REAL ANALYSIS Chapter 1: Elementary Set Theory and Countability 1.1 Definitions ... LAL Set un 1.1.2 Operations on Sets .. 1.13 Functions and Their Properties 1.1.4 Classification of Functions .. 12 Countable and Uncountable Sets ... 1.3 Properties of Sets mnnnmnmininennineninmnenesnnninnsin 14 Cantor Set .. Chapter 2: Point Set Topology 2.1 Definitions and Propertics summon 2.2 Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem nmnnmnn 23. Properties Chapter 3: Sequences of Real Numbers 3 Definition ssnnn 3.11 Range Set of A Sequence . 34.2 Bounded Sequence rnnnnssnnnen 34.3 Monotonic Sequence wn. 344 Eventual Nature of a Sequence ene 32 Limit Point of a Sequence ..... 3.2.1 Existence of A Limit Point 33 Subsequence evens 3.3.4 Complementary Subsequences 34 Limit of a Sequence 3.5 Advanced Analysis of A Sequence srnnmennmnnnmnnmnnnnsnnsnnannensnn 35 Limit Superior smn 35.2 Limit Inferior nna 3.53 Convergent Sequence 3.54 Divergent Sequence swmmmmen 355 Oscillatory Sequence swmmmnn 3.5.6 Finitely Oseillatory Sequence ..nesnnnnmnnnns 35:7 Infinitely Oseillatory Sequence somnmennnrnsmnn 3.6 Properties on Limit Superior and Limit Inferior eunmeunnnnnesnnnennnannnssnnsn AT 3.7 The Sequence of Natural Numbers emo BS Cauchy Sequence sennmnmnnnimnanenn wes 238.1 Algebra of Cauchy Sequences smn 3.8.2 Cauchy’s General Principle of Convergence(CGPC) . Chapter 4: Series of Real Numbers 41 Definition .... 4.1.1 Sequence of Partial Sums 4.1.2 Convergent Series. 4.1.3 Divergent Series 4.1.4 — Oscillatory Series 4.1.5 Oscillatory Series ... 4.2 Necessary condition for convergence of a series... 4.3 Cauchy's General Principal of Convergence sme. 44 Series of Positive Real NUMDETS wnenennnsnnunmenneninennnnnanns 4.5 Alternating Series 45.1. Test for Convergence of Positive Terms Series mm 4.6 Absolute Convergence . 4.6.1 Conditional Convergence 4.7 Series of Positive Real Numbers 4.7.1 Conditional Convergence sunnnuninnsonnantunannnnsni ‘Chapter 5: Function and their Properties S.1 Definitions 52. Graphical Transformation semen 5.3 Some Important Functions and their Graphs wn 54 Classification of Functions 5.5 Limit of a Funetion 55.1 General Principle for Existence of Limit (GPEL) ... 5.5.2 Second Definition... ‘One Side Limit ‘Theorems on Limits sweunemennntinniennsinnin ‘Some Important LimitS.nmmemneunnennininssnn Chapter 6: Continuity | | | | | ? 6.1.1 Second Definition of Continuity .. 6.12 Third Definition of Continuity ....nemnmne 6.2 Types of Discomtimuity scveeonweemeneoevinsmnenensnsentnsnentnnentnsetninnnsreennssntns 63 Algebra of Continuity secmmnmnnnninnnemmennninnnnininnaninrernnnnnnanmmnnnnnsee 4 ‘Some Important Theorems on Continuous FUNCHONS ssuismmmninnannmennnnrinnnenedS 65 Uniform continuity..... 65.1 Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion snesonmnenis 65.2 Uniform Continuity Theorem ..... 65.3 Lipschitz Function... 654 sevtenereseneeneeneneee 2D senseserssnnemnnnnnane DS rernnaneemeeeteL 3 rrrmaenesd 23 ‘Continuous Extension Theorem .. nnnanneseienniniennininnnninnsinnnl 2A655 Some Important Sufficient Conditions for Uniform Continui 6.5.6 Algebra of Uniformly Continuous Functions Chapter 7: Differentiability 7.1 Definition .. 7.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative .. 7.3 Algebra of Differentiability esse 73.1 Darboux’s Theorem .. 74 Local Maxima & Local Mi 78 Mean Value Theorems .. 7.6 Higher Order Derivatives 7.7 Indeterminate Forms .... 