UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

Board of the Faculty of Classics

Board of the Faculty of Philosophy

Greats Handbook
for candidates taking the examination in the
Final Honour School of Literae Humaniores
in 2023

Faculty of Classics
Ioannou Centre for Classical & Byzantine Studies
66 St Giles’
Oxford OX1 3LU
www.classics.ox.ac.uk
Contents
Dates of Full Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Course Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Useful Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. Aims and Objectives of Classics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3. Structure of the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4. Choosing your Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5. Essays and Commentaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6. Citation in Examinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

7. Theses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8. Plagiarism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

9. Examinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Examination Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

10. Prospectus of Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

I. Greek and Roman History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

.II.. .Philosophy.
.. . . ................................................. 69
.III.
. Greek and Latin Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
.IV.
. . Greek
. and Roman Archaeology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
.V.. .Philology and Linguistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
.VI.
. . Second Classical Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
. .
11. Teaching Provision for Greats Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

12. Prescribed Editions for Greats. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

13. List of Faculty Officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

2
Dates of Full Terms
Trinity 2021: Sunday 25 April – Saturday 19 June 2021

Michaelmas 2021: Sunday 10 October – Saturday 4 December 2021

Hilary 2022: Sunday 16 January – Saturday 12 March 2022

Trinity 2022: Sunday 24 April – Saturday 18 June 2022

Michaelmas 2022: Sunday 9 October – Saturday 3 December 2022

Hilary 2023: Sunday 15 January – Saturday 11 March 2023

Trinity 2023: Sunday 23 April – Saturday 17 June 2023

Disclaimer
This handbook applies to students starting FHS in Literae Humaniores in Trinity Term 2021
and sitting the final examination in 2023. The information in this handbook may be different
for students starting in other years.

The Examination Regulations relating to this course will be published at

http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/examregs/2020-21/hsoflitehuma/studentview/. If there is a
conflict between information in this handbook and the Examination Regulations then you
should follow the Examination Regulations. If you have any concerns please contact
undergraduate@classics.ox.ac.uk.

The information in this handbook is accurate as at 22 December 2021, however it may be

necessary for changes to be made in certain circumstances, as explained at
www.ox.ac.uk/coursechanges. If such changes are made the department will publish a new
version of this handbook together with a list of the changes and students will be informed.

3
Course Details
Full Title of Award: Bachelor of Arts in Literae Humaniores*
Course Length: 4 years
FHEQ Level: 6
Quality Assurance Agency Subject Benchmarking Statements:
• Classics and Ancient History: https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/subject-benchmark-
statements/subject-benchmark-statement-classics-and-ancient-history-including-
byzantine-studies-and-modern-greek.pdf?sfvrsn=21e2cb81_5
• Philosophy: https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/subject-benchmark-
statements/subject-benchmark-statement-philosophy.pdf?sfvrsn=6fe2cb81_5

Useful Links
Canvas (from MT 2020): https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/

Classics Faculty UG Information Canvas site: https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438

Complaints and Appeals: https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/complaints-and-

academic-appeals

Data Protection: https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/life/it/studentrecord/data

Equality and Diversity at Oxford: https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/equality-

and-diversity

Examiners’ Reports: https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/greats-examiners-reports

Examination Information (University website):

https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/exams?wssl=1

Joint Consultative Committee for Undergraduate Matters:

https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/jcc-for-undergraduate-matters

Lecture Lists: http://rbll.classics.ox.ac.uk/

Prizes for Performance in Undergraduate Examinations:

https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/prizes-for-exceptional-performance-in-
undergraduate-examinations

4
1. Introduction
1. This handbook offers advice and information on the Greats course. We have tried to make
the handbook accurate, but where there is a discrepancy between it and Examination
Regulations it is the latter which will usually be correct. If you spot any such discrepancies,
please email undergraduate@classics.ox.ac.uk.

2. If you are in doubt about the precise prescriptions etc., please consult your tutor. It is
your responsibility to ensure that your choice of subjects conforms to the Regulations. If
through some mischance you submit an illegal combination of subjects for the final
examination, then your college may perhaps apply to the Education Committee for
permission for you to sit that combination. But such permission will not automatically be
given.

3. It cannot be guaranteed that university lectures or classes or college teaching will be

available in all subjects in every academic year: consult your tutor.

4. Also visit the Classics and Philosophy faculty websites for latest news and events, links to
online resources for classicists and lecture information: www.classics.ox.ac.uk and
www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk.

5. Material from the Mods Handbook, on essays, tutors, etc. is not repeated here.

6. Changes that are agreed subsequent to the publication of this volume will be made in the
electronic version at https://www.classics.ox.ac.uk/handbooks.

Significant changes will be drawn to the attention of students and tutors by email.

5
2. Aims and Objectives of Classics
Aims

All Oxford taught courses in Classics have the following general educational aims:

(1) To provide, within the supportive and stimulating environment of the collegiate
university, education of excellent quality.
(2) To attract the best possible students to come to study Classics and associated
subjects at Oxford at an appropriate level, through a range of courses which offer
admission to suitably talented and committed candidates from the widest possible
range of backgrounds.
(3) To build and encourage intellectual confidence and learning capacity in students,
enabling them to work independently under appropriate expert guidance.
(4) To offer students sustained, carefully designed and progressively structured courses
which require independent effort and rigour from them and which yield consistent
intellectual reward and satisfaction.
(5) To produce graduates who are able to deal with challenging intellectual problems
systematically, analytically, and efficiently, and who are suitable for a wide range of
demanding occupations and professions.
(6) To produce graduates, especially at post-graduate level, who will go on to promote
the national and international well-being of Classics and associated subjects through
teaching those subjects in schools or going on to further research and university
teaching in those subjects.

Objectives

All Oxford taught courses in Classics seek to achieve the following learning outcomes for
students by the end of their courses:

(1) To have achieved knowledge and understanding of some core areas and some of a
wide range of options in challenging fields of learning within the Greco-Roman
world, through intense independent study under expert guidance.
(2) Where relevant, to have acquired the ability to read accurately and critically texts
and documents in Latin and/or Greek.
(3) To have acquired the skills effectively to assess considerable amounts of material of
diverse types, and to select, summarise and evaluate key aspects.
(4) To have acquired the skill of clear and effective communication in written and oral
discourse, and the organisational talent needed to plan work and meet demanding
deadlines.
(5) To have progressed successfully with the support of a teaching environment in
which the key features are close and regular personal attention to individual
students, constructive criticism and evaluation of their work, and continuous
monitoring of their academic achievement.

6
(6) To have made effective and successful use in their courses of study of the very wide
range of research expertise in our faculty (the largest in the world) and the excellent
specialist resources and collections available in the University.

3. Structure of the Course

General
There are two courses, Lit. Hum. I and II. If you have done Mods IA, IB, or IC, you will
normally go on to take LH I; if you have done Mods IIA or IIB, LH II.

Most subjects are studied via tutorials, although some are studied in larger classes. These
contact hours drive the learning experience, and you can expect them to cover a range of
topics and approaches central to the subject in question, and to be based on study of the set
texts where appropriate. Reading set texts and staying on top of weekly reading for essays
for tutorials / classes is your responsibility.

