volatile oil is very rich (wet), releasing large quantity of
liquid in separators
• Shrinkage of volatile oil is very high
Volatile oil
• Karachaganak field, Kazakhstan
• One of the largest condensate fields in the world
• Top: 1450 meter-thick
retrograde condensate
• Bottom: 200 meter-thick
volatile oil
Eagle Ford
Laboratory analysis
• In addition to phase diagram, the following laboratory analysis is also used to
classify reservoir fluids

McCain WD Jr. Heavy components control reservoir fluid behavior, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 746-750, September 1994.

Heptane plus: fraction of heavy alkanes.

FVF: Formation Volume Factor
Field identification
• Production data can also be used to classify reservoir fluids when fluid sample
obtained under reservoir condition is not available

McCain WD Jr. Heavy components control reservoir fluid behavior, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 746-750, September 1994.
Summary
• p-T diagrams of five reservoir fluids
• Other classification criteria
• C7+ mole %
• Oil formation volume factor
• Initial producing gas-liquid ratio
• Initial API gravity of stock-tank fluid
Properties of Dry Gas
Formation volume factor
Isothermal compressibility
Viscosity
Heating value
Joule-Thomson effects

McCain Chapter 6
No standard for “standard condition”
• Standard temperature – 60 F° (15.56 °C)
• “Standard” pressure (Table 6-1)

IUPAC: 0°C / 100 kPa (14.50

psia)

NIST: 20°C / 1 atm (14.70

psia)

• We will follow the textbook and use 14.65 psia as standard pressure
Gas FVF and compressibility
• Formation volume factor of gas
Bg = VR VSC

Volume of gas at Volume of gas at

VR reservoir condition
VSC standard condition

• Isothermal compressibility of gas

1  V 
cg = −  
V  p T

Units: sip = psi-1; microsip = 10-6 psi-1

Formation volume factor
• Calculation
z R nRTR SC: standard
VR =
pR z RTR pSC condition
Bg =
z SC nRTSC z SCTSC pR
VSC =
• Bg is important for the material balance of gas and
pSC

estimation of surface facility capacity

• Bg is a very small number (rcf / scf)
Isothermal Compressibility
• Calculation
1  V  1 1  z 
cg = −   cg = −  
V  p T p z  p T
1  v  1  v 
= −   = −  m 
v  p T vm  p T

• Can be used to calculate change in reservoir density / specific volume due to

change in reservoir pressure (Δp << p)

v vm   m
= = −cg p = = cg p
v vm  m
Pseudoreduced compressibility
• Definition
c pr = cg p pc ppc: pseudocritical pressure of gas
• Advantage
z-factor as a function of pseudoreduced
1 1  z 
c pr = − pressure and temperature can be found in
p pr z  p pr  Chart Fig. 3-7, 3-8, and 3-9 (Lecture 7)
T

• Calculation flow chart

Compressibility calculation
• Calculation flow chart
Gas composition or Pseudocritical
specific gravity properties
Pseudoreduced
temperature and
Temperature and pressure
pressure

z-factor

Isothermal Pseudoreduced
compressibility compressibility
Viscosity / kinematic viscosity
• Viscosity describes the ability of the fluid to resist flow
• Unit: centipoise = gram/100 sec cm
• Kinematic viscosity
• Defined as
• Unit: centistokes = centipoise
 = /(gram/cc)

2
= cm / 100 sec
Dependence of viscosity on p/T
• Fig. 6-6: ethane

• Similar to ρ-T diagram, there are two branches of viscosities

(liquid and vapor) below Tc
Dependence of viscosity on p/T (pure
substance)
• Temperature
• Low pressure: viscosity increases with increasing temperature
• High pressure: viscosity decreases with increasing temperature
• Viscosity always increases with increasing pressure
• At critical point, viscosity of liquid equals viscosity of vapor
Viscosity of gas mixtures
• Low pressure
Composition known
• Mixture rule
 y M
gj j
12
j

g =
j

y M j
12
j

• The viscosities of j
individual components
can be found in Fig. 6-7.
Viscosity of gas mixtures
• Low pressure
Specific gravity known
• Viscosity at 1 atm (μg1)
can be looked up
from Fig. 6-8
• Corrections due to other
gases
Viscosity of gas mixtures
• High pressure
• We apply laws of corresponding states and find the viscosity ratio
 g  g1
as functions of pseudoreduced temperature and pressure (Tpr and ppr)
• Important charts: Fig. 6-7, 6-8, 6-9, 6-10.
Density, compressibility & Viscosity
• Combined chart for reservoir gas properties
Viscosity at high
Viscosity at 1 atm μg1
pressure and
temperature μg

