NAME – SANYA NAWANI

ROLL NO. -22/SOC/48

NAME OF PAPER- UNDERSTANDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
ASSIGNMENT

NATIONS AND NATIONALISM

INTRODUCTION
For the past two centuries, the concept of the nation has been central as the primary
building block of political organization. International law, founded on the principle of
national sovereignty, grants nations rights akin to those of individuals, including political
independence and the right to self-determination. The importance of the nation is perhaps
best exemplified by the potency of nationalism as a political ideology. Nationalism has
overshadowed other political ideologies in its impact, fueling conflicts, revolutions, the
formation of states, the collapse of empires, and the redrawing of borders.
However, nationalism is a complex phenomenon with various expressions. There exist
diverse political and cultural forms of nationalism, each carrying its own implications. The
political consequences of nationalism can be paradoxical, as it has been associated with a
spectrum of ideological traditions ranging from liberalism to fascism. Nationalism has been
tied both to movements for national self-determination and to ambitions of imperial
expansion, underscoring its intricate nature.
Nonetheless, signs suggest that the era dominated by the nation-state may be drawing to a
close. The nation-state, long championed by nationalists, is confronting increasing pressures
from within and without. Internal challenges such as ethnic or regional separatism, economic
globalization, and cultural diversity, coupled with external factors like supranational
organizations and transnational movements, are placing strains on the traditional notion of the
nation-state. Consequently, the future of the nation-state and the role of nationalism in
shaping political dynamics remain subjects of ongoing discussion and speculation.
WHAT IS NATION? NATION AS CULTURAL AND POLITICAL COMMUNITY
Nations (from the Latin nasci, meaning to be born’) are complex phenomena that are shaped
by a collection of factors. Culturally, a nation is a group of people bound together by a
common language, religion, history and traditions, although nations exhibit various levels of
cultural heterogeneity. Politically, a nation is a group of people who regard themselves as a
natural political community, classically expressed through the quest for sovereign statehood.
Psychologically, a nation is a group of people distinguished by a shared loyalty or affection in
the form of patriotism. The term ‘nation’ tends to be used with little precision, and is often
used inter changeably with terms such as ‘state’, ‘country’, ‘ethnic group’ and ‘race’The
difficulty of defining the term ‘nation’ springs from the fact that all nations comprise a
mixture of objective and subjective features, a blend of cultural and political characteristics.
Objectively nations are cultural entities, groups of people who speak same language and
bounded by same religion.For example, the nationalism of Québecois in Canada, is based
largely on language differences between French-speaking Quebec and the predominantly
English-speaking rest of Canada.India also is an example of nationalist tension based on
religious divisions, examples being the struggle of Sikhs in Punjab for a separate homeland
(Khalistan), and the campaign by Muslims in Kashmir for the incorporation of Kashmir into
Pakistan. The Swiss nation has proved to be enduring and viable despite the use of three
major languages (French, German and Italian), as well as a variety of local dialects.Hence,all
nations encompass a measure of cultural, ethnic and racial diversity.
Ultimately, nations are subjectively defined by their members, who perceive themselves as a
distinct political community. This distinguishes nations from ethnic groups, which lack
collective political aspirations. Nationalism can be understood in various ways, with some
emphasizing cultural ties and others emphasizing political allegiance.

NATION AND NATION-STATE

Defining the terms "nation" and "nation-state" is essential for clarity, despite the conceptual
complexities involved. Initially, the notion of a nation is questioned, rejecting the idea of its
naturalness. Instead, it is understood as a historical construct shaped by certain historical
conditions.
Before modern nationalism emerged, the term "nation" had varied meanings, often referring
to race or clan. However, in the late 18th and 19th centuries, Ernest Renan introduced a
voluntaristic definition of nation, emphasizing factors like will, memory, and consciousness,
highlighting nations' contingent nature and potential for formation and dissolution.
Joseph Stalin later emphasized the distinctive features of nations, defining them as
historically constituted, stable communities based on common language, territory, economic
life, and culture. While Stalin's definition was an improvement, it didn't cover all possible
nations.
Ernest Gellner's contribution in 1983 was significant, suggesting that nations are made by
nationalism, completing the definition. Accordingly, a nation encompasses subjective (will,
consciousness), objective (historic continuity, common features), and ideological
(nationalism) elements.
This comprehensive definition ensures inclusivity while distinguishing nations from non-
national human communities. It acknowledges that not all nations possess all features
simultaneously but maintains that no nation exists outside this definition.
Understanding nationalism becomes easier with this comprehensive definition of a nation.
Nationalism insists on the alignment of nation and state, giving rise to the concept of the
nation-state, where society and state are interconnected. Nationalism acts as a driving force
for the creation of nation-states, reflecting the desire of large modern communities for self-
representation.
With a basic understanding of nations and nationalism established, the discussion shifts
towards exploring theories of nationalism to comprehend this phenomenon further.

