AP Physics 2

Unit 2: Thermal Physics

Section 2.1 – Temperature …………………………………….………………….……………16

Section 2.2 – Heat Transfer…………………………………………………………………..…19

Section 2.3 – Gas Laws…………………………………..………………………………...…...23

Section 2.4 – The First Law of Thermodynamics ……….………………………………….….26

Section 2.5 – The Second Law of Thermodynamics……….……………………….……….…30

15
AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Thermal Physics
2.1 Temperature
Focus Question: What determines the temperature of a substance?
Temperature Scales
 Celsius – Temperature scale based on the freezing and boiling point of water.
 Kelvin – Temperature scale with the same increments are Celsius, but with sets 0 degrees at absolute
zero (the universal minimum temperature), which is about 273 ℃.
𝑇 = 𝑇℃ + 273
 Fahrenheit – Used in the best country in the world to measure temperature in everyday life.
9
𝑇℉ = 𝑇℃ + 32°
5
*When a formula in thermal physics has temperature in it, the Kelvin temperature is to be used. Celsius can be
used if the formula involves a temperature difference, ∆𝑇.

Temperature and Kinetic Energy

 Temperature – A measure of the average kinetic energy of individual molecules in a substance.
*Kinetic Theory – Substances are made of many tiny particles that move erratically.

o In solids, particles are held together, but vibrate.

o In liquids, particles can move across each other.
o In gases, particles move all over across all available volume.

 Temperature can be related to the average kinetic energy, of the molecules in a substance:
By considering the collisions of gas particles, the equation for average kinetic energy was derived:
𝟑
𝑲𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒌 𝑻
𝟐 𝑩
KB : Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38𝑥10
𝑇: Temperature in Kelvin (all formulas in this unit use temperature in Kelvin)
The molecules in a gas move around at different speeds, 𝐾 , is the based on the average speed of all the
particles.
*At 0 K, molecules stop moving completely (since their kinetic energy is zero)

 Root mean-square speed – Root mean square speed can be though of as somewhat of an average speed
of all molecules moving in a substance. By using the definition of kinetic energy and comparing to the
formula for average kinetic energy vs. temperature:
1 3
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘 𝑇
2 2
𝟑𝒌𝑩 𝑻
→ 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝒎
𝑚:mass of one molecule of a substance.

16
Example A: The mass of an oxygen molecule is 5.3x10-26 kg. Oxygen molecules in the room have a root mean-
square speed of 500 m/s. What is the temperature in the room?
3𝑘 𝑇 𝑣 𝑚
𝑣 = →𝑇=
𝑚 3𝑘

500 (5.3𝑥10 𝑘𝑔)

𝑇= = 320 𝐾
3(1.38𝑥10 )
*This is equivalent to 47 ℃, which is about 119 ℉. Not an ideal room to be in.

Example B: An ideal gas is held in a container at temperature T. The temperature is suddenly increased to 3T.
a) What happens to the average kinetic energy of molecules in the container?
b) What happens to root mean-square speed of molecules in the container?

a) = → = 3 → 𝐾 = 3𝐾

Average kinetic energy also triples. Average kinetic and temperature are directly proportional.

b) = →𝑣 = √3𝑣

The root mean square speed increases by a factor of √3.

Thermal Expansion

Most substances expand when heated. In a solid, particles vibrate faster, leader to particles colliding and
increasing the distance between particles.

 Linear Expansion

∆𝐿 = 𝐿 𝛼∆𝑇

𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 𝛼∆𝑇 → 𝐿 = 𝐿 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
∆ /
𝛼= , coefficient of linear expansion. This is a
∆
constant that varies by material and is equal to the fractional change in object’s length per degree. The
units of 𝛼 are 1/℃.