Gas composition or Pseudocritical

specific gravity properties
Pseudoreduced
temperature and
Temperature and pressure
pressure
z-factor
Density
Isothermal Pseudoreduced
compressibility compressibility
Haynesville Shale
• Near NW Louisiana
• Depth 10,000~13,000 ft
• Pressure 3,000~4,000 psia
• Temperature 350 °F
• Gas specific gravity 0.58~0.61
• Composition:
• 94 mole % methane
• 2 mole % ethane
• 1 mole % C3+
• 2.5 mole % CO2 Source:
K.E. Newsham and J.A. Rushing, Search and
• 0.5 mole % N2 Discovery Article # 40400, May 2009.
Heating value
• Units & typical numbers
• kJ/m3 (typical value: 38,000~42,000 kJ/m3)
• BTU/scf (typical value: 1000~1100 BTU/scf)
(1 kJ = 0.9478 BTU, 1 kwh = 3414 BTU)
• Nomenclatures
• Wet: Saturated with water vapor (1.75 volume %)
• Dry: No water vapor
• Gross heating value: Total heat emitted when water (product of
combustion) condenses to liquid state at standard condition
• Net heating value: Same as the Gross heating value except water remains
as vapor at standard condition
Joule-Thomson effect
• Change in temperature associated with an adiabatic change in pressure
 z  vmT
T =   p cp: heat capacity of gas at constant
 T p p
zc pressure
• (∂z/∂T)p is positive at low pressure but negative at high pressure
• Low pressure: rapid reduction of pressure leads to cooling
• High pressure: rapid reduction of pressure can lead to heating!
Joule-Thomson effect
• Reduction in pressure
leads to cooling (ppr<7)
• Reduction in pressure
leads to heating (ppr>11)
Summary
• Formation volume factor
• Compressibility & viscosity calculation
• Definition of gas compressibility
• The flow chart for compressibility and viscosity calculations
• Heating value
• Typical heating value of natural gas
• Nomenclature: wet, dry, gross, net
• Joule-Thomson effect: adiabatic cooling at low pressure would change to heating
at high pressure
Wet Gas Recombination
Calculation based on composition
Calculation based on specific gravity
Formation volume factor
Wet gas characteristics

• Dew point line crossed in separator

• Liquid condensation
• Composition of surface gas is different from composition of reservoir fluid
Recombination calculation

• One must combine separator gas (SPG), separator liquid (SPO), stock-tank gas
(STG), and stock-tank oil (STO) to obtain the original properties

Separator gas (SPG) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator
Stock Stock-tank oil
Separator liquid
tank (STO)
(SPO)

Reservoir fluid (all Reduction in pressure and Further reduction in pressure and
gas) temperature – dew-point line temperature to standard
crossed condition
Types of recombination calculations
 Composition-based: Reservoir gas composition
• Case I: SPG + STO + STG
• Case II: SPO + SPG

• Specific gravity-based: Reservoir gas density

• Case III: SPG + STO + STG
• Case IV: SPG + STO, STG specific gravity unknown but separator condition is given

We use specific gravity-based calculations when compositional

data are not available
Composition-based recombination
 Case I: SPG + STG + STO (Example 7-1)
• Volume of SPG relative to STO (Gas-oil ratio RSP: scf/STB)
• Volume of STG relative to STO (RST)
• Compositions of SPG, STG, STO

Separator gas (SPG) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator
Stock Stock-tank oil
Separator liquid
tank (STO)
(SPO)

Reservoir fluid (all

gas)
Case I: SPG + STG + STO

• Reservoir gas composition

Reservoir gas composition = # of moles of j / Total # of moles

Recombination
# of moles of j in STO Total # of moles in STO

# of moles of j in STG Total # of moles in STG

+ # of moles of j in SPG + Total # of moles in SPG

= # of moles of j = Total # of moles

Case I: SPG + STG + STO

• Gas (SPG and STG) for 1 STB of STO

Volume of SPG (scf) # of moles in SPG

# of moles of j in SPG
Composition of SPG

Volume of STG (scf) # of moles in STG

# of moles of j in STG
Composition of STG
Case I: SPG + STG + STO

• Oil (1 STB)
# of moles of j in STO
(1 STB)