VARITIES OF NATIONALISM
LIBERAL NATIONALISM
Liberal nationalism, rooted in the ideals of European liberalism dating back to the French
Revolution, intertwines the concepts of national identity and popular sovereignty. This form
of nationalism asserts that nations are organic communities entitled to freedom and self-
determination, aiming for the construction of sovereign nation-states. However, criticisms
point to its potential naivety and the challenges of defining nations within discrete
geographical areas, as seen in the complexities of Yugoslavia's disintegration. Moreover, the
emotional power of nationalism, often leading to blind loyalty and tribalistic divisions, poses
challenges to the liberal nationalist vision of a peaceful world order.

Liberalism's universalist perspective, valuing individual rights over national sovereignty,

leads to a tension between nationalism and internationalism. Liberals advocate for
international cooperation and intervention to uphold human rights and prevent abuses,
emphasizing the need for supranational bodies like the UN and EU to regulate international
affairs. Despite criticisms and challenges, liberal nationalism envisions a world of equal and
sovereign nation-states, promoting unity within nations and cooperation among them based
on mutual respect and recognition of national rights.
CONSERVATIVE NATIONALISM
Conservative nationalism emerged later than liberal nationalism but became increasingly
intertwined with conservatism in the 19th century. It emphasizes social cohesion and
patriotism over universal self-determination, rooted in a desire for security and identity
within a national community. Conservative nationalism in the UK and USA is often nostalgic,
focusing on traditional values and symbols. It arises in established nation-states under
perceived threats, including internal class conflict and external influences like immigration
and supranationalism. While it can lead to military actions, it's primarily inward-looking and
may be criticized for fostering intolerance and bigotry by promoting exclusivity and cultural
purity.
EXPANSIONIST NATIONALISM
The third form of nationalism is characterized by aggressiveness, militarism, and
expansionism, contrasting sharply with the principles of equal rights and self-determination
in liberal nationalism. This aggressive nationalism emerged in the late 19th century with
European imperialism, fueled by popular nationalist fervor tied to national prestige and
imperial conquests, leading to both World Wars. Integral nationalism, exemplified by Charles
Maurras, emphasizes the supremacy of the nation over the individual, often attracting those
feeling alienated or powerless. It breaks the link between nationalism and democracy,
advocating for ethnic exclusivity and authoritarian rule. Chauvinistic nationalism, named
after Nicolas Chauvin, promotes the belief in the superiority of one's own nation, often
articulated through ethnic or racial superiority, merging nationalism with racialism. It thrives
on the perception of an external enemy, intensifying national identity through negative
integration and scapegoating, as seen in Nazi Germany's anti-Semitic ideology. Expansionist
nationalism seeks national rebirth by drawing on myths of past greatness, often with a
militaristic and imperialistic agenda. Nazi Germany serves as a prominent example, with
Hitler's ambitions for a "Greater Germany" and Lebensraum in Eastern Europe illustrating the
aggressive nature of this nationalism, rooted in imperial projects and dreams of world
domination.
ANTI COLONIAL AND POST COLONIAL NATIONALISM
The emergence of nationalism in the developing world, fueled by the struggle against
colonialism, ironically turned European principles of nation-building against colonial powers.
This led to significant geopolitical transformations, with independence movements gaining
momentum after World War II. Countries like India, China, and Indonesia achieved
independence through various means, including armed conflict. Early anticolonialism drew
from European nationalism but evolved to incorporate socialist and Marxist ideologies,
viewing political independence as intertwined with social development and economic
emancipation. Socialist principles resonated in traditional societies, and Marxism provided a
framework to challenge colonial exploitation. However, since the 1970s, nationalism in the
developing world has diversified, with some movements adopting religious fundamentalism,
particularly Islamic fundamentalism, as a means of anti-Western expression. This shift
highlights the evolving nature of nationalism and its intersection with ideology and religion
in the global political landscape.

