Contemmporary World

Final Notes
Course Facilitator: Rubelyn M. Cot-angan

LESSON 6: GLOBAL POPULATION AND MOBILITY

1. Global Cities
2. Global Demography
3. Global Migration: Basic Concepts
4. Global Migration: Overseas Filipino Employment
5. Global Health

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After engaging in each topic, you should be able to:
1. elucidate the characteristics of global cities;
2. enumerate the factors influencing global demography; 3. explain the concept of global migration; and
4. describe the status of global health.

B. KEY CONCEPTS:

1. GLOBAL CITIES

Global cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of information and money, and the wealth
that they capture is intimately related to the specialized businesses that facilitate those flows.

According to Sassen (2005), global cities are central sites for advanced services and facilities of
telecommunication which are necessary for the execution and the management of global economic activities.
In those sites, corporate headquarters tend to center, particularly companies that are operative in more than
one country. Examples of global cities are New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, and Singapore.

The global city is, therefore, the main physical and geographic playground of the globalizing forces: in
this space of population concentration and mixing, the global flows of people, capital, and ideas are woven
into the daily lived experiences of its residents. Cosmopolitanism is a phenomenon most readily associated
with the global city: large, diverse cities attract people, material and cultural products from all over the world.
The idea of cosmopolitanism usually invokes pleasant images of travel, exploration, and worldly pursuits
enjoyed by those who have benefited from globalization and who can, in some ways, consider themselves
citizens of the world.

GLOBALIZATION AS A SPATIAL PHENOMENON

Globalization happens in physical spaces-foreign investment, economic opportunities, and human

capital-move to cities. Globalization is spatial as it is based on places. Globalization acts on cities and vice
versa (example is New York City-home of the stock market, a significant center in international trade). In other
words, global cities are integral to globalization as it is essential to these global cities.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBAL CITIES

1. International, first-name familiarity like Paris, London

2. Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs like UN headquarters in New York
City
3. A fairly large population
4. A major international airport like London Heathrow Airport that serves as an established hub for several
international airlines
5. Presence of an advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass transit
network offering multiple modes of transportation
6. Presence of international financial institutions, law firms, and stock exchanges like New York Stock
Exchange 7. Presence of advanced communications infrastructure on which modem transnational corporations
rely
B. Presence of world-renowned cultural institutions like museums and universities
9. Presence of several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach like The New York
Times, Agence France-Presse
10. Presence of major sports facilities, home teams in major league sports, and the ability and historical
experience to host international sporting events like Olympics, and World Cups.
IDENTIFICATION OF GLOBAL CITIES

In The Global City by Sassen (1996), she only identified three global cities-New York, London, and
Tokyo. Απ attempt to define and categorize world cities was made in 1999 by the Globalization and World
Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC). GaWC ranked cities based on provision of advanced producer
services such as accountancy, advertising, finance, and law by international corporations.

The GaWC inventory identified three levels of world cities and several sub-ranks:

1. Alpha world cities (full service world cities).

12 points: London, New York, Paris, Tokyo
10 points: Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore
2. Beta world cities (major world cities)
9 points: San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zurich 8 points: Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo
7 points: Moscow, Seoul
3. Gamma World Cities (minor world cities)
6 points: Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas, Dusseldorf, Geneva, Houston, Jakarta, Johannesburg,
Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Washington
5 points: Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal, Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
4 points: Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Istanbul, Kuala
Lumpur,
Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich, Shanghai

In 1994, GaWC redefined and re-categorized the classification as follows:

1. Weil rounded global cities

 Very large contribution: London and New York City
 Smaller contribution and with cultural blas: Los Angeles, Paris, and San Francisco
 Incipient global cities: Amsterdam, Boston, Chicago, Madrid, Milan, Moscow, Toronto

2. Global niche cities- specialized global contributions

 Economic: Hongkong, Singapore, Tokyo
 Political and social: Brussels, Geneva, Strasbourg, Washington
3. World Cities
 Subnet articulator cities
-Cultural: Berlin, Copenhagen, Melboume, Munich, Oslo, Rome, and Stockholm
-Political: Bangkok, Beijing, Vienna
-Social Manila, Nairobi, Ottaw
 Worldwide leading cities
-Primarily economic global contributions: Frankfart, Mam, Munich, Osaka, Singapore, Sydney, Zurich
-Primarily non-economic global contributions: Abidjan, Addis Abate, Atlanta, Basle, Barcelona, Cans,
Denver, Harare, Lyon, Manila, Mexico City, Mumbai, New Delts, Shanghai

GLOBAL CITY INDEX

Global City Index consists of indicators and parameters used to determine and measure the categories
of global cities and to what extent they function as global cities. Global Cities Index uses criteria across five
dimensions:

1. Business activity: presence of headquarters, service firms, number of international conferences, value of
goods ports and airports.
2. Human capital: size of foreign-born population, quality of universities, number of international schools,
international student population.
3. Information exchange: accessibility of major TV news, number of international news bureaus
4. Cultural experience: number of sporting events, museums, performing arts venues
5. Political engagement: number of embassies, consulates, international organizations, political conferences

GLOBAL POWER CITY INDEX

Global Power City Index evaluates and ranks the major cities of the world according to their magnetism
or their comprehensive power to attract people, capital, and enterprises from around the world. In 2011, a
report called "The Global Power City Index of 2011" considered several functional areas:
1. Economy: refers to market attractiveness, economic vitality, business environment, regulations and risk
2. Research and development: refers to research background, readiness for accepting and supporting
researches, and research achievement
3. Cultural Interaction: refers to trendsetting potential, accommodation environment, dining and shopping, and
volume of interaction
4. Livability: refers to working environment, cost of living, security and safety, and life support functions
5. Environment: refers to ecology, pollution, and natural environment
6. Accessibility: refers to international transport infrastructure and inner city transportation infrastructure

TOP 10 GLOBAL POWER CITIES

1. London
2. New York City
3. Tokyo
4. Paris
5. Singapore
6. Seoul
7. Amsterdam
8. Berlin
9. Hong Kong
10. Sydney

THE OTHER SIDE OF GLOBAL CITIES

Global cities, despite the degree and high notch international rankings, are not perfect cities at all. Los
Angeles is a global city consisting of urban sprawls and massive freeways so constituents are compelled to
purchase cars and gas. Mumbai, Manila, and Bangkok are considered global cities as well yet the insufficient
public transportation and absence of regulation automobiles industries made these places severely polluted.
The process of gentrification (driving out the poor in favour of newer, wealthier residents) is rampant in these
cities. In fact, in Manila, massive shanties are still aplenty despite the skyscrapers above.

Apart from these, these global cities are common places of crimes, nationally and internationally
(attacks in Paris, 9/11 in New York City, crimes in Metro Manila).

2. GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY

Demography is the scientific study of the determinants and consequences of human population trends,
By the beginning of the 21 century, world population reached 6 billion. Most growth has occurred in the past
200 years.

A massive increase of billions of people occurred no less than 200 years ago. This is the global
demographic transition, brought by momentous changes, reshaping the economic and demographic life cycles
of individuals and restructuring populations. Clearly, before the transition, the growth of world population is
close to stationary, depicting that life is short, births were many, growth is slow, and the population is young.

Since 1800, global population size has already increased by a factor of six and by 2100 will have risen
by a factor of 10. There will then be 50 times as many elderly but only live times as many children; thus, the
ratio of elders to children will have risen by a factor of 10. The length of life, which has already more than
doubled, will have tripled, while births per woman will have dropped from six to two.

MALTHUSIAN THEORY

Thomas Malthus was the first person to draw widespread attention to the two components of natural
increase births and deaths (fertility and mortality). Malthus formulated an essay titled "Essay on the Principle
of Population", initially published in 1789, wherein he postulated that population tended to grow geometrically,
while the means of subsistence grew only arithmetically. Thomas Malthus also argued that the difference
between geometric and arithmetic growth created a tension between the team between the growth of
population and that of means of subsistence-this gap could not persist indefinitely.