Example C: A steel railroad track has a length of 10 m in the winter when the temperature is 0 ℃. What is the
length of the track when the temperature is 40 ℃? (𝛼 for steel = 11𝑥10 ℃ )

1
∆𝐿 = 𝐿 𝛼∆𝑇 = (10 𝑚) 11𝑥10 (40 ℃ − 0℃) = .0044
℃
𝐿 = 𝐿 + ∆L = 10 m + .044 = 10.0044 m

Railroad tracks have gaps, called “expansion joints” to all linear thermal expansion without deforming the track.

17
  Constructing a Temperature Scale – Linear thermal expansion is used to measure temperature. To
construct a Celsius temperature scale based on thermal expansion:
o Take a substance with known thermal expansion, such as mercury, and arrange it in a line in a
container that does not significantly expand thermally compared to the substance within.
o Measure the length of the substance at some lower temperature (the Celsius scale uses the
freezing point of water, Fahrenheit used a glass of ice water), make this 0 °.
o Measure the length of the substance at some higher temperature (Celsius uses water’s melting
point, Fahrenheit used human body temperature), make this 100 ° (or some high temperature).
o Write a linear equation using the two points and the slope of the segment between them,
temperature can be found by writing a linear equation of the form in the form y = mx:
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
 Area Expansion
Consider a square where both sides increase by linear thermal expansion:
𝐴 = 𝐿 = (𝐿 + 𝛼𝐿 ∆𝑇) = 𝐿 + 2𝛼𝐿 ∆𝑇 + 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇)
→ 𝐴 = 𝐿 + 2𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇 → 𝐴 = 𝐴 + 2𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇
→ 𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 + 𝜸𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻
𝛾: coefficient of area expansion, 𝛾 = 2𝛼

*Thermal expansion of a 2D or 3D object occurs outward. If an object with a hole

thermally expands, the hole will not shrink.

 Volume Expansion
∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉 ∆𝑇
*𝛽 is the coefficient of volume expansion where 𝛽 = 3𝛼

Example D: A 1 liter glass container of water is completed filled at room temperature (20 ℃). Calculate how
much water spills out of the glass when, if any, when the temperature is raised to 80 ℃.
(𝛽 = 2.1𝑥10 ℃ , 𝛽 = 2.7𝑥10 ℃ )

Expansion of the water: ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉 ∆𝑇 = (2.1𝑥10−4 ℃−1 )(1 𝐿)(80℃ − 20℃) = 0.0126 𝐿

Expansion of the glass: ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉 ∆𝑇 = (2.7𝑥10−5 ℃−1 )(1 𝐿)(80℃ − 20℃) = .0016 𝐿

Since the water expanded much more than the glass, water will spill out. The amount that spills out is
(.0126-.0016)=.011 L

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Thermal Physics
2.2 Temperature
Focus Question: What happens when two objects at different temperatures come into contact?
At high temperatures, particles vibrated faster than in substances at lower temperature.
When a fast particle hits a slower particle, energy is transferred, with the slow moving
object gaining energy and the fast on losing energy. When a hot substance comes into
contact with a cool substance, the average kinetic energy of their molecules become more
equal over time due to these collisions.
 Heat – Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects in thermal contact to a temperature
difference. Heat flows from high temperature to low temperature.
Variable for amount of heat: Q
*units of heat: Joules (4.186 J = 1 cal)
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 Thermal Contact – Two objects are in thermal contact if thermal energy can be exchange between them.

 Thermal Equilibrium – Thermal equilibrium occurs when two objects in thermal have no exchange in
energy between them.

 Zeroth Law – Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature.
“If A and B are both in thermal equilibrium with C, then A and B are in equilibrium with each other.”
Methods of Heat Transfer
 Conduction – Heat transferred when two objects in contact have a temperature difference. Heat flows
from hot to cold.
Conduction occurs is there is a temperature difference between two parts of a conducting medium. The rate of
heat transfer (power) through a conductor can be given by:
Q/t: rate of heat transfer
𝑸 𝒌𝑨(𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑪 )
=
𝒕 𝑳
k – thermal conductivity, a constant that depends on the type of material
The rate of thermal energy transfer is quicker for shorter lengths and larger temperature differences.
*Materials that are good thermal conductors have a higher value of 𝑘. Good thermal conductors allow heat to
easily flow through them.

