Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Analysis of the skid resistance and adherence between layers of asphalt

concretes modified by dry way with polymeric waste
Pedro Lastra-González a,⇑, Irune Indacoechea-Vega a, Miguel A. Calzada-Pérez b, Daniel Castro-Fresno a,
Jaime Carpio-García a
a
GITECO Research Group, Universidad de Cantabria, Avda. de Los Castros s/n., 39005 Santander, Spain
b
GCS Research Group, Universidad de Cantabria, Avda. de Los Castros s/n., 39005 Santander, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s

Plastic polymeric wastes decrease the skid resistance of asphalt concrete.

The adherence between layers depends on the type of applied load.

Plastic polymeric wastes decrease the adherence between layers under dynamic load.

Rubber is the polymer that less change the surface properties of asphalt concrete.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Skid resistance is one of the most important parameters of a surface mixture due to its influence on the
Received 4 May 2016 safety of the road. Besides, the adherence existing between the layers of a pavement makes these layers
Received in revised form 24 November 2016 work together, which has a great impact in the useful life of the pavement. The influence on these two
Accepted 16 December 2016
parameters of different polymeric waste, which have been used to modify a mixture by dry way, has been
Available online 24 December 2016
analysed.
The polymeric waste added to an asphalt concrete by dry way are: polyethylene (PE) from micronized
Keywords:
containers, polypropylene (PP) from ground caps, polystyrene (PS) from hangers and rubber from end-of-
Skid resistance
Adherence
life tyres (ELT).
Asphalt concrete The skid resistance and the adherence between layers of the reference and the modified asphalt con-
Polymeric waste cretes have been evaluated separately, so their performance can be compared.
Dry way The skid resistance has been calculated with the British Pendulum Tester of the TRRL (Transport Road
Modified mixture Research Laboratory) under two conditions: on the mixture just manufactured and on polished speci-
mens. The adherence between layers was analysed on asphalt concretes with different texture (AC22
and AC16), applying a direct shear stress at constant speed in the joint junction (LCB shear test), and
undergoing three-layer specimens to a dynamic shear stress (shear fatigue test designed by the
Engineering School of Santander).
The results showed that the addition of residual polymers modifies the mixtures surface properties,
and the performance of the asphalt concretes changes greatly depending on the polymeric waste added.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction fic safety [1], the second is important when it comes to the
pavement useful life [2,3], due to the fact that adherence between
Skid resistance and adherence between layers are two basic layers makes it possible that they work together. Thus, this
parameters of a road. While the first has great influence on the traf- parameter should be properly considered when the pavement is
designed [4].
The most important variable that characterizes this property is
⇑ Corresponding author. texture. This is divided into macrotexture, responsible for drainage
E-mail addresses: lastragp@unican.es, pedro.lastragonzalez@unican.es and deformation that the wheel suffers when adapting to the pave-
(P. Lastra-González), irune.indacoechea@unican.es (I. Indacoechea-Vega),
calzadam@unican.es (M.A. Calzada-Pérez), castrod@unican.es (D. Castro-Fresno),
ment, and microtexture, which breaks the sheet of water and con-
jaime.carpio@unican.es (J. Carpio-García). ditions the punctual contact between wheel and pavement [5,6].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.063
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
164 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170