Also, in the said essay, it was mentioned that population was held in equilibrium with the slowly
growing economy. Faster population growth would depress wages, causing mortality to rise due to famine,
war or disease-in short, misery. Depressed wages would also cause postponement of marriage, resulting in
prostitution and other vices, including contraception; this he called the preventive check.

Since population could potentially grow more rapidly than the economy, it was always held in check by
misery and vice, which was therefore the inevitable human lot. Economic progress could help only temporarily
because could soon grow to its new equilibrium level, where misery and vice would again hold it in check. Only
through restraint-that is, the chaste postponement of marriage-did Malthus believe that humanity might avoid
this fate, and ne thought this an unlikely outcome.

POPULATION EXPLOSION

Contrary to what Malthus predicted, mortality has not risen to curb world population growth. As
mentioned, the world population boomed up to near a billion in 1300 and reached 6 billion by the end of the
20th century. Apparently, Malthus did not recognize the force of the Industrial Revolution, which produced
exponential growth in the means of subsistence.

THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

During the first half of the 20th century, demographers conceived the notion of the demographic
transition. The Demographic Transition Framework illustrates population growth in terms of discrepancies and
changes in two crude vital rates-mortality and fertility.

Stripped off the essentials, demographic transition refers to the transition from high birth and death
rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic
system.

The stages are as follows:

1. Pre-industrial Society: high and unstable birth and death rates, population growth rate slow, importance of
children, low life expectancy

Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

 Children are needed for farming

 They die at an early age due to illnesses
 No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and society

Reasons for the changes in death rate:

 Disease
 Famine
 Poor medical knowledge

2. Early Industrial Society: high birth rates, falling death rate, high population growth
Reasons for the changes in birth rate:
 Children are needed for farming
 They die at an early age due to illnesses
 No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and society

Reasons for the changes in death rate:

 Improvements in medical care

 Water
 Supply and sanitation
 Fewer children die

3. Late Industrial Society: low death rate, falling birth rate, high population growth

Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

 Improved medical care and diet

 Fewer children are needed for work

Reasons for the changes in death rate:

 Improvements in medical care

 Water
 Supply and sanitation
 Fewer children die

4. Post Industrial Society: low birth and death rates, low population growth

Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

  Family planning
 Good health
 Later marriages
 Improving status of women

Reasons for the changes in death rate:

 Good health care
 Reliable food supply
 People are living much longer

CRITICISMS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The demographic transition theory is only based on Western societies (Europe, America, Japan). It is not
inevitable that there will be a fall in fertility rates in less developed countries. The length of time that the
countries will traverse the stages, if they do, is unpredictable. Times have changed since the developed world
went through demographic transition.

FERTILITY TRANSITION THEORY

This theory states that fertility is declining in the less developed countries at a rate which exceeds the
rate of decline that was experienced in developed countries. It seems to be related directly to the extent to
which modem contraceptives are employed. In modern times, information about contraceptives is widespread
due to mass media. Stripped off the major points, the fertility transition theory asserts that while economic
development can create a climate conducive to reductions in fertility, it is a change in cultural attitude about
large families and a willingness to use contraception that matters, aside from the presence and availability of
contraception itself.

Still, opposition to birth control and family planning are aplenty. The manufacture, distribution, and
education about the use of contraceptives remain expensive. Religion can block birth control programs. Others
are of societal concerns: low status of women, lack of political and economic rights, and lack of access to
education.

3. GLOBAL MIGRATION: BASIC CONCEPTS

Global migration is a complex phenomenon that tackles on a multiplicity of economic, social, security,
and several aspects affecting our daily lives in a rapidly interconnecting world. On the other hand, migration
encompasses a large variety of movements and situations Involving people. Migration is embroiled with
geopolitics, trade, and cultural exchange and provides opportunities for several countries, business,
communities, and cultures to benefit in a grand manner.

Since the earliest times, humanity has been on the move. Some people move in search of labor or
economic opportunities, to join family or to study. However, not all migration happens in positive
circumstances. Others move to escape conflict, persecution, terrorism, or human rights violations. Similarly,
others move in response to the adverse effects of climate change, natural disasters, or other environmental
factors.

Today, more people than ever before live in a country other than the one in which they were born. In
2017, the number of migrants reached 258 million, compared to about 173 million in 2000. However, the
proportion of international migrants in the world population is only slightly higher than that recorded over the
past decades, equaling 3.4 percent in 2017, compared to 2.8 percent in 2000 and 2.3 percent in 1980. While
many individuals migrate out of choice, many others migrate out of necessity. There are approximately 68
million forcibly displaced persons, including over 25 million refugees, 3 million asylum seekers and over 40
million internally displaced persons.

MIGRATION AND THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Migration is one of the defining features of the 21 century. It contributes significantly to all aspects of
economic and social development everywhere, and, as such, will be key to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Agenda is well placed to reflect and exploit the links between migration
and development for three reasons. First, the 2030 Agenda is the first international development framework to
include and recognize migration as a dimension of development. The Agenda includes migration related
targets and recognizes its important contribution to sustainable development while acknowledging the specific
vulnerabilities migrants may face.
 Second, migration interacts with all dimensions of development. The multidisciplinary and cross-
sectoral nature of the 2030 Agenda is a useful platform to assess the impact of migration and human mobility
on a range of development issues.

The SDGs and its relation to migration are as follows:

1. Goal 3: Health
Migrants can be vulnerable to health risks. Migrants on their respective destinations may not have access to
health care. For the well-being of the migrants, it is vital that access to safe, effective, and affordable health
services shall be strengthened.

2. Goal 4: Education
Student mobility opens more opportunities for youth in developing countries to learn and study abroad.

3. Goal 5: Gender Equality

Migrant women and girls are vulnerable to human trafficking and gender-based violence. Increasing
participation and leadership of women reduces the risk of gender-based violence and inequalities.

4. Goal 8: Decent Work

The importance of migrants in the global economy continues to flourish. Humane and safe working conditions
help enhance the impact of migrants in development.

5. Goal 11: Sustainable Cities

Migrants enable cities to thrive and become more vibrant, successful centers of economy and life. National and
local governments are encouraged to include migration and migrants in their urban development planning and
implementation.

6. Goal 13: Climate Action Migrants are affected by climate-related disasters.

To better protect migrants, responses to disaster and climate change must be strengthened.

7. Goal 16: Peaceful Societies

Preventing trafficking in persons and providing support to trafficking survivors should be done while
affording stainable reintegration support efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls.

8. Goal 17: Partnerships

Expanding of networks among countries can help increase the capacity to deliver migrant services.

9. Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities

Migration brings about a conglomeration of people, ideas, knowledge, practices, and culture and it is very
integral that all countries involved avoid discrimination, inequality, and injustice due to these differences.

MIGRANTS

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), a migrant is: "any person who is
moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his/her habitual place of
residence, regardless of (1) the person's legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary:
(3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is".

From this definition, two categories of migrants can be identified:

1. Labor (economic) migrants (and family reunification)

2. Forced migrants (asylum seekers and refugees)

Forced migrants are those who are compelled to migrate due to adverse circumstances beyond their
control (like -war, persecution, etc.).

An asylum seeker is a person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country other
than his or her own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status relevant international and
national instruments. In case of a negative decision, the pension must leave the country and may be expelled,
unless permission to stay is provided on humanitarian grounds.

A refugee is a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the country of his/her
nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that
country.