Example A: A brick has a thermal conductivity of k = 0.710 J / m·s·C° and the

dimensions shown. Two heat sources are placed in contact with the ends of the
brick, as shown. Calculate the amount of heat transfer though the brick one hour.

( ) . ( ℃ ℃)
Rate of heat transfer: 𝑄 = = = 22.2 𝐽/𝑠
.

Heat transferred in one hour: 𝑄 = 22.2 (1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 3600 = 𝟕𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟎 𝑱

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  Convention – Heat transfer by movement by molecules in a fluid.
*Convention occurs because a substance’s density decreases when temperature increases.
As air gets hotter, it gets less dense and rises, colder air takes it place.

 Radiation – Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.

*Radiation is the only form of heat transfer than can occur in a vacuum since electromagnetic waves can
travel in a vacuum.

Phase Changes
As heat is added to a solid:
1) As heat is added, particles in the solid vibrate faster. Heat added increases the internal energy which
causes temperature to increase.
2) At the melting point, temperature will remain constant despite added heat. Instead, added heat works to
overcome the attractive force between particles. A mixture of solid and liquid exists.
3) When heat is added to liquid, the increase in internal energy increases temperature.
4) At the boiling point, temperature is constant with liquid and gas present. As with at the melting point,
added heat works increases electrical potential energy.
5) Adding heat to vapor increases the temperature.

During a phase change, heat added goes to change the state. Temperature does not change during a phase
change.

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Specific Heat Capacity
 Specific Heat: The amount of heat needed to produce a given temperature change in a solid, liquid or
gas, assuming there is no change of state –
Q: amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of a mass m of a substance by ∆𝑇 when there is no
change of state.
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
c – specific heat capacity (units: ), depends on the substance being heat and its phase

Example B: The specific heat of iron is 450 J/kgC. A 5.0 kg block of iron is dropped off the roof a 200 m tall
building. Suppose all the mechanical energy of the block is converted into heat. If the block is 25 ℃ when it’s
dropped, what is its temperature after it strikes the ground?

Amount of energy: 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (5 𝑘𝑔) 10 (200 𝑚) = 10000 𝐽

The 10,000 J are converted to kinetic energy, which all converts to heat when the block hits the ground:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑇 − 𝑇 → 𝑇 = +𝑇
10000 𝐽
→𝑇 =( + 25℃ = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒 ℃
(5 𝑘𝑔) 450
℃

Example C: 600 g of water at 10 ℃ is mixed with 200 g of water at 90 ℃. What is the final temperature of the
mixture?
0th Law: The hot water will transfer energy to the cool water until thermal equilibrium is reached (both will
have the same final temperature). *this is also an application of conservation of energy
𝑄 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚 𝑐 𝑇 −𝑇 =𝑚 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
The specific heat capacity cancels out since both masses are water and have identical capacities. The increase of
temperature of the cold water equals in the decrease in the temperature of the hot water.
(. 6 𝑘𝑔) 𝑇 − 10℃ = (. 2 𝑘𝑔) 90℃ − 𝑇
𝑻𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎 ℃

Latent Heat
 Latent Heat - The amount of heat needed to melt or vaporize a substance:

o Amount of heat needed to melt mass m of a solid:

𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳𝒇
Lf: Latent heat of fusion; amount of heat needed to melt mass m of a solid.

o Amount of heat needed to vaporize mass m of a fluid:

𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳𝒗
Lv: Latent heat of vaporization; amount of heat needed to vaporize mass m of a liquid.

Both latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization are properties of the substance being heated.
The units of latent heat are .