Macrotexture depends on the mixture properties (voids per-

centage, grain size analysis, aggregates properties, etc.) while
microtexture, on the other hand, depends on the surface rugosity
of the coarse fraction, and is especially influenced by the aggre-
gates polishing, which wears and becomes rounded at a micro-
scopic scale [7].
Adherence between layers is achieved using a tack coat which
keeps the joint between them. Its properties depend on the type
of coat employed, the materials used in the bituminous mixtures,
the traffic loads, temperature, and in the case of skid, of macrotex-
ture [3,8–10]. A good bond between the pavement layers is
required to achieve a good performance. Therefore, the higher
the friction between surfaces, the interlocking of the aggregates
particle and the adhesion between the asphalt binder of the two
layers and the applied tack coat, the better will be the adherence
between layers [11]. Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of waste polymers.[16]
For years, different polymers have been used to improve the
bituminous mixtures properties. The rubber began to be used in
the sixties to improve skid resistance due to its elasticity and Skid resistance was calculated with the TRRL pendulum on
capacity to break the ice on the road [12]. Nowadays, rubber and track specimens, as shown in Fig. 2.
plastic polymer are used basically to modify bitumen [13,14], but Four samples of each type of asphalt concrete were employed.
their influence on these two properties, adherence between layers The wear procedure was carried out by abrading the wearing
and skid resistance, is not well known. course surface. This procedure consisted in sanding 30 times the
This paper studies the influence that these polymeric waste surface of the specimen in the same direction and sense, with
have on adherence between layers and skid resistance. For this sandpaper grit size 4 [17], trying to keep an even contact pressure,
purpose, an asphalt concrete has been modified by dry way with so that in all cases the procedure was performed by the same
4 different polymers: polyethylene coming from packaging, operator.
polypropylene coming from caps, polystyrene coming from hang- This procedure was aimed at achieving a similar polished to
ers, and rubber coming from end-of-life tyres. Following, the coef- that of a road in real traffic conditions. The data obtained by the
ficient of skid resistance has been calculated with the friction Public Works Ministry in the highway S-30 in Cantabria (Spain)
pendulum of the TRRL (Transport Road Research Laboratory), and were used to assess the abrasion produced on the samples. It
the adherence between layers has been determined through the was monitored by the Regional Road Administration between
shear stress according to the standard NLT-382/08 and also using 2009 and 2014. SCRIM (Sideway-force coefficient Routine Investi-
dynamic shear test specifically designed by the Civil Engineering gation Machine) data were gathered along those years. In order
School of Santander [15]. to compare both measurements (the SCRIM data and the BPN),
the correlation obtained by the New Zealand Transports Agency
[18] was used:
2. Methodology and materials
SC ¼ 0:0071  BPN þ 0:033 ð1Þ
The reference mixture that has been used is an asphalt concrete
where SC is the SCRIM Coefficient of traverse friction and BPN is the
(AC22) for surface layer, with 4.8% of penetration grade bitumen
value of the British Pendulum Number, obtained by the TRRL
(50/70) by weight of mix. The same design process was used with
pendulum.
all the modified mixtures: 1% of aggregates was replaced by vol-
ume by each type of polymeric waste only in the filler fraction
by dry way. The rubber has a low influence on the aggregates
and it was mainly mixed with the bitumen, while the plastic poly-
mers were softened by the hot aggregates and partially coated
them, having this way both types of polymers (rubber and plastic
polymers) an influence on the mechanical properties of the mix-
ture [16] while modifying also its skid resistance and adherence
between layers.
Four modified bituminous concretes have been manufactured,
which have been called: AC22 PE, modified with polyethylene;
AC22 PP, modified with polypropylene; AC22 PS, modified with
polystyrene; and AC22 ELT, modified with end-of-life tyres.
Besides, an asphalt concrete AC16 was designed with the same
polymers added to the mixture AC22, to study the influence of
the surface texture.
The particle size distribution of the polymeric waste is shown in
Fig. 1.

2.1. Study of skid resistance

Skid resistance was evaluated in two conditions: on new sam-

ples without erosion, and on polished specimens; in this way, skid
resistance was analysed in the initial and use conditions. Fig. 2. Evaluation of skid resistance.
 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170 165