DRIVERS OF MIGRATION

Drivers of migration are forces which lead to the inception of migration and to the perpetuation of
movement. Drivers of migration include economic, demographic factors and environmental factors, and social
and political dynamics. People may migrate to access better economic employment and educational
opportunities for themselves and their families. Some migrate due to lack of access to fundamental human
rights such as health, food, or basic education, and due to discrimination, poverty, or separation from family.
They may move in response to crisis-both natural and human-made and, increasingly, in response to
environmental change. How drivers interact in different dimensions (scale, location, distance, and duration)
affects how governments and the international community can respond in order to effectively protect
migrants, govern migration, and harness its benefits.

Some of the drivers of migration are as follows:

1. Economic and demographic drivers

Economic opportunities, demographics, and poverty/food insecurity are prime influencers in the migration
decision-making process and interact to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the specific context, to drive
migration. In developing countries, lack of job opportunities, wage differentials, and aspirations propel young
people away from home in search of employment and income opportunities. The informal economy accounts
for 33-90 percent of total employment, which often means low pay, hazardous working conditions, and limited
access to legal and social protection and resources, and this drives people toward opportunities abroad.

2. Environmental drivers

A great number of countries identified as climate vulnerable tend to experience high rates of emigration, so it
is critical to consider existing environment and climate-related evidence when analysing current migration
patterns and estimating future flows.

Environmental factors, including those related to climate change and natural disasters, directly and indirectly
impact the resilience and vulnerability of individuals, households, and communities, and may lead to migration.
How climate change drives migration depends heavily on its interaction with other factors, including the
perception of risk by affected communities, and varies among and within communities.

3. Human-made crises

Human-made crises are among the primary root causes of migration and have an important impact on
population movements more generally. The lack of respect for international human rights and humanitarian
law has compounded growing displacement of many as a consequence of their deteriorating living conditions.
where Countries where there is a high perception of corruption tend to be net-emigration countries, while
countries there are lower perceptions of corruption tend to be net-immigration countries. While corruption
does not necessarily cause migration; it is more accurately seen as a contributing factor.

4. GLOBAL MIGRATION: OVERSEAS FILIPINO EMPLOYMENT

Organized labor migration from the Philippines has been in existence for at least 400 years based on
historical accounts dating as far back as the Spanish colonial period (1521-898), during which natives manned
ships in the Manila Acapulco galleon trade.

Thereafter, there were several notable movements mostly to the United States, facilitated by the
special colonial relationship between the two countries. However, it was not until the 1970s when the number
increased rapidly, coinciding with the construction boom in the Middle East as a result of the rise in oil prices
in 1973-1974. From a low of around 50,000 migrant workers in 1975, the Philippines has been deploying more
than a million Filipino workers throughout the world annually since 2005.

It then became a tradition that the Middle East, followed by the rest of Asia, has been the destination
of migrant workers. The flow of migrant workers to the rest of Asia, especially East and Southeast Asia, in the
late 1980s and early 1990s was conditioned primarily by the labor demand of newly industrialized countries in
the region which resorted to labor importation to sustain their economic growth.

At present, the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time during
the period April to September 2018 was estimated at 2.3 million. One out of four OFWs worked in Saudi
Arabia, which remained to be the top destination of OFWs in April to September 2018. OFWs who worked in
United Arab Emirates comprised 15.7 percent. Hong Kong, Kuwait, Taiwan and Qatar were the other popular
destinations of OFWS. Among occupation groups, elementary occupation was the biggest group of OFWs.
Other large occupation groups were the service and sales workers, and plant and machine operators and
assemblers. More than half of the female OFWs were in elementary occupations. Among the male OFWs, the
largest groups were plant and machine operators and assembler workers.

COMMON REASONS WHY FILIPINOS WORK ABROAD

1. Poverty

Poverty is ag issue for a country like the Philippines. Its effects drive many Filipinos to find opportunities for
employment abroad. Ordinarily, if someone could not find a suitable source of employment in his/her own
country, then there will be no other choice but to seek "greener pastures" abroad, Because of these ill
conditions, Filipinos were left with no choice but to go abroad, leaving their families the hopes of having better
situations. It can also be observed by this reality that Filipinos see hope in other countries, which kind of hope
is absent in their own country.

2. Unemployment and Low Wages

Unemployment and low wages are prevalent in the Philippines. This predicament is being carried even by a
college graduate in the country, more so, by those who failed to finish their education. As a result, the Filipino
worker will be compelled to search for income opportunities abroad. In-demand jobs that normally should
have a fair compensation, such as nurses, engineers, accountants, and other professionals, are inadequately
paid, as compared with the compensation that are waiting for these professionals abroad. Even non-skilled
workers, such as housemaids and other laborers, are well compensated abroad than the professionals in the
Philippines. New graduates face the problems of high unemployment rate and less job opportunities as well as
low average salary and benefits offered by local employers in the country. This is not to mention that job
competition increases in the country. Given these, Filipino applicants became desperate to have jobs for lower
salaries and not enjoy benefits as long as there is security of tenure. In effect, most of the employers and
businessmen exploit such situation that keeps their businesses earn more profit at the lowest possible costs.

3. Enhancement of Professional Skills

Filipinos also go abroad for their professional development. This is due to the reality that having a global
experience gives them a career edge among any other Filipino professionals left working in the country.
Abroad, Filipinos deal with different people from different religions, races, and cultures, and this gives them a
unique advantage. Plus, the kinds of opportunities for professional growth abroad are aplenty as compared to
the Philippines. This reinforces the findings of Natividad (2012) that Filipinos go abroad because of the
enhancement of career and professional marketability globally wherein it is stated that nowadays, the world is
very competitive that having international experience gives Filipinos bigger career advantage among other
professionals.

4. Curiosity

According to Natividad (2012), one of the reasons why Filipinos work abroad is to have the experience to
travel and experience abroad. Working abroad gives the perfect opportunity for the working Filipino to travel
and experience life overseas.

Filipinos personal ambitions or goals since childhood can be also drawn out as a reason why did they choose
to work abroad. It gives them the opportunity and the confidence to pursue and realize their own ambitions. It
may not seem to be a valid reason but the same should be counted as in reality, working abroad gives
Filipinos the edge to earn more and afford them more possibilities of advancement than what they can find in
the Philippines.

COMMON RISKS/COSTS OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO EMPLOYMENT

1. Abuse and Violence

Both male and female OFWs are at risk of the possibility of violence, abuse, trafficking, and false accusations.
Further, the past possibility for OFWs to be terminated because of failure to meet the standard for proper
work set by their employers is more likely to occur.

The tendency of foreigners to treat Filipinos as lowly contributes to the set of fears of the OFWS. When OFWS
surfer discrimination, the lack of motivation to complete their tasks occurs. The loss of morale and the loss of
productivity also take place. Also, the lack of protection for OFWs contributes to the said lingering fear. The
most common work fears of Overseas Filipino Workers are the possibilities of abuse and violence that can lead
to severe physical injuries and even death.

2. Weakened Family Ties

Children who are left behind are usually not guided properly. Oftentimes, both parents are working abroad and
the children would only be left under the guidance of their grandparents and relatives. Long separation creates
a huge gap between the parents and children. The effect of parents’ departures on toddlers and pre-teens are
worse.

In addition, the marital relationship between the parents is put at risk. Abroad, several extra marital relations
can result due to the distance brought about by overseas employment. As a result, the marital bond breaks
leading to the destruction of the family, again leading to the detriment of the children.

RELEVANT LAWS COVERING OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS

 Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 8042) Omnibus Implementing
Rules of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 8042)
 Overseas Workers' Investment (OWT) Fund Act (Republic Act No. 7111)
 Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Amending Certain Provisions of Presidential Decree 1694, Creating
the "Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers" Presidential Decree No.1890
 Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Organization and Administration of the Welfare Fund for Overseas
Workers)
 Presidential Decree No. 1694
 An Act Creating the Commission on Filipinos Overseas and for Other Purposes. (Batas Pambansa Bilang
79)
 Law Creating the POEA Executive Order No. 797
 POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Land-Based Overseas
Workers
(February 4, 2002)
 POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Seafarers (May 23, 2003)
 Reorganizing the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration and for Other Purposes Executive
Order No. 247
 Medical Care Program for OFWs and Dependents DOLE Department Order No. 4, Series of 2001
 Revised Guidelines on the Training, Testing, Certification and Deployment of Overseas Performing
Artists
 DOLE Department Order No. 10, Series of 2001

5. GLOBAL HEALTH

WHAT IS GLOBAL HEALTH?

