Lecture 2 (25-1-23)

Source program
Symbol table/Symbol table management

Lexical analysis
• Symbol table stores information about all Tokens
the ‘symbols’ defined in the source
program. Syntax analysis
• Symbols generally mean recognized tokens.
Parse tree
• Information/attributes about a symbol?
• Storage allocation, Type, Scope in case Semantic analysis
of variables
Symbol table Semantic correctness Error handling &
• Number and types of arguments, management recovery
return type in case of Intermediate code
functions/procedures generation
• An entry for a symbol is usually made in the Intermediate code

lexical analysis phase
Optimization
• Additional Information about different
attributes may be added in the subsequent Optimized intermediate code
phases
Target code
• Information about a symbol will be used in generation
the subsequent phases
Target code
Optimization
Optimized target code

Source program
Error handling & recovery Lexical analysis
• Each phase of compilation can have error. Tokens

• A compiler should not stop at the first
error! Syntax analysis
• A compiler should deal with the errors and Parse tree

continue as far as possible.
• Most error detection happens in lexical, Semantic analysis
syntax and semantic analysis phases
Symbol table Semantic correctness Error handling &
• Example error in lexical analysis phase management recovery
Intermediate code
• ‘sequence of characters’ do not match generation
any token->invalid keywords, invalid
identifiers, etc. Intermediate code
• Example error in syntax analysis phase
Optimization
• violation of program structure rules
(grammar)->wrong if-else Optimized intermediate code
combination, invalid expressions Target code
• Example error in semantic analysis phase generation
• wrong operand type of operators-> Target code
addition of array identifier and Optimization
function identifier
Optimized target code
Compiler writing/construction tools
• The first compiler for a language (e.g., C) can be
written in some other language. The first Targe language/
Source language
compiler constructed for a language is usually Machine code
referred to as the bootstrap compiler. Compiler
• Based on the bootstrap compiler for the
language (e.g., C), further developments can be
done for the language.
• The process of creating a compiler from scratch is This is also a program
referred to as bootstrapping or bootstrap written in some
process. programming language that
was converted/compiled to
a machine code
X compiler written in Y X+1 compiler written in X
• But what if there are no other languages yet? Or

How is the first ever compiler created?
• There are specialized tools (programs) developed to implement different phases of a compiler.
• Today, we don’t have to write/implement from scratch. We can specify the ‘requirements/behaviour’ as input to
the specialized tools that generates the compiler components for us.
• Scanner (Lexical analyzer) generators
• Generates lexical analyzer (lexical analyzer program) from a specification based on regular expressions.
• The generated lexical analyzer is basically a finite automaton.
• Examples: LEX, FLEX
• Input?
• Regular expression that describes the token of a language.
• Output
• Lexical analyzer.
• Parser (Syntax analyzer) generators.
• Generates syntax analyzer (parser) from a specification based on context-free grammar.
• Parser generators utilize powerful parsing algorithms that are too complex to be carried out by hand.
• Examples: YACC, BISON
• Input?
• Grammar of the language.
• Output?
• Syntax analyzer.
• Syntax-directed translation engines.
• Produce collection of routines (program) that traverse the parse tree generated by the parser.
• Input?
• Parse tree
• Output?
• Intermediate Code
• Automatic code generators
• Translate each operation of intermediate code to machine language based on collection of rules.
• Most common rule/technique used is ‘template matching’. Intermediate code statements are replace by
machine instruction templates.
• Input?
• Intermediate code
• Output?
• Machine code
• Data-flow engines
• Performs data-flow analysis.
• Essential for code optimization.
Example compilation

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Source program

Symbol table/Symbol table management

• An entry for a symbol is usually made in the Intermediate code

Optimized target code

Error handling & recovery Lexical analysis

• Each phase of compilation can have error. Tokens

• A compiler should deal with the errors and Parse tree

X compiler written in Y X+1 compiler written in X

• But what if there are no other languages yet? Or

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