Composition of STO Apparent molecular weight of

STO
# of moles in STO (1
STB)
Density of STO (API Mass of STO (Volume
gravity) = 1 STB)
Example (7.1)
• Data SPG = 69,551 scf/STB
STG = 336 scf/STB
Composition, mole fraction STO = 55.9 ºAPI
SPG STG STO
C1 0.8372 0.3190 0.0018
C2 0.0960 0.1949 0.0063
C3 0.0455 0.2532 0.0295
i-C4 0.0060 0.0548 0.0177
n-C4 0.0087 0.0909 0.0403
i-C5 0.0028 0.0362 0.0417
n-C5 0.0022 0.0303 0.0435
C6 0.0014 0.0191 0.0999 g-C7+ = 0.794
C7+ 0.0002 0.0016 0.7193 Mw-C7+ = 113 lb / lb mole
 STO MWj xj*MWj
0.0018 16.0430 0.028877
0.0063 30.0700 0.189441
0.0295 44.0970 1.300862
0.0177 58.1230 1.028777
0.0403 58.1230 2.342357
0.0417 72.1500 3.008655
0.0435 72.1500 3.138525
0.0999 86.1770 8.609082
0.7193 113.0000 81.2809
Mwa = 100.93
 mol fraction
SPG lbmol SPG STG lbmol STG STO of res. fluid
C1 0.8372 58.3496 0.3190 0.1168 0.0018 58.4682 0.8228
C2 0.0960 6.6908 0.1949 0.0713 0.0063 6.768463 0.0952
C3 0.0455 3.1712 0.2532 0.0927 0.0295 3.293345 0.0463
i-C4 0.0060 0.4182 0.0548 0.0201 0.0177 0.455934 0.0064
n-C4 0.0087 0.6064 0.0909 0.0333 0.0403 0.679926 0.0096
i-C5 0.0028 0.1951 0.0362 0.0132 0.0417 0.250098 0.0035
n-C5 0.0022 0.1533 0.0303 0.0111 0.0435 0.207921 0.0029
C6 0.0014 0.0976 0.0191 0.0070 0.0999 0.204465 0.0029
C7+ 0.0002 0.0139 0.0016 0.0006 0.7193 0.733825 0.0103
lbmol res. fluid /lb mol STO = 71.0621
Comments
1. Once you have compositions, use dry-gas calculations to
get: z-factor, cg, g, g etc.

2. If multiple separators, use same procedure.

Separator gas (SPG1) Separator gas (SPG2) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator 1

Separator 2
Stock Stock-tank oil
tank (STO)

Reservoir fluid (all Separator liquid Separator liquid

gas) (SPO1) (SPO2)
Composition-based recombination
 Case II: SPG + SPO (Example 7-2)
• Volume of SPG relative to STO (RSP)
• Volume of SPO relative to STO (Separator / stock-tank liquid volume ratio)
• Compositions of SPG, SPO
• Separator condition

Separator gas (SPG) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator
Stock Stock-tank oil
Separator liquid
tank (STO)
(SPO)

Reservoir fluid (all

gas)
Case II: SPG + SPO

• Reservoir gas composition

Reservoir gas composition = # of moles of j / Total # of moles

# of moles of j in SPO Total # of moles in SPO

+ # of moles of j in SPG + Total # of moles in SPG

= # of moles of j = Total # of moles

Case II: SPG + SPO

• Gas (SPG) for 1 STB of STO

Volume of SPG (scf) # of moles in SPG
# of moles of j in SPG
Composition of SPG

• Oil (SPO) for 1 STB of STO

Composition of SPO Apparent molecular weight of # of moles of j in STO (1

STO STB)