Most subjects will also be covered by one or more series of lectures; your tutorials for a
given subject may not always be timetabled to coincide with the lectures, but you can
nevertheless regard them as either a key introduction to or as a consolidation of the tutorial
experience, depending on when you attend. Lectures will provide background to a course of
tutorials, but will also help to familiarise you with the key evidence and principal approaches
for each subject. Their content will inevitably intersect with that of tutorials, but will not aim
to reproduce discussions of central tutorial topics; rather they aim to broaden and nuance
your understanding of them, as well as offering coverage of important themes and questions
not generally covered in tutorials. In general the correlation between lecture series and
specific subjects is obvious, and is made explicit in the prospectuses published each term
with the lecture lists; if you remain unsure, your college tutor(s) will advise. Lectures and
tutorials / classes are thus complementary, and there is a good deal of anecdotal evidence to
suggest that healthy attendance at lectures in order to maximise this complementarity
improves finals performance; note that in some subjects, such as Archaeology and Philology,
it is not realistic to attempt the subjects without attending the lectures.

Lit. Hum. I
In Course I you must offer eight subjects, of which four must be text-based, including at least
one in Greek and at least one in Latin (see below). There are certain restrictions on the
combinations on offer:

▪ Ancient History: you may offer up to five subjects.

▪ Philosophy: you may offer up to five subjects.
▪ Greek/Latin Literature: you may offer up to five subjects.
▪ Greek and Roman Archaeology: you may offer one or two subjects (or up to three if
one is a thesis).
▪ Philology and Linguistics: you may offer one or two subjects (or up to three if one is a
thesis).

For certain text-based subjects the translation test comprises a separate paper; for some,
the translation and commentary tests are combined in a separate paper.

7
Lit. Hum. II
In Course II you must offer eight subjects, except that TWO of these may be replaced by
Second Classical Language (that is, Greek for those who took Mods IIA and Latin for those
who took Mods IIB).

If you take Second Classical Language, the restrictions on your choice of other subjects are
as follows:

▪ Text-based subjects: you must take at least three text-based subjects in addition to
Second Classical Language itself.
▪ Ancient History: you may offer up to four subjects.
▪ Philosophy: you may offer up to four subjects.
▪ Greek/Latin Literature: you may offer up to four subjects.
▪ Greek and Roman Archaeology: you may offer one or two subjects (or up to three if
one is a thesis).
▪ Philology and Linguistics: you may offer one or two subjects (or up to three if one is a
thesis).

For certain text-based subjects the translation test comprises a separate paper; for some,
the translation and commentary tests are combined in a separate paper.

If you offer Second Classical Language in the language in question you may if you wish offer
Greek Core or Latin Core without offering the associated translation paper, but in that case
the Literature subject will not count as text-based.

If you do not take Second Classical Language, the restrictions are the same as for Lit. Hum. I,
except that your four text-based subjects may be all in Greek or all in Latin, and you do not
need to offer one in each.

Checking your options are legal

A:
1. Choose 8 options (or 9 including a Special Thesis).
2. a. Ensure there are no more than 5 options (or 4 if you are doing a 2nd Classical Language)
in history, philosophy or literature.
b. Ensure there are no more than 2 options (or 3 if one is a thesis) in archaeology or
philology/linguistics.
3. Ensure there are at least 4 text-based options (or 3 if you are doing 2nd Classical
Language). If you are a Course I student, ensure that at least one text-based option is in
Greek and at least one in Latin.

B:
Philosophy:
1. If there are 2 or more philosophy options, ensure that at least one is an ancient
philosophy option.
2. If there are 3 or more philosophy options, ensure that at least one is an ancient
philosophy option and at least one is a non-ancient philosophy option.
3. If there is a thesis in philosophy, ensure that there are also at least 3 other options in
philosophy.

8
History:
4. If there are 2 or 3 AH options, at least one must be a period paper.
5. If there are 4 AH options, at least 2 must be period papers.
6. If there are 5 AH options, at least 3 must be period papers.

Literature:
7. Only one literature option can be an extended essay.
8. If there are 3 or more literature options, one must be a Core.

Examination
Most subjects are examined in one 3-hour paper. The exceptions are:
• Greek Core (501) and Latin Core (502) are examined in one 3-hour paper of essays
and commentaries and one 1.5-hour paper of translation.
• Ancient History period subjects (401-6) are examined in one 3-hour essay paper and
one 1.5-hour paper of translation and commentary.
• Historiography (503), Lyric Poetry (504) and Comedy (507) are examined by a
presubmitted essay of up to 6,000 words plus a 1.5-hour translation paper.
• Reception (519) is examined by a presubmitted essay of up to 6,000 words.
• Candidates may offer one thesis (199, 499, 598, 599 or 699) and/or an optional
special thesis of up to 10,000 words (up to 15,000 words in the case of Philosophy
theses and special theses in Philosophy).

The text-based papers are:

Greek Latin
130: Plato, Republic 135: Latin Philosophy
131: Plato on Knowledge, Language and Reality 136: Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic
in the Theaetetus & Sophist Philosophy
132: Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 405: Roman History 5
133: Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind 406: Roman History 6
134: Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic 414: The Conversion of Augustine
Philosophy 502: Latin Core, version (a)
401: Greek History 1 503: Historiography, version (a) or (c)
402: Greek History 2 504: Lyric Poetry, version (a) or (c)
403: Greek History 3 507: Comedy, version (a) or (c)
404: Roman History 4 509: Cicero the Orator
501: Greek Core, version (a) 510: Ovid
503: Historiography, version (a) or (b) 511: Latin Didactic
504: Lyric Poetry, version (a) or (b) 512: Neronian Literature
505: Early Greek Hexameter Poetry 515: Catullus
506: Greek Tragedy 524: Seneca, Medea
507: Comedy, version (a) or (b) 525: Latin Literature from Titus to Trajan
508: Hellenistic Poetry 552: Latin Historical Linguistics
513: Euripides, Orestes
517: Byzantine Literature
518: Modern Greek Poetry
551: Greek Historical Linguistics

9
4. Choosing your Options
In choosing your options in Finals, it is vital that you discuss the question with your tutors.
The syllabus allows you a very wide diversity of choice, even within each of the sub-
disciplines, and you need to choose your papers with care if you are to make the most of
what is on offer. Two basic pieces of advice are:
(a) Don't be afraid to try what is new: lack of previous experience in a subject is unlikely
to put you at a disadvantage.
(b) Don't forget that the different branches do involve quite distinct ways of thinking:
most people find that they only get fully conversant with a particular way of thinking
when they have done two or three papers that require the same sort of thinking.
It may be best to start by reading through the descriptions of the options available which
you will find later in this booklet and marking those by which you are attracted. For some of
you this will result in a selection which focuses heavily on one or two branches of the
subject. For others the selection will concentrate on the Greek side or on the Latin side, but
will be spread over several branches. Having a major focus in one language rather than the
other is one way of ensuring a more or less coherent set of options. For others again, the
attractive papers will be widely spread, both in terms of sub-disciplines and in terms of
language. If you find that this is true of your selection, then think very carefully about the
demands such diversity will make upon you, and whether you could not consolidate your
interests by choosing papers in the separate sub-disciplines which overlap in some way –
supporting Greek Core in Literature with Greek History 2 and/or Greek Art and Archaeology
c.500-c.300, supporting Plato, Republic with Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics or Aristotle,
Nicomachean Ethics with Ethics (or vice versa in all cases).