78 — Convex Set. 127 782 Concave Function ... Chapter 8: Riemann Integral 81 Definition 8.2 Quick Review for Riemann Integrability 83 Amproper Integral en. Chapter 9: Uniform Convergence a a 92 — Quick Review for Uniform Convergence .. Chapter 10: Function of Several Variables 10.1 Definition of n-tuples.... 10.2 Real valued funetion on 1 Variables sn 10.3 Limit and Continuity of Vectors and Real Valued Functions . 104 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables. 105 — Compactness of Connectedness sm... Assignment Sheet —1 mnie Assignment Sheet ~2 wna Assignment Sheet ~3 ... Assignment Sheet ~4 seen Assignment Sheet —5 wu Assignment Sheet 6 sens Assignment Sheet —7 enn Assignment Sheet ~ 8 .. Assignment Sheet ~ 9.sssmmemnnninnanne Assignment Sheet — 10 animaCHAPTER 1 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY AND COUNTABILITY 1d. Definition 1d. Set A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. By-yellsdefined we mean there is no confusion regarding inclusion or exclision oF Objects. Sets ‘are conventionally denoted with capital letters + ind a Tetters will | represent the members of the set. ‘Note: This definition is widely accepted-but aot cigs 7 Following notations will be used for some\Gi Resite 9 sets that are commonly used. SS ee N= The set ofall natural numbers or all poten Thiegers. Z-= The set of all integers. ~~ (Q= The set of all rational numbers. Sr Q= The set of all irrational se Note: No set is member of itself. ie. Ae A forevery set 4 Operations on Sets Let and B be two sets. Theat 1. ‘Union: The union of 4andB, denoted by AUB, is defined as the set (e|xe AorxeB). ‘While writing AU B , elements common to 4and B should be taken only ‘once in the union. pt “AAD, rt wr) Din Sra Haz Khas Neat LUT, New DonIIOONG, Ps (OI) 2657527, Co: 999ISD434 & SVTTOVIA SUIRLTIO| - ‘Eat Inoadinencemtcom: Webs: wwr-diuseedeay semExample: (@) Take 4=(1,2,3.4} B=3,4,5,6} ~ Then 408 = ({1,2,3,4,5,6} 7 : 2. Intersection: The intersection of AandB, denoted by 4B, is defined as the set {x|.x€ AandB both} ont ‘Thus 47 B consists of all elements bomman 16a and B . Also note thet AOA andifac then an Bd oo f If ANB=6 , then the sets A sod act Disjpint: Se z A B () A “fb. ne Then ANB=6 : 3. Difference: The difference of Aand 8, denoted by 4~B, is defined as the set {x]x¢ Aandx eB}. ‘Thus 4 ~B is the set of all elements of 4 not belonging to. Simi larly, we can define B- 4 ‘ea, (First For) a Sarah Haus Khas, Near EET, Non DoBVATOOG, Ph (@)-IES7SI7, Ces DOOSTENDE & ORDTCTTSE, SOMBATED Eel: lfealpncademy-com: West: mor dlnaeedny-0m,(a) A-B#B-A (b) A-BCAB-ACB © U-B)NB-4)=6 Example: (@) If 4=f1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and B= {4,5,6,7,8}0 Then A—B={1,2,3} 0 4. Complement: The complement ‘of 2%i set UJ. (universal set), denoted by 4°, is defined as the Yet {x1 GU suchthatx ¢ 4}. In. other notation we can see it as U- fim fet ff 5. Power Set; The power set of 4, denoted by P(4), is defined as a set | {X|Xc 4}. Thus, P(A)is collection of al possible subsets of 4. If |4=n, Then |P(4)]=2" (where, [4] denotes the number of elements in the'set A. ie, cardinality of the set 4) ie: werentThe cardinality of the set {2 elements in its power set : Cartesian Product: If 4 and B are nonerrpty sets) then the Cartesian product AxB of A and B is the set‘gf" all, aed and be B. Thatis, 7 AxB={(a,b):a€ Abe B}. ¢ Thus if 4=(1,2,3} and B: ‘elements are the ordered pairs” (21), (45), (2), (25). BABS) ‘We may visualize the sett Bas thé Set of'six points in the plane with the coordinates that we have just ited. Note: Ax B -B%A whee B ani also'if any of Aand Bis empty then AxB=o. % £, Relation: Any subset of 4%B;defines ‘relation from 4 toB. and B={4,5} define gi3. Functions And Their 1, Function on a set: A Yelatjbn f from a non-empty set A to another non empty set Bis said to be @ function, if each element x¢ 4 corresponds to.a unique element y.