21
Example D: Heat Transfer and Phase Change - How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of ice at
-20℃, melt the ice and then the raise the temperature of the water to 30 ℃?
*the melting point ice is 0℃. The specific heat capacities are 2100 for ice and 4190 for water. The
latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.3x105 J/kg.

Total heat required = heat to warm ice + heat to melt ice + heat to warm water
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇 + 𝑚𝐿 + 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇
𝑄 = (2 𝑘𝑔) 2100 (0 − (−20℃)) + (2 𝑘𝑔) 3.3𝑥10 + (2 𝑘𝑔) 4190 (30 ℃ − ℃)
→ 𝑸 = 𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱
*most the heat was used to melt the ice.

Example E: Incomplete Phase Change – A 5.0 kg block of 0 ℃ ice is added to a container filled with 10 kg of
15 ℃ water.
a) Calculate the final temperature.
b) Calculate the mass of the ice that was melted.

a) If the energy that can be lost due to the temperature difference in the water is sufficient, all the ice
will melt. If there is not enough energy to be lost, the final temperature will be 0 ℃, but the final mixture
will be water and ice since the water will reach 0 ℃, but no all the ice to melt.
Total energy that can be lost by the initial water:
𝑄 =𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇 = (10 𝑘𝑔) 4190 (15℃ − 0℃) = 628500 𝐽
Total energy required to melt all the ice:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 = (5 𝑘𝑔) 3.3𝑥10 = 1650000 𝐽
There is not enough energy available by the water changing temperature to melt all the ice, so the final
temperature of the ice/water mixture will be 0 ℃.

b) Set the total energy lost by the water equal to latent heat equation for ice to find the amount of mass
of ice that can be melted:
𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 → 𝑚 =
𝐿
628500 𝐽
→𝑚= = 𝟏. 𝟗 𝒌𝒈
3.3𝑥10

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Thermal Physics
2.3 Gas Laws
Focus Question: What is kinetic theory?
Ideal Gas Model Assumptions
 Composition - A large amount of particles travel in random directions at various speeds.

 Distance of Particles – Particles are far apart compared to their size.

 Attractive Force – Particles interact only in collisions (no attractive forces)

 Collisions – Collisions of particles with container wall are perfectly elastic.

Gas Laws

The Gas Laws relate the temperature, pressure, and volume of a sample of a confined ideal gas. The
gas laws are explained by kinetic theory, which describes gas as many particles moving around
and colliding with each other and the container they’re in.

 Pressure - Kinetic Theory assumes matter consists of small particles in motion. This can be used to show
how pressure exists in a container filled with gas. The particles collide with the walls of the container
(perfectly elastically) and bounce off, changing their direction and thus momentum. A force acting over
a time is required to change momentum, and this force causes pressure:
Thermodynamics definition of pressure:
 When a particle collides with the wall of a container and rebounds, it undergoes a
change in momentum. The rate at which the momentum is change is the force:
𝐹= .
 The wall of the container the particle is hitting has a certain area. Pressure is force
over area.
 In thermodynamics, pressure is the average rate of change of momentum of particles hitting the
container per unit area.
Higher pressure means more and faster collisions occur between particles and the walls of the container.

Example A: An ideal gas with molecules of mass m is contained in a cube with sides of area A. The pressure
exerted by the gas on the top of the cube is P, and N molecules hit the top of the cube in time t. What is the
average vertical speed of the gas molecules?

Kinetic theory assumes collisions are elastic, so the speed before and after the molecules hit
the top of the container is constant.
∆
𝐹 𝑚 𝑣 − (−𝑣) 2𝑁𝑚𝑣
𝑃= = = →𝑃=
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡
𝑷𝑨𝒕
→𝒗=
𝟐𝑵𝒎

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  Boyle’s Law – The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied when temperature is
constant.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
*Kinetic Theory - If the volume of a gas is decreases, molecules collide with the container more
frequently, causing more pressure.