An example of a combination which seems unlikely to be advisable would be: Greek Core,
Cicero the Orator, Seneca Medea, Post-Kantian Philosophy, Greek History 2 (479-403 BC),
The Hellenistic World, Religions of the Roman World, and Greek Historical Linguistics. There
are various objections to this combination: the literature papers have no strong links; the
philosophy paper is isolated, and one that makes no sense unless other philosophy is
familiar; the history period and topic papers make no contact with one another; and the
number of new things tackled (a new type of Latin, a paper in linguistics, a paper in
philosophy) is excessive. An example of a combination which is wide-ranging but coherent
might be: Plato, Republic, Knowledge and Reality, Theory of Politics, Latin Core,
Historiography, Roman History 6, Nero to Hadrian, Athenian Democracy; but good,
imaginative and productive combinations of courses are legion.

When you have made a preliminary selection of papers discuss it with your tutor who, as
well as having views about good combinations of papers and about your particular academic
strengths, will know what the timetabling constraints are (some papers are taught in
University classes and so can only be taken in particular terms). Make sure you know before
you go down for the Easter vacation which two papers you will be working on during the
Trinity Term so that you can start Greats adequately prepared. Whatever your choice of
papers, Greats is a very challenging degree; and to ensure that it is exhilarating and not just
gruelling, it is vital to get off to a flying start.

10
5. Essays and Commentaries
i. Essays
In Greats you are naturally expected to approach a topic with more knowledge and greater
maturity than for Mods. In an essay, you should bear in mind the following principles,
relevant in all parts of the course.

The essay cannot be an exhaustive treatment of the subject, but should deal adequately with
it given the time available. Select the most telling examples and the most effective
arguments from among the material you assemble during your reading.

Do not write what amounts to an encyclopedia article on the author, work or topic in
question. Do consider the question asked, and direct your answer at that question (though
you need not fight shy of challenging the terms and the assumptions of the question).

Your essay should be literate and well-presented, with a firm structure and suitably
paragraphed. This means a certain amount of advance planning. You should be drawing on
the items on the reading list, but not just regurgitating them. If you quote, whether from
ancient or modern sources, give the proper reference (including if appropriate a bibliography
at the end). You should not despise valuable tools such as a dictionary or Roget’s Thesaurus.
Punchy or stylish writing is welcome, but do not make high-flown rhetoric a substitute for
serious argument.

There is a difference between the essay prepared over several days for a tutorial or class and
the essay you produce in the final examination paper, which you may have to plan and
compose in less than an hour. Obviously in the latter you will not be able to say as much,
give as many examples, or develop as detailed an argument as in the tutorial essay.
Examiners realise this, and will not be expecting the impossible. Nevertheless, to a
considerable extent the same qualities are being sought: knowledge of the issues, ability to
construct an argument, good judgement and sensitivity to the nuances of words, whether in
a literary, historical or philosophical context.

Some more detailed guidelines, drawn up for Literature and Philosophy but essentially
relevant to all branches:

a. Literary Examination Essays:

1. Selection. Examination essays of 45 or 60 minutes cannot hope to cover the wide territory
often surveyed in tutorial essays written with full use of books over much longer periods.
The key is selection: a successful examination essay needs to select the points crucial to the
topic in hand, and not too many of them, and deal swiftly and methodically with each. Just
going through the text summarising and commenting on it may be a useful preparation for
tutorials, but it will cut little ice in examination essays. Choose the most important passages
in your view, and use them in your answer.

2. Relevance. Read, think about, and answer the question on the paper – not the one you
would like to have been asked. Don't simply regurgitate material from a tutorial essay, which
is unlikely to have been an answer to exactly the same question. Beginning the essay by
defining the question, and ending it by returning to it to work out what kind of answer you

11
have produced, can often be helpful in ensuring that what you write is relevant.

3. Personal Views. Don't be afraid to give your personal views; the examiner will be much
more interested in what you think than in repetition of standard opinions, of which he or she
has already read large numbers. Of course, personal views should be more than purely
subjective comments; judgements should always be accompanied by justifying argument.
But the whole point of reading classical literature at Oxford is to engage in and enjoy a
personal encounter with a text, and this should be reflected as much in examination essays
as in tutorial discussions.

4. Essay Structure. This may vary according to topic and taste, but the essay as a whole
should have a clear and coherent argument, which should be reflected in its structure. The
use of paragraphs in articulating material is particularly important: if possible, try to use a
single paragraph for each crucial point, and ensure that there are logical connections
between paragraphs. The writing of a short essay plan often helps to clarify structure.

5. Evidence. Do use textual evidence to back up your arguments and suggestions: ideas are
much more persuasive when supported by passages of text – without such evidence they
become mere assertions. Textual evidence need not mean massive memorising of chunks of
ancient languages: accurate paraphrase in English is much better than inaccurate quotation.

b. Philosophy Essays:
The essentials of good essay writing in examinations are common to all sides of the Lit. Hum.
course. Make sure that you understand the question and address that specific question,
omitting all material which is not strictly relevant to that task. Avoid at all costs the
mechanical reproduction of prepared material which, though covering the general topic,
does not address the specific question. Secondary literature and the views of other
philosophers should be cited where, and only where, such citation contributes to the
primary task of answering the question; you are not expected to demonstrate familiarity
with secondary literature for its own sake. Where the question calls for you to argue a case,
state your views clearly and concisely and support them by appropriate arguments, using
examples and counter-examples where relevant. Do not be afraid to state without argument
the assumptions from which you are arguing; every argument must begin somewhere. In
philosophical essays, as in gobbets, your primary focus should be on content.

ii. Advice on gobbets (commentaries)

a. Ancient History:
A gobbet is a passage of text on the content, the context and the significance of which you
are asked to comment. At the core of the exercise is the illumination and interpretation of
the particular passage in the light of your wider understanding and knowledge of the paper.

1. Context. This can have two parts. The first (always relevant) is where you locate the
passage in the historical work in which it appears. (This shows an agreeable familiarity with
the work in question.) The second (relevant if an event is at issue) is where you locate the
episode in its historical context, with attention to chronology, geography, and the like. (This
shows agreeable familiarity with the historical setting.)

2. Content. This is where you explain details necessary to the understanding of the passage,
e.g.: identify (briefly) named individuals, anyone or anything referred to by pronouns, any

12
interesting places; explain constitutional details referred to and the like.

3. Significance. This is where you explain why and how this particular passage is
interesting/important. The passage might reveal something about the method of the writer,
(for example details of verbal style (e.g. unusual or colourful vocabulary); metaphor and
related figures (e.g. simile, personification); it might offer interesting comparison with one or
more other ancient accounts, inscriptions, monuments, or artefacts; it might contain
material central to the understanding or interpretation of the actions, policy, etc. of some or
all of the characters involved; it might contain a chronological crux, it might well do more
than one of the above or other analogous things besides. In any case, what difference does
this passage and its interpretation make to our understanding of something? Why should
the student of the Classical world be glad that this piece of evidence has survived?

It is not expected that people will have extensive recall of all that is to be found in
Commentaries. This is not what is being looked for. What is being looked for is, rather,
familiarity with prescribed texts and ability to deal, in an informed and perceptive way, with
significant passages from those texts.

DO read the passage carefully. DO focus your response on the passage in question. DO NOT
spend time simply paraphrasing the passage.