¢B and the y which corresponds in this way'to a given x is denoted by f(x), and is called the value of x under f . Note: If f is a function from a set Ato a set B then we write it as fi:AB. Graph: If f is a function from 4108, then set of all ordered pairs (x,,£(2)) is called the graph of the function f . 7AM, es Poo) Sra Haas Khas, Nos LLT_ New Dor 110016 Pu: (OT)) 0557527, Cae SOOOISIGN Be OEIGITSA BSRIRETES BB1.14. Classification 3. Domain, Co-domain & Range of a Function: For a function f ftom AtoB, the set Ais called the domain of f and the set of values of fis called the range of f and written as f(A), whereas B is called the Co-domain of f. Clearly f(A) B defined by x” is a one-one function. F() F(x)=£0) (2 x20) vx.yef0.l] (@) Injectivity of a function can also be cheek Gon its. graph, If any straight line parallel to x-abigfiéeets the burve ))= /() at most at one point, then the function f(x)cis Oné-one or an injection otherwise itis not. () 1 f2AB then m =22= fOGY™ Fe). te forall x29 €4. However f(a)= S02) oe x37 is true only when / is an injective map. (©) If Aand Bare finite setg {tears respectively then ti mumber of one-one Satan Ato Bat en nem here itnR, defined by f(x)=27, ‘then is many one function. 3. Onto (Surjective) Function: A function f:4—B is said to be an ‘onto function or a surjective function if every element of Bis the f- Put Your Own Notes ei "A, (Firs ar) Va Sra Hn Kins, Near ET New DAB-UGHG, Ph (11) 2657027, Ca SPOTERN ‘Bema nfeaipacademy.com: Web worn iosacae.com ey @| Remark: It depends upon domain and co-domain respectively for a 4 fanction to be one-one and onto. 2 i 4 Example: The function f :[0,1]+R defined by f(x)=27is.a one-one SRA not a function where as function f :[-1,1]—> R defined, by one-one function. f(-I)=f(=1) ~ Also function f [0,1] > R defited by F(}.=32 8 mot an onto fonction, a but f:[0,1]-+[0,1] defined by /(x)= x? sep net Remark: If Aand Bare two sets having. m atidn.clements respectively and let1snsm, then mumber of, ontoSfanttions ‘from 4 to B is 4, Into Furiction: A function of 92%" B is an into function if there exists an clement in zB having no pre-image in 4 In other words, Se 5. One-One Onto Bijectivg ) Funetion: The map f:4-> B is bijective if itis one-one as well as‘onto, 4 B BEAD, iat i) Yin ar Hou Kos Nene HLT, New DeA0016 Ph (15) 2697527, Cl PORN HOOICITIA SIRTTSD mal nfoausendencom: Weta: weinescaden coma 1.2. Example: The map f:N— defined as f(n)=| vf (Where iz) denotes the greatest integer funtion is bijective function Cantor’s Theorem: For any set A, there is no map from 4 onto the set P(A), the power set of 4 Reason: Let $: 4 > P(A)is onto. Since for everyxe 4, §(=)is a subset of A. Then eithera ¢4{x)or it does not. Now consider X = {xe 4:x¢9(x)} Since ¥is a subset of 4 and gis onto, then X = (+) for somite 4 , so cither re X ort x. re x and since X = 6(¢) Wemust haver © (7) Which is contrary to the definition of XS Similarly, If rex then ré6(?) So-that\ce.x