 Charles’ Law – The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature when the
pressure is constant.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
 The 3rd Law – The pressure applied is directly proportional to the absolute temperature when volume is
constant.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
*Kinetic Theory - If temperature increases, molecules move faster so they collide with the container
more often.

 The mole – The mass of a mole of a substance is grams is equal to its molecular mass:

A mole of a substance is the mass of one molecule of the substance.

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Number of moles: 𝒏 =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

The number of individual particles in one mole of any substance is Avogadro’s number:

𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑁 = 6.02𝑥10

 Ideal Gas Equation – By combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Law:

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
R = universal gas constant = 8.31
∙

Example B: The pressure of a gas is P. If the volume of its container is halved and the absolute temperature is
tripled, then what is the final pressure in terms of P?

*According to the ideal gas law, is constant for a closed system

𝑃𝑉 𝑃 𝑉 𝑉𝑇 1
= →𝑃 =𝑃 →𝑉 = 𝑉 → 𝑇 = 3𝑇
𝑇 𝑇 𝑉𝑇 2
(𝑉 )(3𝑇 )
𝑃 =𝑃 → 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟔𝑷
( 𝑉 )(𝑇 )

24
Example C: A 2.1 m3 container holds SO2 gas (molecular mass = 64 g/mol) at 3.5x105 Pa and 320 K.
a) How many kilograms of SO2 are in the container?
b) If the top of the container has an area of .50 m 2, at what rate is the moment of gas molecules changing
momentum in the container?
c) How many moles of SO2 should be added to the container to double the pressure if the volume and
temperature are constant?

( . )( . )
a) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 → 𝑛 = = = 276 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
( . )( )

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

m = 64 (276 𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 17664 𝑔 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 𝒌𝒈

b) The rate of change of momentum is force.

𝑃= → 𝐹 = 𝑃(𝐴) = (3.5𝑥10 𝑃𝑎)(. 5 𝑚 ) = 1.75𝑥10 𝑁 = 1.75𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠

c) 𝑛 = If V and T are held constant, n and P are directly proportional.

Example D: The density of helium gas at 0 ℃ is .179 kg/m3. The temperature is raised to 100 ℃ while the
pressure is kept constant. Calculate the new density when the temperature is raised.

Pressure is constant so is constant.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑇 (273 + 100 𝐾)
= →𝑉 =𝑉 →𝑉 =𝑉 = 1.37
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 (273 + 0 𝐿)

𝜌 = 𝑀/𝑉, so density and volume are inversely proportion. If volume increases by a factor of 1.37, density
decreases by a factor of 1.37.

𝜌 . 179 𝒌𝒈
𝜌 = = =. 𝟏𝟑 𝟑
1.37 1.37 𝒎

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Thermal Physics
2.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Focus Question: How does conservation of energy apply to thermodynamics processes?
 Closed System – A system is a set of objects being studies. Everything else is considered the
environment. A closes cylinder is system that does not exchange matter with the environment.

 Total Internal Energy – Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of the molecules in a
system. The total internal energy is the combined energy of all the molecules in the system:
The average kinetic energy of a molecule in a system is given by 𝑛𝑅𝑇.
The total internal energy is the number of molecules (N) multiplied by the kinetic energy of each
molecule:
3
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑈 = 𝑁( 𝑘 𝑇)
2

Boltzmann’s constant is the universal gas constant over Avogadros number, 𝐾 = , the number of
molecules of a gas is the number of moles times Avodagro’s number, so the equation for internal
equation becomes:
3𝑅 𝟑
𝑈 = (𝑛𝑁 ) 𝑇 → 𝑼 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
2𝑁 𝟐
In an ideal gas, T = , so U = nR → U = PV
 Work Done in Thermodynamics Processes:
If the initial pressure of the gas is P in the piston shown and the cross-
sectional area of the piston is A, then the force with which one must push is
PA. If the piston is compressed some distance ∆𝑥, the work done is:
𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥 → 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴(−∆𝑥)
*𝐴∆𝑥 is volume, so
𝑾 = −𝑷∆𝑽
Work is the area under a Pressure vs. volume graph