Specimen gobbet
Atque interea statim admonitu Allobrogum C. Sulpicium praetorem, fortem virum, misi qui ex
aedibus Cethegi si quid telorum esset efferret; ex quibus ille maximum sicarum numerum et
gladiorum extulit.

[In the meantime, following the advice of the Allobroges, I immediately sent that gallant
man, the praetor C. Sulpicius, to get from the house of Cethegus any weapons that were
there, and he brought out a very large number of daggers and swords.]

(CICERO, In Cat. 3.8)

Attempt I
This extract comes from Cicero’s speech to the people in the forum late in the afternoon of
the 3rd December 63 BC. In this speech he reported the events of the previous night, when
Volturcius was captured at the Mulvian Bridge while trying to leave Rome with the
Allobroges, and of the meeting in the senate the following day, when the urban conspiracy
was revealed thanks to the evidence of the Allobroges and Volturcius.

This passage describes how, on the morning of the 3rd December, while the senate was
assembling (interea, l.1), Cicero instructed the praetor Gaius Sulpicius to search the house of
C. Cornelius Cethegus. When challenged before the senate to explain the presence of so
many weapons in his house, Cethegus supposedly claimed that he had always enjoyed
collecting good metalwork. Apart from the letters from the conspirators to the Allobroges
and Lentulus’ letter to Catiline, this cache of arms was virtually the only hard evidence Cicero
had for the urban conspiracy.

Cicero elsewhere describes Cethegus as violent and impetuous; he is said to have been
appointed to oversee the massacre of the senate. Cicero also says that although the other

13
conspirators wanted to wait until the Saturnalia before launching the massacre, Cethegus
wanted to bring the date forward. He was one of the five conspirators executed on the night
of the 5th December.

The Allobroges were a tribe from Transalpine Gaul. They were heavily in debt to Roman
businessmen at this period, and the envoys appear to have been sent to Rome to petition
the senate for debt-relief. If they hoped for more favourable treatment through their
betrayal of the conspirators, they were disappointed; the following year the Allobroges were
driven to open revolt by the pressure of debt.

It is interesting to find a praetor engaged in searching the house. Cicero made much use of
the urban praetors in the course of his suppression of the conspiracy. Their main
responsibility at this period was to preside over the law-courts, but they could also serve as
the consul’s immediate ‘enforcers’ at a time of crisis. Cicero sent two praetors with an
armed force to arrest Volturcius on the 2nd December, and at the start of November, as
Sallust tells us, two more praetors had been sent out at the head of armies to quell unrest in
other parts of Italy.

Attempt 2
This passage is taken from Cicero’s third speech against Catiline. His four surviving speeches
against Catiline are our main contemporary source for the Catilinarian conspiracy. The
speeches as we have them may not represent exactly what was said by Cicero at the time,
since we have evidence for Cicero revising his speeches later for publication (as in the case of
the pro Milone, as reported by Asconius).

Here Cicero describes how, on the information of the Allobroges, he sent the praetor C.
Sulpicius to bring whatever weapons he could find from the house of Cethegus, one of the
conspirators. He is said to have found a very large number of daggers and swords, proving
that Cethegus was involved in the conspiracy and that a massacre was being planned at
Rome. However, it is not certain whether Catiline was actually involved in this plot or
whether this was an independent conspiracy, as Seager has argued.

Sulpicius is described as a ‘gallant man’ (fortem virum). Cicero must have been grateful to
him for taking on this task, which might have been very dangerous. No-one knew how far
the conspiracy went, and Cethegus could have tried to resist when Sulpicius searched his
house.

The mention of the Allobroges is interesting. They were Gallic tribesmen whom Cethegus
and others had tried to bring into the conspiracy. Their decision to betray the conspiracy to
Cicero was crucial to the uncovering of the plot, and they were later rewarded for this.

Cethegus was convicted of involvement in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and was executed
after the debate in the senate on the 5th December. The execution of Cethegus and the
others brought Cicero great unpopularity in later years, since despite the passing of the SCU
(senatus consultum ultimum) he was perceived to have acted unconstitutionally. This
passage suggests that Cicero had some justification for his actions, since the cache of arms at
Cethegus’ house proved that a major plot against the state was underway.

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Comments:
Specimen gobbet 1 would normally expect to receive a good first-class mark; Specimen
gobbet 2 a low-ish 2:2 mark. Why?

Paragraph 1. Both candidates provide general context. But Student 1 provides in the very
first sentence four pieces of information which could not be gained simply by reading the
passage: (1) to the people (2) in the forum (3) late afternoon [after the meeting of the
senate] (4) 3rd Dec. 63 BC. In the rest of the paragraph, Student 1 accurately summarises
enough of the content of the speech to make sense of the passage at hand (uncovering of
conspiracy thanks to Allobroges), and shows that she remembers the name of the crucial
figure (Volturcius). Student 2, however, in her first sentence says nothing which couldn’t be
learned by reading the reference (CICERO, In Cat. 3.8) at the bottom of the passage. The
second and third sentences look at first sight somewhat more impressive, but in fact could
be used for any gobbet from any part of the Catilinarians – hence they get no credit.

Paragraph 2. Student 1 situates the passage precisely in time (reference of interea). Writing
Gaius Cornelius rather than C. Cornelius takes half a second longer and shows that she
knows what C. stands for. She remembers Cethegus’ defence against the accusation of
hoarding arms (shows pleasing knowledge of the rest of the speech). Student 2 summarises
the whole passage, which Student 1 rightly doesn’t bother to do. The final sentence of
Student 2’s paragraph 2, on Catiline and Seager, again looks superficially impressive, but is in
fact completely irrelevant to the passage at issue (could be inserted into almost any gobbet
on any of the Catilinarians!).

Paragraph 3. Student 1 tells us what else she knows about Cethegus. Not much detail, but
that’s ok: does at least show that she has read the sources carefully enough to remember
who’s who. Student 2 knows nothing else at all about Cethegus, so guesses (incorrectly) that
the examiner might be interested in her views on the phrase fortem virum, which are all too
obviously based on no knowledge whatsoever. This kind of ‘arguing from first principles’ is
very characteristic of desperate exam candidates whose knowledge has run out two
sentences into the gobbet...

Paragraph 4 in both cases is a bit pointless: with a richer gobbet to work with, you could
omit this altogether. Once again, Student 1 provides relevant argument (why the Allobroges
got involved in the conspiracy, and why they betrayed it); Student 2 provides summary of
events (what the Allobroges did).

Paragraph 5. It doesn’t matter that Student 1 can’t remember any names here (an examiner
would probably need to look them up too) – the point is that she shows she has been paying
attention while reading the set texts. Student 2 has patently run out of information, and
piles in some random information (the SCU, described in two different ways to fill space),
before guessing at the ‘significance’ of the passage.

In general: Student 1 can do names, dates, places, content of the speech, what happens
immediately before and immediately afterwards. Student 2 has absolutely nothing to work
with but the passage itself and a broad and general knowledge of the conspiracy as a whole.
Student 1 knows what a praetor is and does, and worries about whether praetors usually got
involved in house-searches; this leads her on to speculate (relevantly!) about what the
praetors’ role might have been in the suppression of the conspiracy. Student 2 evidently

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thinks: praetor, quaestor, censor, proctor, whatever.