Global health is a dynamic term which is still evolving with the changing world. At present, the term Global
health pertains to an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and
achieving health equity for all people worldwide, Likewise, it has been proposed to refer to a collaborative
transnational research and action for promoting "health for all peoples. Its core is founded on national public
health efforts and institutions. Compared to several countries where public health is equated primarily with
population-wide interventions, global health emphasizes in all strategies for health improvement, whether
population-wide or individually based health care actions, and across all sectors, not just the health sector.

Global health is better understood by integrating the following key concepts (as highlighted by
Koplan, et al.):.

Collaborative (or collective) highlights the critical role of collaboration in addressing all health issues and
especially global issues having multiple determinants and a wide range of institutions involved in obtaining
solutions.

Transnational (or cross-national) pertains to the issues transcending national boundaries despite the
effects of global health issues being experienced within countries. Transnational work is usually based on
strong national public health institutions. This further requires the involvement of more than two countries.

Research refers to the importance of developing the evidence-based policies which are multidisciplinary
focusing on the effects of transnational determinants of health.

Action focuses on the importance of utilizing evidence-based information as basis to improve the quality of
health and health equity in all countries.
Promoting (or improving) pertains to the importance of using a full range of public health and health
promotion strategies in improving health. This includes initiatives toward underlying social, economic,
environmental, and political determinants of health.

Health for all traces back to the Alma Ata Declaration and places global health that the frontline of multi-
stakeholder approaches to health improvements. Eventually, this leads to strengthening primary health care at
the core of all health systems.

"The widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary
social life. These global processes are changing the nature of human interaction across a wide range of social
spheres including the economic, political, cultural, and environmental" (Source: HM Government, 2008, p. 5)

GLOBALIZATION AND HEALTH

Globalization has been regarded as a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon. It primarily involves
the evolution of common understanding of ideas, languages, foods, and popular culture. It is perceived today
as the influence of the Internet, Western and Eastern, Le, American and Korean respectively, particularly in
media, television, films, and corporations. All these have been considered as driving forces either impacting
positively or negatively. Furthermore, the global and rampant spread of fast food outlets and consumption has
significantly revolutionized the lifestyle of the Filipino family and the youth.

Advantages of globalization have been beneficial or a "benign phenomenon". In daily practice, it had
brought further developmental, sociocultural, political, and public health improvements. For example, global
networks of the Internet, worldwide web, and mobile phone communication have been a driving force in
globalization that have already had wide-ranging health impacts. These technological developments have
provided much international health knowledge and have become more influential in dissemination of health
news and information. Hence, this has become more integral to academic and commercial research and
development in health, geared toward helping physicians guide their patients and their families into making
well-informed decisions to effective treatment options best suited to address patient needs and their
resources.

On the contrary, globalization undermines local economies and cultures, replacing them with
"imported" or foreign elements in culture and society. How is it that despite the increasing interconnectivities
in both virtual via email, Internet, and telecommunications and subsequently real connections, there still is the
evident "digital divide" and disparity among nations and socio-economically within countries? These barriers
still exist regardless of being a developed country such as China, where monitoring or censoring access to
various parts of the web and mobile phone networks persists. Similarly, countries such as Burma and North
Korea has been severely restricting Internet access for most of their populations.

Beyond virtual communications, there is a huge leap of 'real contacts brought about by international
business, travel, tourism, and long-or short-term migration. These real contacts may often be beneficial but, of
course, a side effect of any international travel is the huge potential for affecting human health. Immediate
impact of international travel on health is the spread of contagious and infectious diseases. This further goes
beyond acute health issues but also widespread influence of common culture and lifestyles into various parts
of the world. The sociocultural aspects of globalization have been held variously responsible for drifts toward
Western styles of life, consumption, and morals. Many alleged by-products of such globalized lifestyles include
morals, values, attitudes and behavioral change, environmental damage, global warming/climate change.
Moreover, there are direct health status outcomes such as widespread obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
More subliminal changes involve those within societies, such as altered family relations and social contexts for
life and morality, as well as health and welfare of individuals and their families. The "global" in global health
refers to the universal scope of problems instead of location (Koplan et al., 2009).

Global health must, therefore, address in the interlinked sociocultural, behavioral, sociopolitical, and
environmental factors related to health change which are referred to as social determinants of health. These
would further include "lifestyle factors such as alcohol, tobacco, and other drug consumption and control;
micronutrient deficiencies, overweight, and obesity; injury prevention, health of migrants, the migration of
health workers, and the health of people affected by political and natural disasters. These lifestyle factors have
likewise greatly influenced our local health profile in the Philippines such that the top 10 causes of illness and
death in the country are largely due to non-communicable diseases due to unhealthy lifestyle habits and
behaviors, which include cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and pulmonary diseases.

PHILIPPINE HEALTH PROFILE

 In the past years, the Philippines has made significant investments and advances in health. The rapid
economic growth and strong country capacity have contributed to Filipinos living longer and healthier. Despite
this, not all the benefits of this growth have reached the most vulnerable groups, and the health system
remains fragmented affecting gravely the marginalized sector of the Philippine society.

Some positive developments in the healthcare of Filipinos are the following:

1. Health insurance now covers 92 percent of the population

2. Maternal and child health services have improved
a. more children living beyond infancy
b. increasing number of women delivering at health facilities and more births being attended by
professional service providers than ever before
3. Access to and provision of preventive, diagnostic and treatment services for communicable or infectious
diseases have improved.

4. Several initiatives to reduce illness and death due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs)

Despite substantial progress in improving the lives and health of people in the Philippines,
achievements have not been constant and challenges remain. There are still persistent disparities and
inequities between regions, rich and the Med different population groups. Many Filipinos continue to die or
suffer from illnesses that have well-proven, cost- effective interventions, such as tuberculosis, HIV, and
dengue, or diseases affecting mothers and children. Many people sufficient knowledge to make informed
decisions about their own health. Rapid economic development, urbanization, escalating climate change, and
widening exposure to diseases and pathogens in an increasingly global World increase the risks associated
with disasters, environmental threats, and emerging and re-emerging infections.

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH

Social determinants of health refer to the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and
age. These circumstances are shaped by the distribution of money, power, and resources at global, national,
and local levels. These determinants are mostly responsible for health inequities, such as the unfair and
avoidable differences in health status seen within and between countries. Poverty, social exclusion, poor
housing, and poor health systems are among the main Social causes of ill health.

The Philippine Health Agenda for 2016 to 2022 has highlighted that there are many factors that affect
the health of individuals and their communities. Much of the health of individuals is determined by the
circumstances and environment where they live. This would include social and economic environment, physical
environment, and individual characteristics and behaviors of a human being. Structural determinants refer to
those factors which lead to stratification, such as income, education, occupation, social class, gender, and
ethnicity. Intermediary determinants, on the other hand, are factors that directly define and influence health
choices of individuals. These would include individual lifestyle and outcome affected by the former, such as
finances, psychosocial, and behavioral factors (Cabral, 2016).

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON HEALTH

World leaders committed to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 in an effort to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. SDG 3 covers the unfinished Millennium
Development Goal (MDG) agenda and newer challenges such as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), health
security, tobacco, and injuries. As stated by the World Health Organization (2019), the SDG 3 aims to "ensure
healthy lives and promote well- being for all at all ages, with the following health targets by 2030.