which is also a contradiction, S06 cannot be onto. Remark: There always exists a one-one imap from 4 to P(A). Countable and Uncountable Sets Spee 1. Similar/Equivalent/Equipotenti i Sets; Two set’ and B are called Similar if and only if there exits an bijgetiv® function between them and then we write A~B f 2. Finite Sets Consider S) ={83, a4 + said tobe finite iff there existe eR, and a bijective function f fromS to. (x gives the numberof elements in the set ) Tfno such m exist, then set 4 J8iSfid to be infinite a,2,4,0,u} is a finite set, since there ‘n} Then a non-empty set Ais te Se are similar if their cardinality are equal (b) Every set 4 a ‘itself as there exists an identity map on ae ; (©) If4~Band B~cthena~c. (@) The main difference between 2 finite and an infinite set is that every infinite set is equivalent to at least one of its proper subset whereas a finite set can never be equivalent to any of its proper subset. It is so important that some of the authors use this note as the definition of finite and infinite sets (©) Subset of a finite set is a finite set. (f) Empty set is considered asa finite set. Ta st Flora Sara, Haz Khas, Near LLT, New DANCIIGIG Ph: 1} 2E557E27, Cas 999THG4 Erma ine@ipoende cm: Webs: Worn diencadomcom SAIC SRT3. Countably Infinite Set: A setsis said to be countably infinite if it is similar to set of natural numbers ie. if ~ N Example: Zis 4 countably infinite set. Reason: Define aoy=ir[E} Clearly @ is bijective function from N to Z has *. Z is acountably infinite set. In Abstract: We say a set can be put under counting system or process iffa rule can be imposed over that set by which suocessor is defined. 4. Countable Set: A set s is called countable if itis. etter finite or counisbly infinite. In case of countably infinite-ther®8-funciion. which establishes a bijection between N agdctheclements. uf § ~ Therefore the set Scan be displayed as S ={U), BecoFir, 3. twe write {a.ay.odqsn} in pldve “OLYOs@).S.700,-} then $= {01,€2,040q5-} S S 5. Uncountable Setz A set which is not agountibte set called uncountable ve feet Note: If every map from 4 to B fails to'p-onto, Then we say B is larger than in the sense of cardinality ie} the cosdomain has more potential than the domain. oN / Oe If the domain has less reteafaThensyery map‘from'4 to B fails to be onto. ae oe 6. Let A and B are finite set etd [4] 248)" TheaA is similar to a subset of i 16.any of thie subset of Note: If we define carditality, sets no matter how it is defined of but these cardinalit sal follow the above rules. ‘These symbols which bre sed to denote cardinality of infinite sets are ‘known as transfinite nuinbérs, 7. Arithmetic of Cardinal Numbers: Np denotes the cardinality of Nand ¢ denotes the cardinality of R . @ No thy + onto =No 7 nes (0) n+Xy=No,neN (Ror, E-mu: iafoitmncodany.con: Waist: wre-domadeny.com ‘RW, at iow Sa Sera Haas Khas, Neat LAE, Rew De iT0OG Ps WIN AGI, Ga SHRILL WOICTTI EATS eBee eee ane CRS st | @ ches Put Your Own Notes aes Bas (©) wXp=NpneN () erere aga (© Noveme (ey Be =0>Ny @ Niaz “Ss (k) NoNas$(q)=k V keN 3. Every set equivalent to finite/infinite set is fniteFnginite St Eee i Reader should prove it themselves. 