Optional Gobbets on Period Papers

The optional gobbet question allows candidates to discuss a gobbet in greater depth than is
possible in Question 1. You should answer on only one of the three gobbets, remembering
that the time available to you for an answer is the same as that for an essay. Individual
gobbets for this question may involve comparison of two passages, or of a passage and an
image. The gobbet is identified and (in the case of documentary evidence) dated for you; you
should discuss its context, content and wider significance (using the methodology suggested
above for qu. 1). If the text is an inscription or a papyrus, you may want to comment on the
material on which it is written, the technical challenges involved in dating it, or the problems
of restoring the text.

You may want to discuss people, places or events mentioned in the gobbet. There may be
striking points of language, rhetoric or historiography to note. It may be appropriate to
assess the place of the gobbet in the author’s work, or in the study of epigraphy or
papyrology. You will be expected to discuss the role of the text in the history and
historiography (political, social, economic, religious, cultural...) of the period.

As in Question 1, you should avoid straight translation or paraphrase of the passage (though
you may want to discuss the interpretation of words or phrases). It is advisable not to devote
the whole commentary to one aspect of the text, but to try to do justice to it all. Avoid long
narratives of events: bear in mind that the examiners are most interested in your ability to
reason, to make connections between sources and deductions from evidence, and to discuss
historical ideas. Resist any temptation to reproduce your tutorial essay on the nearest
related topic. (If the Lex Agraria of 111 BCE were set, for instance, the examiners would not
be looking simply for an account of the second-century agrarian crisis and the tribunates of
the Gracchi, but for a discussion of how and why this text is important for debates about
that and related topics).

b. Philosophy:
The first requirement is to identify the argumentative context of the passage, e.g. `This
passage occurs in Socrates' response to Thrasymachus' claim that the ruler properly so-
called is expert in promoting his own advantage; in reply Socrates urges that all expertise
aims to promote the advantage of that on which the expertise is exercised, hence the expert
ruler must aim to promote, not his own advantage, but that of the subject'. You should then
set out the specific contribution of the passage to the argumentative context, e.g. a sub-
argument (in which case the steps of the argument should be set out), or a distinction (in
which case you should clearly state what is being distinguished from what), or the
introduction of some key concept, which should be clearly elucidated. Where appropriate,
elucidation should be followed by criticism; thus if the passage contains a fallacious or
unsound argument, or a faulty distinction, the flaw should be briefly identified. If the
significance of the passage goes beyond the immediate argumentative context (e.g. in
introducing a concept which is important for a wider range of contexts) that wider
significance should be indicated. Wider significance may be internal to the work as a whole,
or may extend beyond it, for instance by relating to some theme central to the thought of
the author (such as Plato's Theory of Forms or Aristotle's Categories) or to some important
topic in modern philosophy. Your primary focus in philosophy gobbets should be on
argumentative and conceptual content. Details of sentence construction, vocabulary etc.

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should be discussed only in so far as they affect the content thus conceived. The same goes
for the identification of persons etc. named in the passage; note that where the passage is
taken from a Platonic dialogue it will usually be relevant to identify the speaker(s). It is vitally
important to observe the time constraints imposed by the number of passages to be
translated and commented on. Brevity, relevance and lucidity are crucial. It is especially
important not to be carried away in expounding the wider significance of the passage (see
above); a gobbet should not expand into an essay on the Theory of Forms or the problem of
universals. Use your own judgement on how much you can afford to put in.

c. Literature.
Writing a literary commentary should not be the same as writing a short essay. A
commentary is largely concerned with the explication of a single passage of text; an essay is
directed towards a different goal – making a more general argument or arguments on a set
topic, using a wide range of primary and secondary evidence. Here are some guidelines on
commentary-writing which may be of use.

1. Identify the context (briefly but precisely), paying some attention to what follows as well
as what precedes. If the passage is part of direct speech, identify the speaker.

2. Say what you feel should be said about the passage as a whole. This will vary from author
to author and passage to passage, but the following suggestions may be useful:

(a) How the passage fits into the overall themes of the work from which it comes (e.g. Ajax
121-33 and the values explored in the play). Do cross-refer to other relevant passages, but
do this fairly briefly (commentary, not essay!).

(b) [In drama] general elements of stagecraft and scene-setting.

(c) [In narrative works] the passage's place in the plot and narrative development (is this a
crucial or a pivotal point? does it look forward or back to other points?).

(d) Logical and rhetorical structure (argument, coherence).

(e) Intertextuality, i.e. significant remodelling of or allusion to earlier literature (e.g. Greek
lyric model for a Horatian ode, Aeschylus used by Euripides).

(f) Any relevant literary conventions which determine the overall character of the passage –
e.g. hymn-style, supplication scene, priamel, ecphrasis, locus amoenus, paraclausithyron,
propempticon (if any of these terms or others are unknown to you, look them up in e.g. the
indices of Nisbet & Hubbard's commentaries on Horace's Odes or of Russell &
Winterbottom's Ancient Literary Criticism, or in the glossary in Heyworth & Morwood on
Propertius 3).

3. Say what you feel should be said about the details of the passage, going through it in
order and indicating points of interest. You may find it useful to quote a few words of the
original and then comment on them, or use line numbers to refer to the text, but you can, if
you prefer, write in a more discursive manner. The following might be worth noting:

(a) Significant names, periphrases and factual references (note significant: there may not be

17
time to explain all, and some will be too obvious to bother with).

(b) Detailed examples of the elements listed in 2 above (specifically keyed to the wording of
the passage).
(c) Rhetorical devices (e.g. anaphora, apostrophe, tricolon); but you need not go to extremes
memorising ancient or modern technical terms.

(d) Metaphor and related figures (simile, personification, etymological play, metonymy).

(e) Verbal style (general linguistic register, unusual/colourful vocabulary).

(f) Word order (e.g. artistic rearrangement of natural order, esp. in poetry).

(g) Use of metrical form in poetry (couplet, stanza, verse paragraph); particular metrical
effects (enjambement, hypermetre, antilabe, stichomythia), sound effects (but avoid
indiscriminate use of phrases like 'sinister s-sounds', 'gloomy spondees' etc.); rhythmical
clausulae in prose.

4. Finally, if possible, explain as well as describe: it may be worth saying that grata compede
(Horace, Odes 1.33.14) is an oxymoron, but you might also say why it is there, what its
literary function is within the passage.

d. Archaeology:
(i) Introduction. The following suggestions are concerned with tackling picture questions in
exam papers that involve classical art and archaeology. Depending on the subject of your
paper and on the category of item shown in any given picture question, not all of the
suggestions and aspects covered below will be equally applicable. The guidelines offer ways
of approach, aspects that might be discussed, and a sequence in which they might be
addressed. Others are possible. Lectures will also provide guidance for dealing with picture
questions.

(ii) Not primarily an identification test. A crucial sentence in the rubric governing all picture
questions in Special Subject papers says they ‘will not necessarily be of things of which you
are expected to have prior knowledge’. In other words, the pictures may show familiar things
that you quickly recognise, or they may equally show things that you are unlikely to have
seen before. There are so many objects that some candidates might have come across,
others not, that Examiners are not thinking in terms of what should or should not be
recognised. So: identification is not the main point of the picture question. Examiners want
to see you bring wide knowledge of the subject to bear in assessing a single specific example,
and to see how you can use a specific example to make telling general points. In the Text &
Contexts paper all pictures will be from the images published on WebLearn; but identification
is still not the main purpose of the exercise.