This road (S-30) has a traffic category T0 (an average daily iii. Without emulsion and the mixture hot: in order to evaluate
intensity of heavy vehicles between 2000 and 4000), an average the temperature influence, the last procedure is repeated.
daily traffic (ADT) of 20,000 vehicles, a medium climate area and The second layer is compacted over the first layer without
a rain area degree 2 [19]. letting the first one to cold and without applying the emul-
sion between them.
2.2. Adherence between layers (shear test and fatigue to shear test)
The compaction procedure used for each layer has been in all
Adherence between layers was analysed by both shear and fati- cases that indicated by the standard NLT 161/98.
gue to shear tests. For these tests, pairs of samples of identical
asphalt mixtures (AC22 or AC16) were used. It means that a sample
of the reference mixture was put together with a sample of the 2.2.2. Shear fatigue test
same reference mixture, a PE modified asphalt sample was coupled The real performance of the pavement responds to repetitive
with other PE modified asphalt sample, etc. This way, the perfor- and short loads [21], so that the bituminous mixture underwent
mance of each polymer can be analysed because the type of poly- a dynamic shear fatigue test, applying a parallel load to the junc-
mer is the only difference between the mixtures. tion levels of the layers. In this way, we can compare the different
types of mixtures in the same conditions, and analyse the adher-
2.2.1. LCB shear test ence between layers under a static and a dynamic load.
At the beginning, the layers adherence was analysed with the The test was carried out at 20 °C with 4 three-layer specimens.
LCB shear test (acronym of Road Research Laboratory of Barcelona The specimens were manufactured with the same emulsion used
in Spanish) [20], which evaluated the adherence of two specimens in the static adherence test (C69B3) and with the same amount
by applying a direct shear stress at constant speed in the joint junc- of bitumen (350 g/m2).
tion (2.5 mm/min), as shown in Fig. 3. This dynamic test uses a three-layer specimen with measures of
This test is performed at 20 °C with at least 7 samples for each 260 mm length and 205 mm of width, and 50 mm thickness for the
mixture type, formed all of them by two specimens which were central layer and 40 mm thickness for the side layers. The three-
joined by 4.1 g of conventional emulsion C69B3 ADH (what is equal layer specimen is supported in the outer layers while the central
to 350 g/m2 of bitumen). The tack coat used was the same in all layer, on which a vertical sinusoidal load is applied with a fre-
cases. quency of 10 Hz and a maximum value of 16 KN and a minimum
To find out the influence that the temperature of the mixture of 3 KN [15], remains free of support. This arrangement is shown
surface and the application of an emulsion has on the adherence, in Fig. 4. The maximum shear stress reached in each junction sur-
the specimens are compacted at different temperatures with and face is 0.22 MPa, which is considered as a representative value of
without using the emulsion. This analysis is performed only with the real conditions [22].
the mixture modified with PP (AC22 PP) as representative of the As starting hypothesis, it was considered that the energy
mixtures with polymers, and with the reference (AC22 REF). The applied on the central specimen produced its slip, disregarding
test was done at different conditions: any compression or deformation effect on it. To determine the fail-
ure moment, the vertical slip curves of the central specimen are
i. With emulsion and mixture cold (the common situation): represented in relation to the number of cycles. These curves are
The test was performed compacting the first layer of the registered with two LVDT comparators placed in the medium point
specimen and applying the emulsion when the layer is cold. at both sides of the central specimen.
Later, the second layer is compacted over the emulsion. As failure criterion a maximum slip of 10 mm was considered,
ii. Without emulsion and mixture cold: the same process was except if any abrupt change in the slope is produced due to a rear-
performed, but in this case, compacting the second layer of rangement of the specimen, considering, in this case, this cycle as
the specimen over the first layer without adding the emul- that of failure.
sion; that is to say, after compacting the first layer of the
specimen and leaving it to cold, the second layer was com-
pacted directly on the clean surface of the first one. By this
way, we can analyse the emulsion influence.

1 2 3
LVDT

Fig. 3. Test of static adherence between layers. Fig. 4. Shear fatigue adherence test.
166 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170

Amplitude

Fig. 5. Amplitude of movement of the cycle 160.000 of one AC22 ELT sample.
Fig. 6. Skid resistance.

Fig. 5 shows the oscillating movement of the central specimen. The polishing carried out on the specimens was compared with
From this movement, and considering the amplitude associated to the real wear observed in the S-30 highway. For the reference mix-
each cycle, and only with the aim to compare the materials, a ture the wear produced would be equal to 7 years of traffic under
parameter a was estimated that is related with the energy neces- the same conditions than the S-30. Due to the skid resistance
sary to make the specimen slip. With this aim, a value of medium reduction that the polymers addition causes, the same polishing
strength of 9.5 KN (Fm) was considered. procedure makes a wear equivalent to 1 year more of traffic in
Data were not taken for every cycle. The test was divided in the case of the AC22 ELT mixture, and approximately 2.5 years in
intervals capturing medium values that have been considered the case of the AC22 PE mixture, being these two mixtures the
representative: most extreme cases.
These results must be taken with caution. In the first place,
X
NR because they are out of the range of years studied in the real road
/¼ Fm  2  Ai  Ci ð2Þ section (6 years), also because of the variability itself of the TRRL
1
pendulum test, and finally because of the margin of error that
where NR is the number of intervals until the failure is produced, Ai could incorporate the correlation of results between CRT and BPN.
is the medium amplitude of each interval and Ci is the number of
cycles of the interval. 4.2. Evaluation of the adherence among layers by the shear test (LCB)

The results of the static adherence tests are shown on Fig. 7.

