What is an Algorithm? Explain its characteristics?

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, or a set of rules designed to solve a specific problem or

perform a particular task. It serves as a blueprint for carrying out a computation, data processing, or
automated reasoning. Here are some characteristics of an algorithm:

1. Finiteness:

- An algorithm must have a finite number of steps or instructions. It should eventually come to an
end after executing a defined sequence of operations.

2. Definiteness:

- Each step of the algorithm must be precisely and unambiguously defined. There should be no
ambiguity or confusion in interpreting the instructions.

3. Input:

- An algorithm takes input, processes it, and produces the desired output. The input is the
information provided to the algorithm at the beginning to perform the required task.

4. Output:

- After executing the steps, the algorithm produces a result or output. The output should relate to
the problem being solved and should be clearly defined.

5. Effectiveness:

- An algorithm should be effective, meaning that it should solve the problem for any valid input
data. It should be able to produce the correct output within a reasonable amount of time and
resources.

What is Encapsulation, Polymorphism, Class and Structure?

1. Encapsulation:

- Encapsulation is the bundling of data and methods that operate on the data into a single unit,
often a class, to control access and protect the data.

2. Polymorphism:

- Polymorphism allows objects of different types to be treated as objects of a common type,

enabling flexibility and extensibility in programming.
3. Class:

- A class is a blueprint for creating objects in object-oriented programming, defining attributes and
behaviors that the objects will have.

4. Structure:

- In programming, a structure is a composite data type that groups together variables of different
data types under a single name for organizational purposes.

What is the difference between Stack and Queue. Explain with a coding
example.
A stack and a queue are both an abstract data structure that represent collections of elements with
two main operations:

push (add) and pop (remove).

However, they differ in their principles of access and order.

1. Stack:

- A stack is a Last In, First Out (LIFO) data structure, meaning the last element added is the first one
to be removed.

- The operations on a stack are typically called push (to add an item to the top of the stack) and
pop (to remove the item from the top).

# Example usage:

stack = Stack()

stack.push(1)

stack.push(2)

stack.push(3)

# stack  [1,2,3]

print(stack.pop()) # Output: 3 [1,2]

print(stack.pop()) # Output: 2 [1]

2. Queue:

- A queue is a First In, First Out (FIFO) data structure, meaning the first element added is the first
one to be removed.
 - The operations on a queue are typically called enqueue (to add an item to the back of the queue)
and dequeue (to remove the item from the front).

# Example usage:

queue = Queue()

queue.enqueue(1)

queue.enqueue(2)

queue.enqueue(3)

# Queue  [1,2,3]

print(queue.dequeue()) # Output: 1 [2,3]

print(queue.dequeue()) # Output: 2 [3]

What is time complexity in Software Engineering?

The time complexity is a concept that quantifies the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete
as a function of the size of the input to the algorithm. It provides an estimate of the execution time
of an algorithm in relation to the size of its input. Time complexity is expressed using big O notation,
which describes the upper bound on the growth rate of an algorithm's running time.

Here are some common notations used in time complexity analysis:

1. O(1) - Constant Time:

2. O(log n) - Logarithmic Time:

3. O(n) - Linear Time:

4. O(n log n) - Linearithmic Time:

5. O(n^2), O(n^3), ... - Polynomial Time:

6. O(2^n) - Exponential Time

// program to create a Singly linked list. using JS

class Node {

constructor(data) {

this.data = data;

this.next = null;

}
function createSLLFromArray(array) {

if (!array || array.length === 0) {

return null;

let head = new Node(array[0]);

let current = head;

for (let i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {

current.next = new Node(array[i]);

current = current.next;

return head;

function createSLLFromValue(val) {

return new Node(val);

function addToSLL(head, val) {

let newNode = new Node(val);

if (!head) {

return newNode;

let current = head;

while (current.next !== null) {

current = current.next;
 }

current.next = newNode;

return head;

function displaySLL(head) {

let current = head;

while (current !== null) {

process.stdout.write(current.data + " ");

current = current.next;

console.log();

// Create a linked list using an array

let array = [1, 2, 3, 4];

let headFromArray = createSLLFromArray(array);

console.log("Linked List created from array:");

displaySLL(headFromArray);

// Create a linked list with a single value

let headSingleValue = createSLLFromValue(5);

console.log("Linked List created with single value:");

displaySLL(headSingleValue);

// Add a new value to the linked list

headSingleValue = addToSLL(headSingleValue, 6);

console.log("Linked List after adding a new value:");

displaySLL(headSingleValue);

 The latest version of Swift is "Swift 5.9.1", which was released on October 19, 2023

What are the features of swift?

1. Powerful Generics: Generics allow you to write flexible, reusable functions and types that can
work with any type.

2. Native Error Handling: Swift provides support for throwing, catching, propagating, and
manipulating errors at runtime.

3. Structs and Classes: Swift allows you to define a structure or class in a single file, and the
external interface is made available for other code to use.

4. Protocol Extensions: Swift allows you to define behavior on protocols themselves, rather than
in global functions or individual conformances.

5. Memory Safety: Swift automatically manages memory and prevents unsafe behavior from
happening in your code.

6. Memory Management: With Automatic Reference Counting (ARC), Swift tracks and manages
your app’s memory usage.

7. Flexible Enumerations: Swift enums support pattern matching and can have payloads.

8. Package Manager: The Swift package manager is a cross-platform tool you can use to build,
run, test, and package Swift libraries and executables.

9. Debugging: Swift uses the LLDB debugger, which provides you with a REPL and debugger to
enable integrated debugging, consistent formatting, failure recovery, and expression evaluation.

10. Modern Syntax: Swift has a modern syntax that is easy to learn and use.

11. High Performance: Swift is designed to be fast and powerful.

12. Open Source: Swift is an open-source language, which means its source code is freely
available on GitHub.