This SDG targets the following objectives:

(1) to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100 000 live births;

(2) to end preventable deaths of newborms and children under five years of age, Le, reducing neonatal deaths
with a minimum of 12 per 1000 live births and under-five mortality or deaths at a minimum of 25 per 1000 live
births;

(3) to cease spread communicable diseases such as, AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical
diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases;

(4)to decrease by a third the premature mortality or deaths through prevention of non-communicable
diseases; (5) to further the promotion of mental health and well-being and reinforcing the prevention and
management of substance abuse, e.g.. narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol;
(6) to decrease by 50 percent the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents;

(7) to ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services, particularly family planning,
information, and education; and

(8) to attain universal health coverage (UHC), specifically, financial risk protection, access to quality essential
healthcare services including safe, effective, quality, and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all
individuals, and safety for individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and
contamination.

To address the SDG 3 in the Philippines, the Universal Health Care Act (UHC) or "Kalusugan
Pangkalahatan" was enacted into a law, Republic Act 11223 on February 20, 2019. This law institutes UHC for
all Filipinos and prescribes reforms in the Philippine Health Care System and the funds relating to the
implementation health care in the country. It simply provides every Filipino the highest possible quality of
health care which is accessible, efficient, equitable, appropriately funded, and fairly financed (DOH, 2019).
This law ensures that all Filipinos and their communities is given the necessary quality services which are free
from health threats and financial suffering. This is to be measured by the country's health service coverage
and financial protection.

Lesson 7: Toward a sustainable World

with the issue.

D GRADE (4 POINTS)

1. Is migration a good or bad phenomenon? Justify your answer in five sentences only.

A D grade is given to essays that are deficient and provide barely enough content to merit a passing grade.
Such essays also contain a significant number of writing errors and tend to lack at least one of the basic
aspects of an essay (a thesis, a coherent argument, sufficient evidence, and good paragraph structure). A D
essay often reveals some misunderstanding of the topic or assignment and requires major revision.

2. Describe the status of global health at present. Limit your answer to five sentences only.

LESSON 7: TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE WORLD

1. Sustainable Development
2. Global Food Security
3. Global Citizenship

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After learning these lessons, you should be able to:

1. define in your own words the meaning of sustainable development, food security and global citizenship;
2. identify the challenges to sustainable development and food security; and 3. discuss the types of rights and
duties of global citizens.

B. KEY CONCEPTS:

1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITIONS, PRINCIPLES, AND APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In 1987, the term sustainable development was first coined during the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED). It was defined as the "development that can meet the needs of the present generation
without, compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs "(WCED, 1987). It was bome
out of the recognition that the economic and social needs should be balanced with the capacity of the
environment to provide (Rogers, Jalal, & Boyd 2008). To achieve this, global actors and governments must
make appropriate policies and actions that take into account the entwined aspects of social, cultural, economic
development, and environmental protection and enhancement.

Being a multidimensional approach to development, different organizations have interpreted the sustainable
development concept in various ways. For instance:
  World Bank (1992) wrote, "Sustainable development means considering the costs and benefits of
developmental and environmental policies. It also signifies focusing on meticulous economic analysis in
order to reinforce environmental protection."
 On the other hand, IUCN, WWE, ENEP (1987) expressed that, "Sustainable development is about the
conservation of ecological processes, the safeguarding of genetic diversity, and the balanced utilization
of species and ecosystems.
 Finally, Edward Barbier (1967) also said that, "Sustainable economic development is about improving
the poor people's standard of living, in terms of enhanced food source, Inccreased real Income,
education, health services, water supply, and sanitation. It is only indirectly concerned with Cumulative
economic growth."
World Bank's definition talks about balancing costs and benefits of policies and actions based on economic
analysis. It is not dear, however, how economic analysis can guide actors in enacting activities that
protect the environment and promote people's welfare. Also, In World Bank's definition, the view of
costs and benefits is somehow Incomplete, neglecting their distributive aspect. Benefits may outweigh
the costs but do not necessarily mean redistributing the benefits to the most impoverished. While
World Bank's definition puts emphasis on the economic aspect, UNEP talks more about the
sustainability and health of ecosystems and processes. Barbier's definition, on the other hand, argues
that aggregate economic growth indicators are not as important as human welfare indicators especially
of the poor.
Alongside the different definitions of the concept are the diverse suggestions on the approach and practice to
achieve sustainable development.
For instance, the UK government establishes the five-principle approach to sustainable development:
 Living Within Environmental Limits- Respecting the limits of the planet's environment, resources and
biodiversity- to-improve our environment and ensure that the natural resources needed for life are
unimpaired and remain so for future generations.
 Promoting Good Governance- Actively promoting effective, participative systems of governance in all
levels of society engaging people's creativity, energy, and diversity.
 Ensuring a Strong, Healthy and Just Society- Meeting the diverse needs of all people in existing and
future communities, promoting personal wellbeing, social cohesion and inclusion, and creating equal
opportunity for all.
 Achieving a, Sustainable Economy- Building a strong, stable and sustainable economy which provides
prosperity and opportunities for all, and in which environmental and social costs fall on those who
impose them (polluter pays), and efficient resources use incentivized.
 Using Sound Science Responsibly- Ensuring policy is developed and implemented on the basis of strong
scientific evidence, whilst taking into account scientific uncertainly (through the precautionary principle)
as well as public, attitudes and
values.
The UK govemment puts explicit emphasis on the respect of the carrying capacity of the natural environment
and biodiversity as well as the achievement of a healthy and just society. The government hopes to pursue
this through the sustainable economy that distributes opportunities to all and an economy that imposes
accountability for environmental and social violations, participatory and good governance, and precautionary
principle to account for uncertainties.

In addition to that, the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs argues that global
sustainable development requires "significant price corrections, a strong commitment to conserve natural
abilities, a decrease in inequalities, an addition of environmental accounting, a reinforcement of public spheres
of life, a rerouting of the financial sector to the felt economy, and sharing of income and employment. These
will increase the well-being of people, especially the poorest" (United Nations, 2013).

United Nations (2013) maintains that social and environmental goals must be strongly promoted and that the
well-being of poorest is prioritized. This entails making important transformations in the economy such as the
eradication of inequalities through benefit sharing and accountability for environmental costs, as well as
changes in politics Such as enhancement of democratic spaces.
In 2000, the global leaders from the UN member states reached a consensus and adopted the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) to pursue poverty reduction and human development. It is composed of eight
goals that are targeted to be achieved by the year 2015.
The MDGs are:
1. to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
2. to achieve universal primary education;
3. to promote gender equality and empower women;
 4. to reduce child mortality
5. to improve material health,
6. to combat HIVIAIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. to ensure environmental sustainability, and
8. to develop a global partnership for development

Although significant improvements were attaned in some goals such as the decrease in the proportion of
people living less than $1.25 a day, extreme poverty is still persistent. "Business as usual or the continuation
of existing global and national development strategies presented barriers to the full achievement of the
MDGS (UN 2013). In 2015, LIN member states adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals to address
poverty, inequalities, and climate change by the year 2030.
The 17 goals are the following:
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14. Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17. Partnerships to Achieve the Goal (United Nations)
These goals are the embodiment of pursuing development that encompasses economic prosperity, social
well- being, and environmental integrity.

CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Poverty
Poverty is usually referred to as the lack and deprivation of important basic needs of people, It is also usually
identified and measured through per capita income. In the Philippines, poverty incidence was recorded at
21.0 percent in 2018 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). Poverty incidence is the proportion of the poor
population to the total population. This means that in the Philippines, one in five persons is poor.
Income Inequality. There is clear evidence of fast economic growth since the 20th century as measured
through the global per capita GDP. However, despite the booming economy, the gap between the rich and
the poor also increased. As mentioned, the per capita GDP of the richest 25 percent of the global population
increased almost six times, leaving the poorest population behind (IMF 2000). This persistent inequality is
seen to be an enormous challenge to sustainable development (UN 2013).