THEORIES OF NATION – STATE

Non-modernist perspectives on nationalism diverge from modernist views by emphasizing a
longer historical trajectory and diverse cultural origins. Rather than seeing nationalism as a
purely modern phenomenon, these theories argue for its evolution over time.Within non-
modernist approaches, there are various viewpoints. Naturalists, for instance, perceive
nationalism as an innate human sentiment, existing without needing historical explanation.
They view it as a timeless aspect of human nature rather than a product of historical
development.
Perennialists, often supported by nationalist ideologies, claim that nations have existed in
fully formed states throughout history. They use traditions and historical narratives to validate
nationalist endeavors, presenting a narrative of continuity and ancient origins. However,
scholars caution against accepting nationalist self-images uncritically, recognizing them as
constructed narratives rather than objective historical truths.
Evolutionist perspectives within non-modernist theories acknowledge nationalism's presence
in the modern era but trace its roots back to pre-modern cultural traditions, heritages, and
ethnic bonds. This approach highlights the amalgamation of historical factors over
generations that contributed to the emergence of nations in modern times.
In contrast, modernist interpretations view nationalism as a product of specific historical and
socio-economic conditions, primarily emerging in recent centuries. Theories by scholars like
Elie Kedouri and Ernest Gellner stress the influence of modernity, industrialization, and
economic forces in shaping nationalist sentiments and movements.Tom Nairn presents a
modernist perspective with a focus on colonial societies, portraying nationalism as a response
to the unequal development inherent in capitalism. His theory sees nationalism as a result of
the capitalist transformation of the world, particularly affecting colonial societies where elites
mobilized resistance against foreign rule.
Overall, the diversity of theories reflects the complexity of nationalist experiences across
different historical contexts. While modernist theories concentrate on particular historical
periods and structural changes, non-modernist perspectives underline the continuity of
nationalist sentiments and the varied cultural foundations of nations. Recognizing this
diversity is essential for comprehending the multifaceted nature of nationalism worldwide.
THE PRIMORDIAL PERSPECTIVE
The primordialist perspective on nationalism emphasizes the role of ethnicity and objective
elements such as religion, language, and blood ties in shaping national identities. According
to primordialists, these features are inherent and transmitted across generations with little
change, leading to the perception of nations as natural entities. Primordialist approaches can
be examined from various dimensions, including regional belonging, common descent and
language themes, historical depth, and emotional commitment, all of which have been
influenced by the work of scholars like Anthony Smith.
Primordialists place ethnicity as the foundation, with nationalism emerging afterward. They
view nationalism as a phenomenon developing after the formation of ethnicity, with the
division of people into different ethnic groups being perceived as a natural occurrence.
Descent, emphasizing concepts of kinship, biological ties, and ancestry, holds central
importance for primordialists in terms of national loyalty. However, primordialists
differentiate between nationalism and racism, viewing nationalism as a more flexible
ideology compared to racism, which focuses solely on biology and physical differences.
Scholars like Horowitz and Connor have highlighted the significance of kinship in
nationalist discourses. Kinship, representing subconscious and emotional bonds rather than
conscious and rational ones, plays a crucial role in nationalism, as evidenced by the emphasis
on familial metaphors in nationalist rhetoric. Additionally, geographical discourses such as
"homeland" and "blood and soil" further reinforce emotional attachments to the nation.
Language, seen as a means for understanding the natural world and fostering social
organization, is another key element in primordialist perspectives on nationalism.The
historical view of nationalism is paramount for primordialists like Anthony Smith, who sees
modern nations as continuations of ethnic groups known as ethnise. Smith emphasizes the
continuity between ethnies and nations, defining an ethnie as a population unit with common
ancestry myths, shared historical memories, and cultural elements, while a modern nation
includes additional factors such as a historic territory, mass public culture, and common legal
rights and duties for all members.
GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISM
The onset of globalization has indeed reshaped our understanding of nationalism, particularly
with the rise of concepts like 'transnationalism', 'migration', and 'diaspora'. In today's society,
these terms have become significant buzzwords, reflecting the increased mobility of people
across borders. The emergence of dual citizenship and the formation of cross-border
solidarities among transnational migrants further highlight the impact of globalization on
nationalism.
Arjun Appadurai introduced the concept of 'global ethnoscapes', which describes how
migrants create their own social groups and challenge the boundaries of nation-states. This
challenges the traditional notion of 'national citizenship' and undermines the monopoly of
'nationscapes'. As a result, there is a de-territorial conception of production, consumption, and
identity formation, leading to a sense of belonging to nowhere for some individuals.
However, it's important to note that while globalization may challenge certain aspects of
nationalism, it does not necessarily mean the demise of the nation-state or its authority.
According to Robert Gilpin, although there are changes brought about by globalization, the
role of the state as the primary authority and provider of protection for individuals remains
crucial. States continue to play a vital role in governance and ensuring the well-being of their
citizens, and their authority is unlikely to be completely challenged or replaced by global
forces. Therefore, while globalization may reshape our understanding of nationalism, the
importance and authority of the state persist.

References
Andrew Heywood, “Nations and Nationalism” in Politics, China: Palgrave Macmillian, 2013,
pp.108-127.
Elena Barabantseva, “How do people come to identify with nations?” in Jenny Edkins and
Maja
Zehfuss (eds.), Global Politics: A New Introduction, New York: Routledge, 2008, pp.245-
268.