(iii) Aspects, headings. The following headings and aspects might be covered, some briefly,
some more fully, as relevant.

A: TITLE. Give a brief summarising title to your answer. If you recognise the item, give its
familiar name and state quickly anything else you can remember of its material, subject,
date, provenance, and current location: 'Artemision Zeus. Bronze statue, c. 470-60 BC, from

18
Cape Artemision. Athens, National Museum'. If you don't recognise the item, give a plain
descriptive title, perhaps mentioning a preliminary assessment of its broad date and likely
place of manufacture, if you know them, which you might come back to in your discussion:
‘Athenian black-figure cup, 6th century BC’. ‘Marble portrait bust of bearded man, 2nd
century AD’. After the title, you might need to say what kind of picture you have been set:
photo, photo detail, drawing, reconstruction. Drawings of sites and buildings are of course
different: state plan, restored plan, elevation, section, reconstruction.

B: OBJECT (material, scale, function). What is it? What kind of object or structure is shown?
What is it made of? Gold earring, silver drinking cup, bronze helmet, terracotta statuette,
marble temple. What was its function, what was it for? Often this is self-evident (helmet,
earring) or obvious enough to be quickly stated: ‘black-figure krater for mixing wine and
water’, ‘marble grave stele’, ‘amphitheatre for gladiatorial games and beast hunts’.
Sometimes function requires discussion: a marble statue might be, for example, a cult,
votive, or funerary figure, or a piece of Roman villa decor. Function might lead to discussion
of contexts of use and to the effect of such an object in a sanctuary, cemetery, or villa.

C: SUBJECT (iconography). If the item is figured, what does it represent? Give a brief
description of the subject, its iconography: pose, action, clothes, hairstyle, action, attributes
of a statue; the action, participants, subject of a narrative scene. How do you recognise the
figure(s), what is the action, occasion, setting represented, how is the story told? For non-
figured artefacts and structures, briefly describe their form and main components: ‘a pebble
mosaic floor with alternating black and white lozenge pattern’, ‘an engaged tetrastyle Ionic
tomb facade with brightly painted red and blue pediment and akroteria’.

Learn and use the appropriate professional terminology – for example, for pot shapes or
parts of classical buildings. This is not exclusionary jargon but a way of being accurate and
concise. In describing a temple, 'amphiprostyle' is shorter and clearer (once you have learned
it) than 'has columned porches on both short ends but no columns on the long sides'. If you
do not recognise the subject or the building type, you will spend longer here providing a
careful description of what you see. Remark on any interesting details: show you have
looked.

D: STYLE (with technique, date, place). How is the subject represented, how is the figure
styled, how was the object or structure made? This can be shorter or longer, but the key is to
find good descriptive words and to find one to three parallels or comparanda between or
beside which the item in question can be placed. From this process you should make an
assessment of place and date of manufacture. Style and technique are usually among the
most time- and place-specific aspects. Do not be more precise than you can sustain from
your knowledge or than the category of object in question can sustain. Remember that not
all things can be dated or placed with equal precision. Sometimes we may say confidently
‘Corinthian aryballos, c. 650 BC’. Other times we must be broad: ‘marble statue, probably 4th
century BC’. If unsure, give a broad specification.

Any points of interest that you know or can see in the picture that relate to technique, craft,
or manufacturing can be discussed with style. They are often closely connected to stylistic
effect, and often carry indications of date. For example, whiteground lekythoi with 'second'
white belong 480-450 BC. Roman portraits with drilled eyes belong after c. AD 130.

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E: SIGNIFICANCE. If you have recognised the object or have been able quickly to diagnose its
function, subject, date, and place, you will spend most time on this aspect. You will score
higher the more you can make your points come out of observation or assessment of the
specific item in question. You might think about the object's significance in relation to one or
more of the following overlapping questions.

How typical or unusual is it? How well does it fit into a larger category? If not typical now,
how unusual was it in antiquity? Remember that few things that survive can have been
unique. What was the original effect of the object compared to the state we see it in now?
What needs to be restored – limbs, attributes, attachments, colours, pedestal, base,
explanatory inscription? What were the contexts of use – public, private, political, religious,
in public square, sanctuary, house, andron, bedroom, grave? How was the object used and
how do the contexts of use affect our assessment of it?

What was the social level of the object, who commissioned and paid for it, with what target
audience in mind? How might the object's social level affect our assessment? For example,
temple projects could be aimed at the whole community, while private funerary monuments
might be aimed at a particular social group. What kinds of things would ancient
viewers/users do or say around this object, image, or structure? What ideas, priorities,
values did it articulate for its user group?

What kinds of scholarly interpretation have been proposed for this object or for the category
to which it belongs? Do you agree with them, find them persuasive? What weaknesses do
they have? Are other views possible, better? What do you think is the important point?

(iv) Sample A: item recognised.

Artemision Zeus. Bronze statue, over life-size, c. 470-60 BC, from the sea off Cape
Artemision (N. Euboea). Athens, National Museum.

The statue was probably a major votive in a sanctuary. It represents a naked and senior
god, in striding pose, left arm held out, aiming, right arm bent holding a missile (now
missing). The missile was either a trident (for Poseidon) or a thunderbolt (for Zeus). The
best parallels in small bronzes from the late archaic and early classical periods (good
example in Berlin) as well as the latest scholarship all suggest a thunderbolt and Zeus. The
square head, regular features, and above all the long hairstyle wound in a plait around the
head, visible in the back, indicate a senior god (rather than hero or mortal). The strong,
simplified features, the hard-muscled body, and the organic pose and proportions all
indicate a date in the 460s alongside the Olympia sculptures. The large eyes, now missing,
were inlaid and were vital to the effect of the figure.

The statue belongs in the period after the Persian Wars, when the hard, new realistic-
looking style we know as 'Severe' was created in big votive figures like this one, set up in
sanctuaries of the gods often as thank offerings paid for from Persian-war booty.

The figure is a powerful fifth-century-BC visualisation of a warring Hellenic divinity –

imperious, all-seeing, potentially devastating. It belongs in the same environment as the
Riace bronzes, the Olympia pediments, and the statuesque figures on the large pots of the
Niobid Painter and his group.

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(v) Sample B: item not recognised.

Reconstruction drawing of terrace sanctuary. Probably central Italian. Probably later

second or first century BC.

The drawing shows a huge raised platform (c. 130 by 70 m, according to scale), terraced
against a steep slope that falls away to the left (north). The terrace is supported here on
tall, buttressed substructures that are cut away in the drawing to show they are made up of
parallel, probably concrete vaults. The mouth of a tunnel emerges from the substructure
and is shown as a road or passageway(?) running under the terrace from front to back.

The terrace is enclosed on three sides by complex triple-aisled, two-storeyed stoas or

portico buildings. The drawing seems to show these stoas have three aisles at terrace or
ground level, stepped back to two aisles in the upper storey – an architectural configuration
hard to parallel(?). The temple is shown as prostyle hexastyle (its architectural order is not
specified in the drawing) set on a tall podium with a tall flight of steps at the front only. In
front of the temple, the terrace is open and looks out over the surrounding country.