4. If Ais similar to a subset of @ and Bis st of A, then AWB similar to a subset of 8 ™, SY ‘Reason: As => A has less potential than B Alsois similar toa subset ofA {~~ => Bhasless potential than A oa So By (1) and (2) A~B S.A setis infinite iff it contain cantly infinite subset. Reason: Let Xbe any infinite set. Take x6 X Again take another y€ ee eo S ‘Proceeding in sia), we have An= Ana {aq} 2 Wypen Let A= Us I Clearly 4c X This shows that every infinite set has countable infinite subset Converse is obvious. Hence a set Xs infinite iff it contains a couitably infinite subset. 6. Every infinite set is equivalent to at least one ofits proper subset ema inom com. Webate wr doesadem sm BEAM ra wr) Da Sarat naz Ks Nene LT Row DIMOU, Ps (OLDPRES7SD, Cel OPED 969916173, BRET‘TLE Dripsacademy 1y Set Theory and Counta Reason: As done in above property construct 4 = L 4, Now take B= A—{a)} and define ¥=(X~ 4)UB | Clearly a; ¢ ¥ X thus ¥ is proper subset of X - | Define g:X — ¥ such that 2 fya[tin Fe FO ese Clearly g is one-one and onto, This shows that if we remove one element from an infinite Set. Then its cardinality does not change. oe By the same procedure if we remove finite numberor elemesits froman_ infinite set then its cardinality remains same, «<>. 7. A finite set is not equivalent ony of its ropes sibiet.. re oa Reason: Let Ais any finite set aiid B < Athion Clearly 'B has less number of clements then Aand two finite set are equivalsat iif they have same number of elements so 4and 8 can-not be equivalent. Thus no finite set can be equivalent to its proper subset... I & Countable union of countable set is gounlable, * 9. If Bis an uncountable set and Ais aeguntible set then (B~A)is an i ‘uncountable set. 7 Reason: Suppose that (BA) Sis countéble set and also 4 B=(B-A)A (being o waon, ountable set) is countable thas : B isa countable set. But this i ible a$'B is an uncountable set. i Thus B-Ais ‘uncountable 10. Family of all finite o_o setis countable, Reason: Let Aisa If Ais oa ans infinite set. Thengaa3 Now define 4-eQ} In this manner 4, is countable Vine N Thus if F denotes the collection of all finite subset of N then F =U, which is countable (being countable union of countable sets). = 11. The family of all infinite subsets of an infinite set 2 is uncountable. ‘RWI (Pest Ron Sera Wr Kas Near LET, New Da 016, Phi (@UD} BASIS, Cas IEGEN & SOVOTGTTIA FSRATTRT 3 Eval af(livacadmcams Website wn dipsesden cue yRntso bet +2008 Corned nator Reason: Let # denote the family of all subsets of the set X and denote the family of all finite subsets of X. Then family of all infinite subset of the set X is equal to B—A. Which is uncountable. (By Property 9) Rema (@) The family of all subsets of countably infinite set is uncountable. ) PC 12. Finite Cartesian product of countable set is countable. N),P(Q),P(Z) all are uncountable set. Application: Nx N«...x.N is countable set 13. The set of all positive rational numbers is countable" Reason: a+{z .4_820.co-prime positive iteptrs | ~. q ents Let A={(0.q): ng ace eo prin Bostv®egers} > Clearly the elements of @* and A are,in dng os ‘gorrespondence and is countable iff 4 is sei ‘Since AcNxN and ing subset of countable therefore Q* NaN is countable, therefore, A is cgmntat set) x a eed Hence Q” is also countable a ~ Pe Note: J @ Q=Qt Lg Uo} is ibe © By via 3 ea Hx XZ, QxQx...xQ all are countable | 14, Infinite Cartesian Pract Tired sets 4,42, Az... (Where |4|22, for infinitely ages oi) is uncountable. 