Average annual family income in the Philippines in 2015 was Php86,000 for the poorest 10 percent of Filipino
families, while the richest 10 percent had up to Php786,000 average annual family income (Family Income
and Expenditure Survey PSA 2015). This, however, is not the extent of income inequality in the country.
IBON Foundation collected data on the monthly incomes of top businesses in the country and reported that
the Chief Executive Officers of Metro Pacific Investmerits Corporation and Manila Electric Company
MERALCO) have Php7.8 million monthly income compared to the poorest To percent of Filipino families with
only Php5,455 monthly income (1BON Foundation, 2018) Moreover, poverty is not only about income but is
also about insecure income, lack of decent work, lack of education, insufficient nutrition, poor housing, lack
of clean water and utilities, lack of other assets, vulnerability, exploitation, and violence (IBON Foundation,
2018).

UNSUSTAINABLE PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

Maintaining sustainable consumption and production patterns in society are important aspirations included in
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Consumption of natural resources has been tremendously
increasing in the last decades. WWF discussed that in the years 2010-2013, the world population has been
consuming one and one-half Earths in terms of resources and ecological service we access. This is referred to
as an ecological footprint, which refers to the goods and services consumed by a person including the use of
fossil fuels to provide these services and products. Because of too much ecological footprint that exceeds
the capacity of the planet to provide, biodiversity is threatened. Some threats include habitat destruction,
overfishing, pollution, infrastructure development, water over extraction, and poaching (Living Planet Report
2014). However, some of the richer countries have the highest footprint and highest consumption compared
to poorer countries. USA and China are responsible for 32 percent of global ecological footprint (Living Planet
Report 2014). The consumer culture or the obsession with material goods puts pressure on the environment.
However, the consumerist behavior that drives people to acquire an enormous amount of material goods is
embedded in a broader system in crisis. The Story of Stuff argues that the fundamental problem is the
maintenance of a linear system of over traction, over-production, distribution, consumption, and disposal on
a finite environment. This system does not only jeopardize the environment, but it is also a system that
compromises people's health, Human rights, and well-being.

ENVIRONMENTAL DESTRUCTION
The present system of production and consumption creates tremendous impact on the environment. The
present day extraction and production processes often involve over harvesting from ecosystems beyond the
regeneration capacity of the environment, massive carbon dioxide emissions, and the exploitation of common
water and land resources.
The following are information on the state of Philippine environment (Center for Environmental Concerns):

Environmental Indicators Description

Forest Cover At the end of Spanish colonization, forest cover

was more than 20 million hectares. By the 2010s,
forest cover declined to only 23 percent at 7
million hectares.
Mineral wealth In June 2019, there were 488 mineral agreements
covering 705,102 land area (Mines Geosciences
Bureau).

Agricultural ecosystems Forty-one-point seven percent of Philippine land

area is utilized for agriculture, but the poverty
incidence of farmers is at 34 percent (Philippine
Statistics Authority).
Agricultural lands are declining.
Freshwater ecosystem One out of 10 Filipinos does not have access to
improved water sources.
Pollution of freshwater bodies

Marine ecosystem Manila Bay pollution

Depleting coastal marine resources Depleting of
fish stocks
Fish species extinction
Threatened coral reef

Urban ecosystem Destruction of green spaces such as the planned

conversion of Arroceros Forest Park into a gym.

Deforestation is due to over extraction of forest-based products by commercial logging and massive export of
forest-based products. Exploitation of mineral wealth is exacerbated by the Philippine policy that allows 100
percent foreign ownership of mining companies. Urban dwellers in Manila experienced worst water shortages
in March 2019. Mineral resources of the Philippines are being over extracted by foreign mining companies at
the expense of local communities and indigenous peoples. These environmentally destructive practices
exacerbate poverty and vulnerability of already poor and marginalized sectors.

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The current trend of economic globalization, adhering to neoliberal paradigm poses threats to the attainment
of sustainable development. Economic globalization means enhancement of trading among countries. One of
the most important goals is the pursuit of economic growth or enhancement of production of goods and
services. Increasing trading is also about encouraging competition (Cavanagh & Mander, 2004). Some of the
critiques of neoliberal economic globalization include its tendency to pursue unsustainable development. In
particular:
  prioritizing of economic growth that leads to unconstrained extraction of resources from the
environment:
 enhancing economic growth also lead to creating markets all over the world to sustain the economic
growth;
 encouraging competition is supposed to push firms to create better and cheaper products. However,
this drives firms to exploit cheaper raw materials and cheap labor to produce cheaper products
(Cavanagh & Mander 2004).

Furthermore, the structural adjustment policies imposed by the World Bank compel local economies to
prioritize repayment of foreign debts and open local resources and market to foreign corporations. These
neoliberal measures increase the wealth of TNCS while decreasing social service budgets intended to uplift
conditions of laborers, women, farmers, and consumers. Privatization of common resources also threatens
the protection of land, water, and other natural resources (Cavanagh & Mander, 2004).

In the midst of these hardships presented by economic globalization, global civil society and mass
movements create innovative campaigns and strategies to oppose neoliberal globalization and pursue
sustainable development. People organize themselves to respond to unsustainable global economic processes
through protest, legal battles, negotiations with governments, and alliance/network building.

2. GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

There is more than sufficient food produced globally to meet the food needs of all people on the planet
(Action Against Hunger, n.d). Despite this, an estimated 124 million people experience acute hunger today,
approximately 40 million predevelopments higher than the numbers from two years ago. In addition to that,
stunted children are approximately 151 million and wasted children are estimated to be 51 million worldwide
(Grebmer et al., 2018). Rugm.com all-scale farmers, fishers, and rural workers produce approximately 70
percent of food globally but are among the most vulnerable sector to food insecurity (Action Against Hunger,
n.d.). These data reflecting the world status on hunger show the urgency of ensuring global Food security.
Food secunty is projected to remain a worldwide issue for the Coming decades (Rosegrant & Cline, 2019).

Food security occurs when every person, every time, is able to physically and economically access sufficient,
safe, and nutritious food, depending on their dietary needs and food preferences toward an active and
healthy lifestyle (World Food Summit, 1996).

The concept of food secunty emerged during the mid-70s (FAC), n.d.) It recognizes the global issue of
chronic food insecurity. Food insecurity is the phenomenon "when people do not have adequate physical,
social, or economic access to food" (FAO), Food security brings into public policy the food-related problem of
famine, hunger, and food crises Nations and global institutions make various commitments to achieve the
eradication of hunger and food insecurity. Despite actions to address these issues, global food secunty
remains to be a major concern.

The concept of food security gained prominence in the 1970s. First, hunger was seen as a lack of food
supply. The focus of government programs to make food available was boosting of agricultural production
and maintaining price stability of food (food availability). However, in 1981, Amartya Sen argued that hunger
or starvation is not only about the supply of food but people's lack of access to food despite the availability of
food. This resulted in broadening the Concept of food security to include access to food (food accessibility),
which are located in the wider concerns of poverty and development.

In 1986, World Bank introduced that food insecurity can be a permanent or temporary phenomenon, giving
rise to the ideas of chronic and transitory hunger. Chronic food insecurity recognizes the perennial problem
of food insecurity, while transitory food insecurity talks about the momentary shortage of food. This pushes
policy to recognize that sufficient food must be accessible at all times (food stability). Finally, food security
was extended to include issues of food quality. It ensures the utilization of food that meets people's
nutritional balance, traditions, and preferences (food utilization), Hence, the important aspects of food
security are availability, access, utilization, and stability (Napoli, 2011).

MEASUREMENT FOR FOOD SECURITY AND FOOD INSECURITY

To understand the phenomenon of food security and food insecurity, various measures and indices have
been developed. These measures and indices become the bases for actions to eradicate food insecurity and
demand accountability from governments. Measures and indices can encompass analyzes of causes and/or
effects, either qualitative or quantitative and may be done in several levels-from household levels to national
levels (Masset, 2010). Some indicators are expressed in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and
sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, examples of indices used for food insecurity are the
Global Hunger Index and the Hunger Reduction Commitment Index.

Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food
Insecurity in the Population of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Pol measures hunger on several levels, in the regional and global levels, by gathering data on food
availability, consumption, and energy requirements. Some factors being measured are the daily per capita
food consumption, human energy requirements, and agricultural production. On the other hand, the
Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the Population collects data through interviews
regarding people's experiences of difficulty in accessing food. Data can reflect individual and household levels
and can show what part of the population are most food insecure (FAO, n.d.
http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/).

GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

Global Hunger Index is published by Concern International and Welthungerhilfe. It looks into indicators such
as the share of the population related to:

 undernourishment referring to insufficient caloric intake

 child wasting referring children with low weight in relation to their height;
 child stunting referring to children under the age of five that have a low weight in relation to their
age;
 child mortality or under-five mortality rates.

These indicators are given standardized scores to come up with the Global Hunger Index (GHI) score of each
country. The GHI can monitor the state of hunger in the national and global levels to inform policy and
actions where they are needed (Grebmer et al., 2018).

HUNGER REDUCTION COMMITMENT INDEX (HRCI)

Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI) initiated by the Institute of Development Studies looks into
three themes that measure governments' political commitment in attaining food security: governments'
policies and programs; legal frameworks; and public expenditures (Lintelo et al, 2011).

Some of the indicators being measured in HRCI are:

 institutional coordination whether there is a coordinating body to address hunger and malnutrition
and the successes of this coordinating body;
 government intention and action about priority actions of the government on hunger and
malnutrition;
 analytical rigor about the generation of scientific evidence on hunger and malnutrition as the basis for
public policy; and
 learning and adaptation about the government’s effort to innovate with policy approaches to
eradicate hunger and malnutrition (Linteloet al.,2011)

SOME FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SECURITY

Food security is a multidimensional issue. Ensuring the availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability of
food are wed to several social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental processes and factors. Some
of these factors are toot supply, food prices, Income, and sudden changes in the context:
1. Food Supply
As mentioned, early concepts and polices on food security focused on agricultural production to ensure the
availability of food. Food security Involves Sustainably supplying the energy and protein needs and healthy
diet of the people. It is concerned not only with quantity but also the quality of food that promotes the well-
being of people (Martindale, 2015)
Before food comes to people's tables, it goes through a complex process of production, manufacturing, and
distribution where different functions and operations must be carried out (Martindale, 2015).
Food supply is also connected with conditions in agricultural production. This involves issues of rural farmers.
The conditions of real poor farmers should be a focus of the discussion of food security because rural
farmers, usually Small scale producers, have an important role in producing food in developing countries
(Schanbacher, 2010). In the Philippines, farmers and flushers remain to be the poorest sectors in 2015, with
34.3 percent and 34.0 percent poverty incidence respectively (PSA, 2017). Local rural producers must be
sufficiently supported by government programs and reforms to continue to supply sufficient food to the
population.
2. Food Prices
Changes in national and global economic policies and process may lead to increases in oil and food prices. In
the Philippines, inflation hit 4.5 percent in April 2018, leading to a drastic rise in food prices. Inflation slows
down to 3 percent but food prices are still higher than 2018 prices (18ON, 2019). High prices of food can
compromise the food security of citizens.

3. People's Income
Another problem associated with food security is the lack of people's access to food because of poverty
(Nayfor, 2014). Despite the availability of food, people without economic access to buy food may not meet
their food needs. The minimum wage in Metro Manila amounting to Php512 is barely sufficient to meet food
and other needs (180N Foundation). The most income-poor Filipinos are also vulnerable to food price
increases.

CHANGES AND SHOCKS IN SOCIAL AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

Variability and shocks in the social and natural environment may affect food availability, accessibility, and
stability. For instance, climate change may affect the timing and length of growing and harvesting seasons,
amount of water supply, and degradation of resources such as erosion (FAO, 2012). In the Philippines,
farmers may experience lower yields due to the scarcity of rainfall during El Niño phenomena. This will result
in decrease in food supply and income poverty for farmers leading to transitory food insecurity. Conflict also
results in poverty and hunger. UN reports that more than half of the 815 undernourished people come from
countries in conflict (Action Against Hunger).

GLOBALIZATION AND FOOD SECURITY

Food security that is linked to the complex process of food production, consumption, and distribution
intersects with issues of trading, reforms in agriculture, as well as rural development (Schanbacher, 2010).
Economic globalization involves foreign trading of food. This encompasses the creation of a global food
supply chain or the process involving the production, manufacturing, consumption, and disposal happening
across different national borders. Some issues in the supply chain include contamination and the lack of a
mechanism to trace where food comes from. Cultural globalization also creates changes in people's taste,
preference, and consumption of food. For instance, transnational fast food corporations have operated in
different countries. Some or the biggest fast food chains are McDonald's, Burger King, Starbucks, KFC, Pizza
Hut, and Subway.

Economic globalization can also tremendously impact food security. In the Philippines, agricultural food
production weakens because of the decrease in government spending for agriculture as a consequence of
the structural adjustment program imposed by the IMF and World Bank. In 1982, 7.5 percent of total
government expenditure went to agriculture, then spending decreased to 3.3 percent in 1988. Trade
liberalization in the Philippines marked by the joining of the Philippines in the World Trade Organization
required the country to eliminate quota for agricultural imports allowing the entry of cheap imported
agricultural products that discouraged local farmers. The Philippines also became dependent on rice imports
despite the country's ability to become rice self-sufficient (Bello, 2008).

COMMITMENTS TO ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY

Recognizing the urgency and severity of world food security problems, world leaders have made global
commitments to address food insecurity.
In 1996, the World Food Summit was convened by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Rome
where UN member states committed to eradicate hunger and reduce undernourished people all over the
world. The UN members in this summit pledged to commit to a plan of action (Napoli, 2011). It is a
continuous effort to eliminate hunger in all countries, with a short-term goal of decreasing the number of
undernourished individuals to half (1996 World Food Summit).

This commitment was later reaffirmed during the UN Millennium Summit in 2000 that resulted in the
formulation of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Napoli, 2011). The first goal of the MDGs is to
eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. This goal has three targets:
1. To significantly decrease the number of people with daily income below $1.25;
2. To attain full, constructive, and decent employment for all: and
3. To significantly decrease the number of people suffering from hunger (https://www.mdgmonitor.org/mdg-
1- eradicate-poverty-hunger/).
In 2015, UN member states adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Agenda. This encompasses the 17
Sustainable Development Goals that will guide governments, private sector, and civil society to address the
global issues of poverty, Inequalities, and climate change. Sustainable Development Goal number 2 is to
achieve zero hunger (Kaci, 2017).

These commitments push governments to take all necessary actions to combat hunger and poverty through
different policies and programs including boosting agricultural productivity, making agriculture resilient to
climate change, Increasing investment in agriculture, and correcting trade processes.

Aside from this, organizations and movements critical of too much market driven food production system
espouses the idea of food sovereignty as an approach to achieving food security. Food sovereignty focuses
on promoting the well-being of small-scale farmers and producers, landless farmers, and rural farm workers
instead of prioritizing large scale, corporate, and liberalized agriculture and food production (Schanbacher,
2010). Food security is not only about producing food the fastest and cheapest way at the expense of
displacing the livelihood and well-being of poor farmers.

3. GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
Socrates, a classical Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Western philosophy, was once quoted
saying, "I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world." He identified himself as a global citizen.
What is a global citizen? What are the rights and duties of a global citizen? How do we become global
citizens? The answers to these questions will be discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.

WHAT IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP?