Volume of SPO per STB

of STO
Mass of STO # of moles in STO
Density of SPO @ SP
condition
Example (7.2)
• Data SPG = 69,551 scf/STB
SPO/STO = 1.216
Comp., mole fraction
SPG SPO
C1 0.8372 0.0869
C2 0.0960 0.0569
C3 0.0455 0.0896
i-C4 0.0060 0.0276
n-C4 0.0087 0.0539
i-C5 0.0028 0.0402
n-C5 0.0022 0.0400
C6 0.0014 0.0782 g-C7+ = 0.794
C7+ 0.0002 0.5267 Mw-C7+ = 113 lb / lb mole
 Comp., mole fraction mol fraction
SPG lbmol SPG SPO of res. fluid
C1 0.8372 42.6888 0.0869 42.7757 0.8228
C2 0.0960 4.8950 0.0569 4.9519 0.0952
C3 0.0455 2.3200 0.0896 2.4096 0.0463
i-C4 0.0060 0.3059 0.0276 0.3335 0.0064
n-C4 0.0087 0.4436 0.0539 0.4975 0.0096
i-C5 0.0028 0.1428 0.0402 0.1830 0.0035
n-C5 0.0022 0.1122 0.0400 0.1522 0.0029
C6 0.0014 0.0714 0.0782 0.1496 0.0029
C7+ 0.0002 0.0102 0.5267 0.5369 0.0103
lbmol res. fluid /lb mol SPO = 51.9900
Specific gravity-based recombination
 Case III: SPG + STG + STO (Example 7-3)
• Volume of SPG relative to STO (RSP)
• Volume of STG relative to STO (RST)
• Specific gravity of SPG, STG
• API gravity of STO

Separator gas (SPG) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator
Stock Stock-tank oil
Separator liquid
tank (STO)
(SPO)

Reservoir fluid (all

gas)
Case III: SPG + STG + STO

• Reservoir gas specific gravity

Reservoir gas surface density = Total Mass / Total Gas Volume
Reservoir gas specific gravity = surface density * (RT/P)surface /29

Surface volume of SPG

Recombination
Mass in SPG
Surface volume of STG
Mass in STG
Gas equivalent surface volume
Mass in STO of STO
+ +

= Total Mass = Total surface volume

Case III: SPG + STG + STO

• Two-stage
Mass of SPG + STG Mass of STO

RSPg gSP + RST g gST + 4600g o For derivations, see eq.

gg = (7-1) to (7-7)
RSP + RST + 133300 g o M o

Volume of SPG + STG Gaseous equivalent volume of STO

R: gas-oil ratio (scf/STB)

• Three-stage γg/o: gas/liquid specific densities
Mo: molecular weight of STO
(lb/lb-mole)

RSP1g gSP1 + RSP 2g gSP 2 + RST g gST + 4600g o

gg = 5954
RSP1 + RSP 2 + RST + 133300 g o M o Mo =
API − 8.8
Example (7.3)
• Data  Calculation
SPG = 69,551 scf/STB RSPg gSP + RST g gST + 4600g o
gg =
gSPG = 0.679 RSP + RST + 133300 g o M o
STG = 336 scf/STB
gSTG = 1.283 gg = 0.723
STO = 55.9 ºAPI

5954 Comment: Once you have gg, use

Mo = = 126lb/lbmol Chart 3-11 to get Tpc & Ppc
API − 8.8
→ Tpr, Ppr, z-factor, cpr, cg, pg, etc.
gSTO = 0.755
Specific gravity-based recombination
 Case IV: three-stage, STG not measured
• Volume of SPG1/SPG2 relative to STO (RSP1, RSP2)
• Specific gravity of SPG1/SPG2
• Operating condition of SP1 and SP2
• API gravity of STO

Separator gas (SPG1) Separator gas (SPG2) Vented stock-tank

gas (STG)

Separator 1

Separator 2
Stock Stock-tank oil
tank (STO)

Reservoir fluid (all Separator liquid Separator liquid

gas) (SPO1) (SPO2)
Case IV: Example 7-5
• What if properties of STG are unknown?
• What if there are multiple stages of separation and only the first (primary) stage
is measured?
RSP1g gSP1 + 4600g o + AGP AGP = RSTggST + (RSP2ggSP2)
g gR =
RSP1 + VEQ VEQ = RST + (RSP2) + 133000go/Mo
• VEQ: Equivalent volume (from SP2, ST, and gaseous equivalent of STO)
• VEQ can be looked up in Fig. 7-2 and 7-4
• AGP: Additional gas produced (from SP2 and ST)
• AGP can be looked up in Fig. 7-3 and 7-5
Example (7.5)
• Data  Calculation
From charts 7-4 & 7-5
SPG = 69,551 scf/STB (next slides)
gSPG = 0.679 VEQ = 1000
SPtemp = 73 ºF AGP = 400
SPpres = 300 psi
STO = 55.9 ºAPI RSP1g gSP1 + 4600g o + AGP
g gR =
RSP1 + VEQ

gg = 0.7243
Formation volume factor
• Definition
Volume of reservoir gas at reservoir pressure and temperature
Bwg =
Volume of stock - tank liquid at standard conditions