15, Set oft péimomial ba fos ia cmt Reason: nee | (nba 1 €Q} “ee Then F, is coijatible YmeNU{0} as there is a bijection Py > QQX.. A adefided as fg (ao +4. Hage) = (450455) Now if P denote the class of all polynomials over Qthen clearly P=(J2, which (being countable union of countable set) is countable. ml 16. Set of all circles whose Centre and radius are rational number is countable. Elementary Set Theory and Countablility — ey, ( ‘EAA, Eat int is Sarak eas Khas, Near LUT, New Dols 10016 Pa) AGS7EN, Gal OPA HOTEL NAAT Ema lafegsecdeay. cu Weheke: We psec dea omPeigsacaderny TE noe cored mete 17. 19, 20, 21. Reason: Let X ={c]c=(x—a)" +(y—b)? =r?where a,b,reQ} Define 6:¥ > Qx@xQ as6(c)=(a.b,r).This is a bijective map and thus LY’ countable set R f / Algebrai | alae Transcendental) | L : t Algebraic number: A real number is called an algebrait:tiumber, if itis a root of a polynomial P(x) =a) +ajx+ ) fan #0) with ~ rational coefficient : aS Transcendental number: A real number whichis not Algebraic called a transcendental number. Set ofall algebraic numbers and set of all transcendental numbers forms a partitions of the set} Every transcendental number‘ irrational. Irrational niitibér thay Be algebraic of transcendental V2 is an algebreic d Set of all algebraic mifnber ié Countable, Reason: fixed meNu{0} define Pp = {0 +4 +.0px? +..+.a_8” 1g, €Q} ‘This Py is countable, Now take P= [J , and being countable union of countable sets it is men also countable. So, P is countable. Now ifais any algebraic number then there is a polynomial in P such that whose root iso. foe Aa ee oR enc oT Eel ffedipancadey.com: Western digicade. £00 ‘A or Sar va Kas Nee TLT_ New DeMTANGOG Ph ITSO, Co WOOTEN STITT RCTIT23, ‘Thus the set of all algebraic numbers is contained in the set of zeros of polynomials in P Now all we need to show is that the set of zeros of these polynomials is countable. ‘Since every polynomial can have at most & real roots where & is degree of that polynomial. Now we denote the set 4, as the set of zeros of polynomials in. Since P, bas countable number of polynomial and further all of those polynomial have finite number of zeros $0 4p, will have countable number of elements, Now define.4= {J 4,, . the set of zeros of polynomials inP, being mi countable union of countable set is countable and set of algebraic ‘numbers being subset of this set. Set of algebraic numbers is countable. Reason: Since R= AUT" whereA is — snambers and 7” is set ofall transvendeaital finbers, Nowginte A is countable and Ris uncountable Oe «7 =R-Als uncountable Bp using the result 9) Arbitrary collection of disjoint open int yal copntablé. Reason: consider 7 to be the colle prions open intervals. Now if Fis any interval then we can sega) mani wh satin any other interval we denote that by avi take anf other interval there we can find any other rati in this way we can find a sequence of rational mumbefs 4; sain, sn dguoh where each a; is from different interval and thus. ei fan generate a’ set of rational numbers having one-one correspgindenée, with’ the set and since that set of rational number is countable so 7s also countable. ‘There does notexist yx agate, fi fiction from a countable set to an ‘uncountable set. =a = . There does not exii ny Staton fom an cout set oa a4 a4 ee E f Countable / Uncountable Natural Numbers ® i Countable Integers (Z) Countable Rational Numbers(Q) ‘Countable ‘Non Empty , non-singleton Intervals Uncountable (Open, closed, semi-open, semi-closed) paca, aSRETODSe Uncountable Real numbers (IR) Uncountable Algebraic numbers (41) Countable ‘Transcendental Numbers(7”) Uncountable Algereic [|] Conable] Inrationals Transcendent} Uncountabie ] 27. There exist intervals which are eouiitableeg. [aa] WWaeR 28. Every countably infinite set has cardinality ‘Xp (Aleph Naught) 29, *e” isthe smallest cardinality of any sina Bat 30. The unit interval [0,1] is urcounabeset ~ Reason: Let us assume that [ Pate tee = either [0,1] is ait or county Since every non empty, oni Sptervaljé an infinite set, [0,1] ig cof real nurabers in [0,1], nite decimal, we have with decimal representation where by is any integer from 0 to 9 such that by # ay, Jy is any integer from 0 to 9 such that by # ayClearly, b <{0,t] and bx, Vn since the decimal representation of is different from the decimal representation of ,, a8 by # dy, Thus escapes enumeration and we arrive at a contradiction. . = Hence [0,1] is not countable. 31. (0,1) is uncountable set. (By property 6) 32. Any open interval (a,b) is uncountable where « +5 . 33. Any open interval (@,4) is equivalent to any other open interval (c,d) where a#b & c#d FE Reason: Let x ¢(a,b). Consider a function f':(a,b)>{(¢,@) given by mate) Se ~ Itis easy to verify that / is one-one and ontg, Henge Gi esult follows, 4 ee Hy 34. Any closed interval [a,b] is equivalent, Yosh ot ther closed interval : [ed] where a#b & cad s 35, Any two non-trivial intervals are equi na n-émpty, non-singleton intervals are non-itivial) me 36. The set IR of all real numbers is uncotintable. ‘ Somer Reason: To prove this, itis suffi gat ghow that-{0,1)~ IR. Consider » the funetion :(0,1) +R given by SAL P ‘2x-1 kuooi |P(u)|=2%0 40. Set of all functions having domain 4 (countably infinite) to the co- domain 8 (containing at least two points) is uncountable set Cantor Set . For describing the Cantor set, we shall give the following preliminaries on the temary expansions ofthe real numbers in [03} which is need for the arithmetical characterization of the Cantor set. So" In the ternary expansion of a real mymber, we use-the in the ternary scale, x=0.a,a)q3... means that xe oe where svt will tke any one of the values 0, 8nd2., Except for numbers Tike? a2 ee The termary expansion of every real nlniber is unique. Ss —A RO to et 0 ys 29 1p us m9 8/9 1 . Now consider the closed interval[o,1]. From[0,l], let us remove (3) Which the open middle third part is of[0,1]. Then we obtain the intervals UeneAmSe my trae Centre OTs:Elem of these intervals. That is we take away (78 (Fs B)in ie Jana gt hese intervats [ot 9, At each one of the succceding stage, we shall remove the open middle third of cach open of the remaining close intervals. If this process is carried for a countable number of times, removing the middle thirds of the Teft out intervals at each stage, the set of point lft out in [0,1] sealed the Cantor ternary set or Cantor middle third, Pirst note that any number in (5 _ ~ ~ expansion of the form0.1a)a3a,.... For ail Bi Babe semived i in the second 12g? SS. state al 22] ooa [2 ZI, 1 will oceur in,the cond place i in the temary 99, 3°9 Sa scale on the assumption Zea be re eOTHY. na simi manner, all the numbers removed in will’have 1 in the mth position in the ternary scale, All te ‘vill not have one in ‘their eXperisions, Hence the Canis Bt Gis the set of all numbers x in [0,1] hich have a temary expansion sitiout dig 1. Where we assume that if'the without one’s. Note: From the consti. it gra io that only the end points. 