The massively engineered temple platform suggests a terrace sanctuary of the late
Republic, like those at Praeneste and Terracina, built in central Italy in imitation of (and in
competition with) hellenistic terraced sanctuaries such as those at Kos, Lindos, and
Pergamon. The scale, concrete vaulting, strict axiality of the plan, and the prostyle design of
the temple are all typical Italian-Roman features – as also is the small theatre sunk into the
front of the terrace. The money and ideas for such sanctuaries came from the new business
and cultural opportunities opened by the Roman conquest of the Hellenistic east.

(vi) Conclusion. Your task is to use careful description and relative comparison to make the item
shown speak or look as it did for its ancient audience and users. You need to use your
knowledge of the subject to create a useful context for it and so bring out its significance. Don’t
guess, and equally if you know what the item is, don’t waste time pretending you don’t
recognise it! Both are counterproductive. A good Type B answer will score highly even for a
well-known monument: it is the quality of the answer not identification that counts.
Conversely, a Type B answer that only pretends not to recognise the thing and ‘deduces’ what
it is (a) will be easily spotted, and (b) will not score more highly than one that immediately says
what the item is. To repeat: If you do not know what it is, don’t guess – look, describe,
compare, deduce!

6. Citation in Examinations
While the primary focus of your attention should always be the ancient material, it is also
important that your essays are informed by the work of scholars in the field, past and
present, and that you are aware of where the arguments that you express fit into the
scholarly tradition. What does not generally make for good examination essays, or good
preparation for examinations, is precise memorization and citation of individual books or
articles by named scholars. Occasionally an argument might require such a citation, but
committing to memory lots of academic titles can also be a way of ensuring that you answer
the essay that you're prepared to answer rather than the one that is actually being asked by
the examiners. What examiners value is a sophisticated and nuanced understanding of a
subject, not your ability to regurgitate a bibliography.

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7. Theses
You may offer one thesis among your eight subjects in Greats. It may be in Ancient History
(499); or in Philosophy (199), provided it is combined with three or four other subjects in
Philosophy; or in Greek and Latin Literature (599), provided it is on a classical topic; or in
Philology or Linguistics (598); or in Greek or Roman Archaeology (699). You must remember
that if you offer a thesis it counts towards the maximum number of subjects which you may
offer in that branch of Greats; that if you offer it in Ancient History (499) it counts towards
the rule about the number of period papers which must be offered; and that if you offer it in
Greek and Latin Literature (599), it counts towards the rule about the number of ‘Cores’
which must be taken.

Whether or not you offer a thesis as above, you may also offer a Special Thesis as an
optional ninth subject. In the examination, any mark for a Special Thesis may, if it is to the
candidate’s advantage, be substituted for another, lower, main mark, provided that the
mark that is replaced is not lower than 30. The resulting combination of papers must
conform to the rules concerning text-based papers, but, with this proviso, a Special Thesis
mark can be substituted for a mark in any branch of the examination (History, Philosophy,
etc.). In other words a Special Thesis will not be deemed to be a thesis in Archaeology or
Literature or Philology etc., and so a mark for a Special Thesis on say a literary topic could be
combined with marks from 5 Literature papers.

If you offer a thesis but are subsequently prevented e.g. by illness from sitting the
examination and wish to submit the thesis for examination in the following year, you should
resubmit the title in the usual way in that following year.

A thesis is potentially a most exciting option, but it is important to get the choice of topic
right: it is all too easy to pick a subject which has interested you in a weekly essay, but
proves too vast to handle profitably within the word limit. It is most important to discuss the
definition and planning of the thesis with your tutor at an early stage. The Regulations
stipulate (among other things) that theses must ‘fall within the scope of the Honour School
of Literae Humaniores. The subject may but need not overlap with any subject or period on
which the candidate offers papers.’ All Classical theses, including theses on Reception topics,
should include a substantial consideration of the ancient aspects of the topic. You should
bear in mind that the Standing Committee for Mods and Greats can give permission for
theses only if it is satisfied that appropriate supervisors and examiners can be found. It may
well be that your first ideas will need to be refined considerably before you are in a position
to submit a topic for approval.

You then need to submit a title and a 100-word outline. Thesis titles (with the exception of
199, Thesis in Philosophy) should be submitted on a form available in WebLearn at
https://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/x/6dYGNq by Wednesday of the First Week of the Michaelmas
Term preceding the examination. Philosophy thesis titles should go through your college to
the Chairman of the Board of the Faculty of Philosophy, c/o the Undergraduate Studies
Administrator, Faculty of Philosophy, Radcliffe Humanities Building, accompanied by a letter
of approval from your Tutor, by Friday of Fourth Week of the Michaelmas Term preceding
your examination. But you may wish to obtain approval before you start work on the thesis
in earnest, and for many people that will mean making the application in the first half of the
previous Trinity Term, so that you can spend time in the long vacation reading widely and

22
developing your ideas.

You may discuss with your tutor the field of study, the sources available, and the method of
presentation. The plan and the ideas must be yours, but the tutor can help you make sure it
is clear, coherent, and feasible, and give advice on reading. But bear in mind that much of
your reading will be material discovered by yourself. The tutor may also read and comment
on drafts: the amount of assistance the tutor can give will be no more than equivalent to the
teaching of a normal paper. Tutorial sessions can be used for trying out first drafts of
sections of the thesis. However, you have to write the finished version on your own. Make
sure you allow plenty of time: almost certainly, it will take longer than you expect. In the
Greats examination, remember that you ‘should avoid repetition in papers of material used
in’ your thesis, and ‘candidates who offer a Special Thesis and another thesis must avoid all
overlap between them.’

The word limit for Philosophy theses is 15,000 words, but for other branches of Greats the
limit is 10,000. In each case, the word limit excludes bibliography and any appendix
consisting of a catalogue of data, any research instrument used to gather data (for example,
a computer programme), any extensive text which is specifically the object of an edition (eg
a papyrus) or commentary, and any translation of that text, but includes quotations and
footnotes. Candidates should note that examiners will assess and mark only the words which
are included in the word-count, which must therefore constitute a complete exemplified
argument in their own right. Material supplied in an appendix of the kind described above
should typically be seen as designed to assist the markers in gaining easy access to recondite
bodies of material under discussion. Don't feel you need to write up to the maximum word
limit: examiners will respect a work which presents the argument in as lean and crisp a way
as possible.

The deadline for submission of theses to the University’s online exams platform, Inspera, is
noon on Friday of 0th week of your final Trinity Term. Late submission will incur
accumulating automatic penalties until the first day of the examination, at which point the
thesis will be considered as failed if it has not been submitted. The Proctors have indicated
that under no circumstances will they accept computer problems or postal delays as a
justification for late submission. (If you are prevented by good cause from submitting your
thesis on time, consult your Senior Tutor immediately.)

In addition to submission of your thesis in hard copy, you must also send an electronic
version to undergraduate@classics.ox.ac.uk, which may be used to check the word length of
your thesis. Note that electronic submission is not considered, in itself, as meeting the
required deadline for the hard copy version. Theses over the word limit will be penalised
(and declaring a different word-count from the actual one is an offence which will be
reported to the Proctors).