Bwg combined with the volume of gas produced is an

indication of the size of surface facility needed to handle
stock-tank liquid.
Formation volume factor

• Composition known
Composition of Pseudocritical properties of
reservoir gas reservoir gas
Reservoir conditions
(Example 7-1) Pseudoreduced properties of
reservoir gas

Total # of moles per

STB of STO z-factor
Volume of reservoir
gas per STB of STO

Volume of STO (1 Formation volume

STB) factor
Formation volume factor

• Composition unknown
Specific gravity of Pseudocritical properties of
reservoir gas reservoir gas
Reservoir conditions
(Example 7-3)
Pseudoreduced properties of
Total surface volume reservoir gas
(including gaseous
equivalent of STO)
z-factor
Volume of reservoir
gas per STB of STO
Total # of moles per
STB of STO
Volume of STO (1 Formation volume
STB) factor
Example (7.6) (con’t Ex. 7.1)
• Additional Data  Calculation
Res. Temp. = 204 ºF z = 0.85 ~ chapter 3
Res. Pres. = 2360 psig Vm = zRT/p
Vm = 2.55 ft3/lb mol - res-gas

Vm = MWa/
Vm = 2.14 ft3/lb mol - STO

71.0 lb mol res-gas/lb mol STO

Bwg = 2.55/0.301 Vm = 0.301 ft3/lb mol - STO

Bwg = 84.5 ft3 res. gas/scf
Plant products
• Plant products: liquefied intermediate hydrocarbons (C2 ~ C6)
• Calculation procedures
• Start from the composition of reservoir gas
• Assume intermediates and C7+ can be completely liquefied
• Convert the result into GPM (gallon/Mscf)
• This calculation yields an upper bound for the liquid production
• Only 5%-25% of ethane stay is in the liquid
• 80-90% of propane, 95% of butane in liquid
Retrograde Gas
• Reservoir condition above dew point
• The calculation procedures for wet gas apply for retrograde gas, too
• Reservoir condition below dew point
• Liquid will drop out in the reservoir – we cannot obtain the original
composition by combinations of surface properties
Summary
• Recombination based on known compositions – example 7-1
• Recombination based on specific gravities
• Example 7-3
• Example 7-4, VEQ, AGP charts
• Formation volume factor calculation
• Composition known
• Composition unknown
• Distinction between wet and retrograde gases
Retrograde (Gas
Condensate)

Characteristics
Condensate Blockage
Gas Cycling
Retrograde characteristics

• Dew point line crossed in reservoir

• Condensate “yield” will vary during the life of the reservoir
• Two-phase flow near the wellbore will affect well productivity

• Lean gas cycling sometimes used to recover additional condensate

(liquid)
Reservoir Sampling
 Prior to crossing dew point in reservoir
• Treat as wet gas and recombine
 After crossing dew point in reservoir or if below DP initially (oil
leg formed)
• Tune Equation of State to match change in composition with
pressure
PVT Model

• Accurately describe key processes affecting rate

time performance and ultimate recovery of gas and
liquid
• Required Properties
• Z-factor
• Gas viscosity
Same as all gas reservoirs
• Composition variation with pressure
• Liquid drop out
• Oil viscosity
PVT Model

• Conventional – Dry/Wet gas reservoirs (ch. 6-7)

• Equations of State (EOS)

• PVT models may not be able to describe all

properties with equal accuracy
• Determine which properties are required for a given study
Condensate Blocking

• When the bottom hole flowing pressure (BHFP)

drops below the dew point, a two phase region
occur at the near-wellbore region
• Relative permeability to gas will drop
• Well deliverability will be lowered accordingly
• Liquid saturations can reach 50%
• Gas permeability can be reduced to 0.2
Condensate Blocking

• Relative permeability ratio

krg/kro = (1/Vro-1)(g/o) ‘o’ is condensate
• Where Vro is the relative volume (a.k.a. liquid drop
out curve)
Vro = Vo / Vt = Vo / (Vo+Vg)

• Vro is strong function of pressure

Condensate blocking is also function of kh

Gas Cycling
• Injecting Lean Gas (methane) to recover additional condensate
• Above the dew point pressure
• Provide pressure support
• Below the dew point pressure
• Revaporize dropped out liquids (not as efficient)