121278 ape the “Cantor set. But this is not so. For = te 2 Further it is insresing fe noe ‘te sum of the lengths of the intervals removed in [0,1] is one as sbén below. teftet) (tit 3° \9° 9 a7 27 37 27 ‘The sum of this geometric series is i "HAI, ra Fw) Sa Sra Hoar Kos, Nar LT, New Dai A0016 PLO) HERSEGT, Gar O90 & HOFTSLTNG GIOTTO nal lfedlneaceda com: Webske: woe dioesademcomaims 538% ae Ame T Cone Re LED Ty Results on Cantor’s Set: aE : Put Your Own Notes 1 AS " fre oa in =00r 2h another expression of Cantor set. ———— mi 2, Cantor set contains no interior point. 3. Cantor set doesn’t contain any open interval. 4, Its closed and bounded, 5, Each point of cantor set 4 is limit point of 4 6. Cantor set is perfect. 7. Measure of Cantor set is zero 8. Cantor set is uncountable, Ss [Note: For definition of interior point, limit point, erfet se -clossd-and bounded set See Chapter 2.Point Set Topology Wilco ont saooe cerunes netrote CHAPTER 2 POINT SET TOPOLOGY 21. Definitions and Properties I Archimedean Property Of Real Numbers 1. If x,y are two positive real numbers then exist a positive integer such that ny > « 2. If x is any positive real number then there exist & positive integer such that > x : 3. For any real number x, there exist an integer rest that 2 xeS. Note: (@) 5 is not an interval if there exist 2,b€5,a#b and there exist ¢ such that a<¢0,(a—5,a% 5829 Examples: Q SS (a) S=N, Then Set of all adht go is's itself. () 5=(0,1], Then Set of all ints of sis [0.1] 12. Isolated Point: Let a's amiSCR, thén a is called Isolated point of 5, if there exist 85°0: such that (a=8,a+5)9S = {a} “ye Of nti poor s @) S=[0,1) le ofa init pont of sis [0,1] 14. Interior Points L&,SCR aod vem we sy ais an interior point of S ifthere exist § >0 such that (a—8,a+8)cS Set ofall interior points of sis denoted by 5° Examples: (@) S=N, then no real number is an Interior point ofS. (b) S=R or S=(0,1) then every member of S' is an interior point of s. academy cam: Website worm dlnsendom se ‘HAI, i For) Sa Sar Ha hae, Near LL New Deb 06T6, Ph (@15)SSTS2, Cok: DP TRVAN & DOOLATES SBOTTES ll fosPoint Se . Exterior Point: Let aeR and SCR, we say a is an exterior point of S if it is an interior point of 5¢ in B (where S® means complement of $ in E). Set of all exterior point of S is denoted by ExtS Examples: (a) 5=Q then no real number which is Exterior point of @ (b) S=[0.1] then set ofall exterior Point of $ is (0) (i=) 16. Condensation Point: Let aeR and SCR, then a is called Condensation point of $ if for every >0.(@~8,a+8) must contain uncountable members of S . Hence if 5 is not cSuntable., then there exists a point in S such that x is condensation point afys Example: SS (3) 5=OF then every Real mumber is a Cohdéystion Point of $ (©) 5=Q then no Real nuihber is Condegiation Point of S 17, Frontier Point: aeR is said to be a Yontier Point of SCR if it is neither an interior Point of $ nor an exterior Point ofS . Set of all frontier point of 5 is denoted by Fr.S™~ Example: oo (@ S=R en aa s°=R=(s"} Net Ext S=$=> (ExtS)" =] Now, Fr(s)=(s4f° ACS ee A @) San nde Poin ! Frontier Point of s which are member of 5 are referred as dary point. Set of all boundary point of 5 is denoted by BS Example: @ S=R Then @=FSAS=$NS=6 (>) S=N OS =FrSOS=NAN=N 19. Open Set: A set 5 is called open, if itis neighbourhood of each of its point. 20. Closed Set: A set 5 is called closed, if it contains all its limit point. er arag Put Your Own Notes —— i! 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