*Work is only done when volume changes

Example A: A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 2.00 × 105 Pa from a volume of 2.00 m3 to a volume
of 0.500 m3. The temperature is initially 40.0 °C.

a) Find the work done.

b) Calculate the final temperature of the gas.

a) 𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉 = −(2𝑥10 𝑃𝑎(. 5 𝑚 − 2.0 𝑚 ) = 30000 𝐽

b) At constant pressure: = ->𝑇 = 𝑇 = (40 + 273 𝐾) = 1252 𝐾 = 979 ℃

.

Recall from Physics 1 that doing positive work increases a system’s energy. Positive work is done on the
gas, increasing its internal energy.

26
  The First Law of Thermodynamics – The 1st law of Thermodynamics is a conservation of energy stated
in terms of thermal physics:
The internal energy of a system can be changed by doing work on the system or adding heat to the
system:
∆𝑼 = 𝑸 + 𝑾
∆U - change in internal energy
Q - heat added to system
W – work done on the system
*When heat enters a system, some of the energy is used to increase the temperature and some is used to
do work on the environment.

o ∆𝑈 > 0: The temperature increases.

o ∆𝑈 < 0: The temperature decreases.
o 𝑄 > 0: Heat enters the system.
o 𝑄 < 0: Heat leaves the system.
o 𝑊 > 0: Work is done on the system; system is compressed.
o 𝑊 < 0: Work is done by the system, system expands.

Example B: If the gas in a container absorbs 275 joules of heat, has 125 joules of work done on it, and then
does 50 joules of work, what is the increase in the internal energy of the gas?

o 275 J of heat is added to the system so Q=+275 K

o 125 of work is on the system, which is +125 J of work. The system does 50 J of work, which is -50 J, so
the net work is +75 J.
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 = 275 𝐽 + 75 𝐽 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝑱

Gas Laws

 Isobaric Process – Pressure is constant.

∆𝑷 = 𝟎 𝑾 = 𝑷∆𝑽
 Isothermal Process – Temperature is constant.

If temperature doesn’t change, there is no change in internal energy

∆𝑼 = 𝟎
 Isochoric Process – Volume is constant.

If there is no volume change, force isn’t applied over a distance, so there is

no work done. 𝑊 = 0

 Adiabatic Process – No heat enters of leaves the system.

𝑸=𝟎 𝑾 = ∆𝑼

*On a PV graph, adiabatic processes are steeper than isothermal processes.

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Example C: An ideal gas expands adiabatically.
a) Explain why the temperature decreases.
b) Use your answer to a to explain why the adiabatic curve of an ideal gas, expanding from a given state,
is steeper than the corresponding isothermal curve from the same state.

a) ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊, since Q=0, the change in energy is equal to work. Since the gas is expanding, work is
being done by the gas, so the work is negative, so ∆𝑈 must be negative.
b) Since an adiabatic process reduces temperature and the isothermal process does not, the final pressure
after the adiabatic expansion will be lower than the final pressure after the isothermal expansion.

Example D: For the PV diagram on the right for one mole of an

ideal gas:
a) Determine the work done in each part of the process.
b) Determine the change in internal energy for each part
of the process.
c) Find the heat added or removed from the system for the
entire process.

a) 𝑾 = −𝑷∆𝑽

o A − B: ∆𝑉 = 0, so 𝑊 = 0
o 𝐵 − 𝐶: 𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉 = −(1𝑥10 𝑃𝑎)(. 03 𝑚 − .01 𝑚 ) = −2000 𝐽
o C − D: ∆𝑉 = 0, so 𝑊 = 0
o 𝐷 − 𝐴: 𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉 = −(2𝑥10 𝑃𝑎)(. 01 𝑚 − .03 𝑚 ) = 4000 𝐽

b) ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇. Pressure and volume are known at all points, so temperature can be found at all 4
points using the ideal gas law.