Before defining global citizenship, let us first discuss the terms global and citizenship separately. What is
citizenship? Are there varied definitions or is there an overarching one? In fact, there are many definitions of
citizenship. It may be defined on the lenses of membership, status, practice, or performance (Isin & Nyers,
2014. In Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).
For instance, described in terms of membership and status, citizenship is defined as how residents live in a
particular area with previously agreed upon rights and responsibilities. These statutes are restricted in a
particular territory and a political boundary. This means that the citizens must have an understanding of their
rights and responsibilities (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. In Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. eds).

In addition, using the lenses of practice and performance, citizenship may be defined as an institution that
mediates the rights between constituents of a governing system and the system itself. However, the relation
between the citizens and the governing system is not always unified nor stable (Isin & Nyers, 2014. In Isin &
Nyers, 2014. Eds.).

THREE TYPES OF RIGHTS

Two very important aspects of citizenship are civic rights and duties. First, let us discuss the definition of
rights and the different types of rights. Rights are defined as any lawful, social, or moral principle of
autonomy or entitlement. It is a collection of what is allowed and what should be provided to a group of
People based on a particular legal system, norms, or ethical standards (Wenar, 2015).
The three types of rights are:
(1) civil rights,
(2) political rights, and
(3) social rights.

These will be discussed below:

Civil rights are entitlements provided by a certain locality to its public constituents. These include the right to
free Speech. Every citizen is allowed to communicate openly. He/She is permitted to voice opinions even if it
is criticizing the government just as long as it has basis and evidence. Civil rights also include the right to
have and to be treated with dignity.
Political rights are administrative entitlements provided by a specific government. These include the right to
run for office. Every citizen has the right to be elected as a representative of his/her community as long as
he/ she meets various criteria. Social rights are entitlements related to public services and to social
protection. These include insurance, health care, welfare, housing, and pensions (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin
& Nyers, 2014. eds.).

THREE TYPES OF DUTIES

What is the definition of duty? Duty comes from the French word "due" which means "to owe" (Gove, 1986).
Therefore, duty is defined as an obligation or expectation to perform an action based on the law, social
norms, or a moral standard (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, n. d.). The three types of duties, in relation to
citizenship, are:
(1) conscription,
(2) taxation, and
(3) participation.

Conscription pertains to the obligation to register as a reserve force in the army. This means that every
able-
bodied citizen is asked to take up arms and fight for their country in case of war.
Taxation - relates to the duty to pay a compulsory contribution to a state or the government.
Participation refers to the obligation to take part in the community. Every citizen is encouraged to
participate in the development of their community. They are also encouraged to vote for their leaders during
elections (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).

What does global stand for in global citizenship? Internationalization, or becoming global, is defined as
including worldwide components to education (Yemini, 2017). It is concerned with adding international and
intercultural aspects to the approach to education (Knight, 2004, as cited in Yemini, 2017. pp. 2-3). Students
are encouraged to learn about the whole world and international relations.

What is global citizenship? Global citizenship is defined as the belief that all people have rights and civic
responsibilities based on the reason that they reside in the world. Therefore, a person's global identity
transcends his/her geographical and political ones. Although, this does not mean that the individual must
denounce his/her nationality, but these are secondary to his/her global identity (Israel, 2012).

There are three categories of global citizenship. These are:

(1) open global citizenship;
(2) moral global citizenship, and
(3) sociopolitical global citizenship.
These three will be further discussed below:
Open global citizenship believes that nations still exist and differ from one another. However, it
recognizes the interdependence between different nations and the opportunities for cultural diversification.
Moral global citizenship- focuses on the ethical aspect of global citizenship. What are the moral facets of
global rights and responsibilities? Moral global citizenship put emphasis on human rights, equality, and global
responsibility.
Sociopolitical global citizenship emphasizes the social and governmental systems and structures around
the world. It advocates shifting the existing political power in order to advance global equality (Veugelers,
2011).

WHY GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP?

In 2015, the United Nations (UN) summit declaration "Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for
sustainable development named global citizenship education as one of the strategies in the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) 4.7. It was also mentioned in Declaration 36 (UN, n. d.). In addition, the UN
Secretary-General report in 2015 urged educators to utilize global citizenship education to promote peace
around the world (UN, 2015). As one can see, global citizenship is highly supported by international
organizations and worldwide declarations.

LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

An important principle in education is for people to "learn to live together" In fact, it is also crucial in the
rapidly changing world where population is becoming more and more diverse. It is integral for educators to
promote a culture of peace, non-violence, tolerance, and respect. Learning to live together entails
understanding different nation's Interconnectedness and interdependence. It requires strategies for
diplomatic coexistence and compromise. Global citizenship education provides a new lens for the youth to
think critically, cast aside hatred, and have the capacity for dialogue and tolerance (Hahn, n. d.).

RESTORE DIGNITY
Paulo Freire (1970) urges people to be educated in citizenship rights in order to question the hidden
oppressive systems that surround them. The task of global citizenship education is not just to teach about
current systems but also the concepts of global social justice and basic rights (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. in
Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015, eds). Global citizenship education imparts knowledge about the rights of every
individual in the international community. One of these basic rights is that every human being has the right
to live in dignity. Global citizenship education assists in restoring positive identity, dignity, and self-esteem of
individuals (Hahn, n. d.).

ISSUES IN GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Despite the progress in the conceptualizations and in the education of global citizenship, there are still issues
and challenges arising. These issues and challenges may be classified into three:
(1) conflict between global citizenship and national citizenship,
(2) conflict between global citizenship and individual differences, and
(3) development of the imagination for global citizenship.
These will be discussed below:
Conflict between global citizenship and national citizenship Even though people are encouraged to
become global citizens, in reality, they live in their own culture with their own context (1gnatieff, 1994. as
cited in Pike, 2008. p. 225). This is very obvious in countries with a significant amount of immigration
(Yemini, 2017).

The performative aspect of citizenship, not only Looks at the rights and duties being performed, but also at
the rights and duties not being performed or not allowed to be performed. For example, what about states
that do not allow press freedom (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)? How will the global right
to freedom of speech be implemented if the state does not allow it?

Conflict between global citizenship and individual differences for instance, in the membership and
performance aspect of citizenship, how would one classify non-citizens who perform the duty of citizens, like
immigrants that pay taxes? Should they be given the same rights as the citizens (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin
& Nyers, 2014. eds.)? In Italy, for example, immigrants who perform very personal services or care work for
Italian families and know deep-seated secrets are still not treated as part of the family because they are
foreigners. In fact, they are called "intimate foreigners." Examples of these are caregivers, nurses, and
domestic helpers (Hepworth, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).
In another example related to this, "abject citizens" is a phrase used to describe citizens who experience
being rejected from citizenship even though they were born in the same territory. This term usually refers to
nomadic cultures like the Roma or Sinti who are from a different ethnic group with their own culture
(Hepworth, 2014, in an & Nyers, 2014. eds.)

Individuals may also have multiple citizenship identities (Harmington, 2014, in un & Nyers, 2004 instance, a
person may have dual citizenship because he/she resides in two countries. Finally, another source of conflict
is the assumption that. English is the universal language (Yemins, 2017) even though it is not the language
used by the most number of populations.

Development of the imagination for global citizenship

Another challenge is the show progress in developing a global imagination (Richardson, 2008). Citizenship is
not permanent, can be transformed, and contestable (Harrington, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014, eds.)

The word global in global citizenship has the tendency to focus only on the experiences of the majority t
highlights only the existing sociocultural, political, and economic systems. It neglects the experiences of the
minority and the marginalized (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015, in Abdi, Shultz, & Play, 2015, eds)

Who is the active citizen? The word active has come to refer extremes, on one hand, the "good citizen who
follows social norms. On the other hand, it is the "bad" citizen who questions and disobeys social norms to
the concept of active citizenship used to "pacify people? Is it used to make people comply to what is
expected from them? Neveu 2014, in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)

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