3. Statistic analysis
Concerning the AC22 mixture, after verifying the normality and
homoscedasticity of the results, the Scheffe test was performed for
The statistical software IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences) was used to determine if the results were signifi- Table 1
cant. The confidence interval considered was 95% (p-value of P-value of the skid coefficient for each type of mixture.
0.05). When the results fulfilled a normal distribution and there
PE PP PS ELT
was homogeneity of variances the Scheffe test was used. However,
REF Before wearing 0.041 0.003 0.929 0.978
if the results did not comply with the normal distribution or the
After wearing 0.000 0.004 0.024 0.121
homogeneity then, the U of Mann-Whitney test was selected.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Evaluation of skid resistance by friction test

Fig. 6 shows the values obtained by the British Pendulum Tester

(BPT).
The results adjust to a normal distribution and there is also
homogeneity of variances, both before and after wearing. Table 1
presents the significances obtained.
The skid resistance of the mixtures modified with the additives
PS and ELT did not have meaningful differences with respect to the
reference mixture before wear (the p-value is above that the 0.05
level of significance chosen). However, after wearing, only the
ELT mixture stayed without meaningful differences regarding the Fig. 7. Adherence among layers in front of shear stress.
reference mixture. The PE and PP reduce the skid resistance right
after they are added to the mixture, while the PS does it after the Table 2
mixture is polished. Rubber is the only that keeps the asphalt mix- P-value of the static adherence test with a confidence interval of 95%.
ture skid resistance even after being worn down. These differences
PE PP PS ELT
can be due to the behaviour of the rubber (it is a higher friction
AC22 REF 0.306 0.387 0.087 0.004
than plastics) [23], and the fact that it does not coat the aggregates
AC16 REF 0.325 0.385 0.355 0.064
as the plastic polymers do.
 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170 167

Table 3
P-value for concretes of the same and different maximum size.

REF AC16 PE AC16 PP AC16 PS AC16 ELT AC16

AC22 0.008 AC22 0.001 AC22 0.001 AC22 0.005 AC22 0.021

each couple of samples. The AC16 mixture did not show a normal Table 5
distribution in all cases so that the U of Mann-Whitney test was P-values in relation to the compaction temperature and the use of emulsion.
applied, which showed that there were not meaningful differences Factor Conditions AC22 REF AC22 PP
between any of the mixtures. The significances are shown in
Temperature Cold/Hot 1.000 0.081
Table 2. Coat With emulsion/without emulsion 0.019 0.019
According to the result, the static adherence of the AC16 refer-
ence mixtures is not modified meaningfully by any of the waste
polymers. However, in the case of the AC22 mixture, the addition
of rubber from ELT slightly reduces the shear resistance, obtaining
a value around 80% of that of the reference.
The results were also analysed comparing the data in relation to
the maximum aggregate size (AC16 vs. AC22). The results showed
that the static adherence is significantly greater in the case of the
AC22 mixes, confirming that the texture has influence on the
adherence among the layers for all the mixtures. Table 3 sum-
marises the significances.
The influence of the temperature and the coat applied on the
adherence between layers is shown in Fig. 8.
There has not been significant difference between the mixture
with PP and the reference mixture, being the results coherent with
the test previously applied (Fig. 7), in which the addition of PP did
not modify the static adherence. The p-values among mixtures Fig. 9. Cycles until failure.
types are shown in Table 4 below:
According to the results shown in Table 5, there have not been 4.3. Evaluation of the adherence among layers by the shear fatigue test
significant changes by compacting at different temperatures (p-
values are above 0.05 both for the reference mixture and the PP). The cycles until failure of the shear fatigue test are presented for
However, a higher shear resistance was observed when no emul- each mixture type in Fig. 9.
sion was used. Therefore, it may be concluded that to improve The texture of the mixtures becomes again a fundamental
the adhere between asphalt layers, the compaction of the second parameter, resisting the mixture AC16 a number of cycles clearly
layer over the first layer ensuring a clean surface without emulsion below than AC22 mixture, although the performance of the mix-
is more determining than the temperature the lower layer may tures is analogous concerning the type of polymer used.
have. In this case, the results did not adjust to a normal distribution.
With regard to the AC22 mixture, the U of Mann-Whitney test
showed that there are not significant differences between the ref-
erence mixtures and those modified with PS and ELT, while the
adherence reduces significantly in the case of mixtures with PE
and PP. On the other hand, in the case of AC16 mixtures, only the
mixture modified with ELT has a similar performance than the ref-
erence mixture, having the mixtures with PE, PP and PS a signifi-
cantly lower resistance. These differences in the performance of
ELT regarding the other polymers might be due to its rubbery state.
The significances for both mixtures are presented next on
Table 6.
The results of this test, unlike those of the static adherence,
show a significant reduction of adherence when the polymers are

Table 6
Significances of the analysis of results of the shear fatigue adherence test.

PE PP PS ELT
AC22 REF 0.034 0.050 0.077 0.827
Fig. 8. Shear resistance of the mixture AC22 REF and AC22 PP with and without
AC16 REF 0.021 0.021 0.034 0.386
emulsion.