o A-B: ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) = (1)(8.314)(120 − 241) = −1509 𝐽

o B-C: ∆𝑈 = (8.314)(361 − 120) = 3006 J
o C-D: ∆𝑈 = (8.314)(722 − 361) = 4502 J
o D-A: ∆𝑈 = (8.314)(241 − 722) = −5999 𝐽

c) The change in internal energy is zero, but the net work is negative, so 2000 J of heat had to be
removed from the system.

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 → 𝑄 = −𝑊 = −(−2000 + 4000) = −2000 𝐽

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Example E: Find the work done, change in internal energy, and heat added or
removed during each cycle in the given PV diagram, which describes the changes
in pressure and volume of one mole of an ideal gas.

(. )
𝑇 = = =241 K
( )( . )

(. )
𝑇 = = =722 K
( )( . )

(. )
𝑇 = = =2165 K
( )( . )

o A to B
Work: Work is negative since the gas is expanding:
𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉 = −(2𝑥10 )(. 03 − .01 ) = −4000 𝐽
Change in internal energy: ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) = (1)(8.314)(722 − 241) = 6000 𝐽
Heat added: ∆𝑈 = 𝑊 + 𝑄 → 𝑄 = 10,000 𝐽
10,000 J of heat is added. 6000 J goes to increase the internal energy, and 4000 J is done by the gas to do
work.

o B to C
Work: Work is zero since volume is constant.
Change in internal energy: ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) = (1)(8.314)(2165 − 722) = 18000 𝐽
Heat added: ∆𝑈 = 𝑊 + 𝑄 → 𝑄 = 18,000 𝐽
18,000 J of heat was added, all to increase temperature of the system as the volume was held constant.

o C to A

Work: Work is the area under the graph: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (. 02)(2𝑥10 ) + (4𝑥10 )(. 02) = 12000 𝐽

Change in internal energy: ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) = (1)(8.314)(241 − 2165) = −24000 𝐽

Heat added: ∆𝑈 = 𝑊 + 𝑄 → 𝑄 = −36,000 𝐽

Rate your understanding: The First Law of Thermodynamics

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bad at physics? thermodynamics with in thermodynamics thermodynamics with no thermodynamics.
help. with minor errors. errors.

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Thermal Physics
2.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Focus Question: What is entropy?

 Entropy – Entropy is the measure of the disorder in a system. The change in entropy, ∆𝑆, when heat is
added to a system by a reversible process at constant temperature is given by:
𝑸
∆𝑺 =
𝑻

 The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics – The entropy of the universe

increases in all natural processes.

*Work can be done to decrease entropy.

*A disorderly arrangement is more probable than an ordered one.

 Consequences:
-It is impossible for thermal energy to flow from a cold to a hot object without performing work.
-It is impossible, in a cyclic process, to completely convert heat into mechanical work.

Example A: A 1000 kg boulder at rock is dropped off a 100 m cliff into a lake. Calculate the lakes change in
entropy if both the rock and lake at 10 ℃.

The energy lost when the boulder falls off the cliff is: ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑚
→ ∆𝑈 = (1000 𝑘𝑔) 10 (100 𝑚) = 1𝑥10 𝐽
𝑠
The energy is lost when the boulder hits the lake, and is transferred to internal energy in the lake in the form of
entropy:
𝑄 1𝑥10 𝐽
∆𝑆 = = = 3533 𝐽
𝑇 (10 + 273) 𝐾

Energy in the form of entropy cannot be used to perform work. The 2 nd Law of Thermodynamics predicts the
eventual heat death of the universe, where all energy in the universe is converted to entropy. This is so sad.
Alexa, play Descpacito.

Rate your understanding: Entropy

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entropy quite well. entropy. entropy. entropy.

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