Table 4
P-values of the reference mixture and the modified with PP.

With emulsion – cold AC22 PP Without emulsion – cold AC22 PP Without emulsion – hot AC22 PP
AC22 REF 0.387 AC22 REF 0.722 AC22 REF 0.245
168 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170

Table 7
Significances of the shear fatigue adherence test in relation to the maximum aggregate size.

REF AC16 PE AC16 PP AC16 PS AC16 ELT AC16

AC22 0.034 AC22 0.021 AC22 0.034 AC22 0.034 AC22 0.034

added, especially in the asphalt mixes of lower texture (AC16). The curves show a first lineal phase in which energy is propor-
Only rubber has the same performance independently of the max- tional to the number of cycles. After this first phase the central
imum aggregate size. specimen may slip suddenly, as in the case of the crystalline poly-
As in the static adherence case, it was verified that increasing mers (PE and PP), or rather the resistance starts to reduce in front
the aggregate size in turn increases the shear resistance. Table 7 of shear tending the curve to reduce its slope until the failure is
collects the significances in relation to size. produced. The mixtures that in this first lineal phase have a higher
The vertical slip of the central specimen until failure was also slope, are which achieve greater a values, and therefore, those
analysed, studying its oscillating movement and the net slip that which require higher energy until slip of the central specimen. This
is produced in each cycle due to the fact that the movement ampli- is coherent with the fact that a higher slope implies a more flexible
tude is not fully recovered. performance.
The net vertical slip is shown in Fig. 10. In this figure, it is appre- In relation to the polymer used the parameter a shows great dif-
ciated that the mixtures modified with PE and PP have a more frag- ferences. The mixtures with the crystalline polymers (PE and PP)
ile performance than the rest. The rubber modified mixture is the show values much smaller than the rest, with a more fragile per-
only one with a similar performance to that of the reference, even formance. Rubber is the polymer that reaches the highest values,
in the case of AC16 it increases its resistance (where the texture while PS is in an intermediate position.
has a lower influence due to the smaller maximum aggregate size). These differences may be due to the fact that the emulsion is
In Fig. 11, the energy parameter a (estimated with the Eq. (2)) is applied cold, so that the polymer is in a fully solid state and does
represented depending on the number of cycles. not interact with the emulsion residual bitumen. The very compo-

Fig. 10. From top to bottom: vertical slip curves – cycles for the mixture AC22 and AC16 respectively.
 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170 169

Fig. 11. Parameter a for each mixture type. A) Top: AC22. B) Down: AC16.

sition of the polymers may be another determining factor. Rubber Considering that the polymers modify the mixture surface
is the polymer that has the best performance, what is coherent if properties, the possible relation between the shear fatigue resis-
we have in mind that it is the only amorphous polymer that is tance with the skid resistance of the specimens was analysed.
above its glass transition temperature; that is to say, in rubbery With this aim, the results of the AC22 mixtures without sand-
state. In this way, rubber behaves in a more elastic way increasing ing were used, obtaining a significant correlation among the
the movement amplitude and obtaining a higher parameter a. shear fatigue resistance and the skid resistance with a signifi-
As before, the results are analysed in relation to the maximum cance of 0.047. This p-value, although near the limit that the
aggregate size, to find out if the texture influence on the results of confidence interval has (0.05), shows that the specimens with
the a parameter was statistically significant. The results had a nor- a higher resistance to skid also present a higher adherence in
mal distribution but they did not show homogeneity of variances, the shear fatigue test. This relation is summarized in the fol-
so that the U of Mann-Whitney test was applied by couples in rela- lowing equation, which obtained a coefficient of correlation of
tion to the mixture type. The significances are shown on Table 8. R2 = 0.74.
The results indicate that the texture is a significant parameter for
Cyclesfailure ¼ 14982 BPN  799233 ð3Þ
all the mixtures.

Table 8
Significances of the parameter a in relation to the aggregate maximum size.

REF AC16 PE AC16 PP AC16 PS AC16 ELT AC16

AC22 0.000 AC22 0.001 AC22 0.012 AC22 0.000 AC22 0.001
170 P. Lastra-González et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 163–170

5. Conclusions and Elena Sáez (ACCIONA Infrastructures), and Jesús R. Prieto

(Universidad de Cantabria) for their disinterested collaboration.
The addition of residual polymers modifies the mixture’s sur-
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Cantabria, Belén Monje and Eva Verdejo (AIMPLAS), Raquel Casado