Guidelines for the presentation of theses

The guidance on style of citation given below is not compulsory. It is compulsory, however,
to present your work in a form that complies with normal academic standards of precision,
clarity, and fullness and unambiguousness of reference. If you fail to meet these
requirements, you run the risk of being penalised. You should ensure that you leave enough
time to attend properly to the presentation of your work.

23
1. Presentation.
The main text of your thesis should be double-spaced. Short quotations of a sentence or less
should not be set in a paragraph by themselves. Longer quotations should be set in a
separate paragraph, indented and single-spaced.

The thesis should have a clear introduction that explains what the thesis is attempting to do.
It is not a bad idea to break the thesis into sections, with headings and clear signposting of
the developing structure of the argument. This will enable readers (i.e. the Examiners!) to
follow and so appreciate what you are saying.

2. References.
All quotations from, and references to, any work require a precise reference. References to
ancient texts may fit conveniently in parentheses, but more complicated references and
those to modern works are usually best put in footnotes, and footnotes are best at the foot
of the page (most word-processing applications create and position footnotes
automatically). Failing that, they may be collected and printed at the end of the thesis. Take
particular care over the proof-reading of the quotations and the verification of references.

3. Style of reference.
i) Ancient: follow the style adopted in standard reference works, e.g. The Oxford Classical
Dictionary (3rd edn., 1996). Abbreviated authors and titles are normal in footnotes, but
often look ugly in the body of the text. Standard abbreviations should be used unless there is
good reason to modify them: e.g. in a thesis on Aeschylus it may be useful to shorten the
standard ‘Aesch.’ to ‘A.’ But any unusual abbreviations should be listed explicitly.

Examples:

Hom. Il. 14.281, Soph. O.C. 1200-15, Thuc. 5.16, Prop. 4.11.12, etc.

Do not use ambiguous abbreviations: e.g. Eur. Her. could refer either to the Heraclidae or
the Heracles.

ii) Modern: examples of how to construct a reference to a book by a single author, an article
or essay in a volume of essays, and a volume in a multi-volume work are given below. Two
alternative principles can be followed, and you should decide on which you are adopting and
stick to it. Either you may cite the full title in the footnote on the first occasion you cite a
work, and later cite by a shorter title, or you may follow the ‘name-date’ system, often called
the Harvard style, citing in the note only the author’s surname, the date of publication, and
the relevant page. Note that on either principle the full title of all modern works should be
given in the bibliography.

Examples in (a) follow the first principle, those in (b) the second.

(a) O. Wol, Orthographic Conventions and Individual Choice (Oxford 1969), 523. (Later
citations may use a shorter form, e.g. Wol, Orthographic Conventions, 306-9.) W.T.
Pooh, ‘Elevenses customs in the Sussex Weald’ CQ 37 (1987) 23-54. (in citing journals,
use standard abbreviations and quote both volume and year.) K. Roo, ‘The stripey
Other: Tigger and domestic chaos-theory’, in Roo, More Essays on Imperialist
Oppression (New York 1992), 28-45, reprinted in Wanda Brownblott (ed.), New

24
 Historicism in the Nursery (Cambridge 1995), 859-74.

(b) Wol 1969, p. 523. Pooh 1987, pp. 35-6. Roo 1992, p. 39 (= Brownblott 1995,
867). In either case, make sure that the bibliography includes full details of all your
titles. If adopting the second method, distinguish between two works by the same
author published in the same year (e.g. by citing them as Rabbit 1987(a) and Rabbit
1987(b)).

8. Plagiarism
University definition of plagiarism (c.f.
http://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism):

Plagiarism is the copying or paraphrasing of other people’s work or ideas into your own
work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in
manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.

Collusion is another form of plagiarism involving the unauthorised collaboration of

students (or others) in a piece of work.

Cases of suspected plagiarism in assessed work are investigated under the disciplinary
regulations concerning conduct in examinations. Intentional or reckless plagiarism may
incur severe penalties, including failure of your degree or expulsion from the university.

These guidelines (which are adapted from those adopted by the English faculty) are
particularly directed towards Finalists writing theses, but many of them have relevance to
the writing of essays throughout your undergraduate career.

i. Plagiarism is the use of material appropriated from another source or from other sources
with the intention of passing it off as one’s own work. Plagiarism may take the form of
unacknowledged quotation or substantial paraphrase. Sources of material include all printed
and electronically available publications in English or other languages, or unpublished
materials, including theses, written by others. The Proctors regard plagiarism as a serious
form of cheating for which offenders can expect to receive severe penalties, possibly
including disqualification from the examination process or expulsion from the university (as
stated in the box above). Plagiarism in tutorial essays or other work which is not formally
examined is a disciplinary matter for colleges, who may choose to apply a range of severe
penalties, including rustication or even sending down. You should be aware that there are
now sophisticated electronic mechanisms for identifying plagiarised passages, and you
should also be aware that anyone writing a reference for you in the future who is aware that
you have plagiarised work may feel obliged to mention this fact in their reference.

ii. Your work will inevitably sometimes involve the use and discussion of material written by
others with due acknowledgement and with references given. This is standard critical
practice and can be clearly distinguished from appropriating without acknowledgement
material produced by others and presenting it as your own, which is what constitutes
plagiarism.
iii. A thesis is essentially your view of the subject. While you will be expected to be familiar
with critical views and debates in relation to the subject on which you are writing, and to

25
discuss them as necessary, it is your particular response to the theme or question at issue
that is required.

iv. When you read the primary texts that you will be discussing, it is a good idea to find your
own examples of episodes, themes, arguments, etc. in them that you wish to discuss. If you
work from your own examples, you will be much less likely to appropriate other people’s
materials.

v. When you are taking notes for your thesis from secondary sources,
a) Always note author, title (of book or journal, and essay or article title as appropriate),
place of publication (for books), and page numbers.
b) If you copy out material word for word from secondary sources, make sure that you
identify it as quotation (by putting inverted commas round it) in your notes. This will ensure
that you recognise it as such when you are reading it through in preparing your thesis.
c) At the same time always note down page numbers of quoted material. This will make it
easier for you to check back if you are in doubt about any aspect of a reference. It will also
be a necessary part of citation (see vi below).

vi. When you are writing your thesis, make sure that you identify material quoted from
critics or ideas and arguments that are particularly influenced by them. There are various
ways of doing this, in your text and in footnotes: see Section 9 above. If you are substantially
indebted to a particular critic’s arguments in the formulation of your materials, it may not be
enough to cite his or her work once in a footnote at the start or the end of the essay. Make
clear, if necessary in the body of your text, the extent of your dependence on these
arguments in the generation of your own – and, ideally, how your views develop or diverge
from this influence.

vii. Example: This is a passage from A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in
Ovid and Other Latin Poets (London, 2001), 54:

‘Something similar might be observed in a “pure” elegiac text, antipodal to epic, such as
Amores 3.6. This elegy is a long appeal addressed to an obstinate little stream
obstructing Ovid’s path to his love. The erotic situation lies completely in the
background, abstract and vague; Ovid turns his whole attention to the obstacle and to
the strategies aimed at overcoming it. The river is described in essentially “anti-
Callimachean” terms: it has muddy banks (3.6.1), abundant and even filthy waters (v. 8:
et turpi crassas gurgite volvis aquas). These features accord well with the narrative
function of the stream that obstructs the amorous quest of the elegiac poet. But what is
intriguing are the arguments Ovid uses to appease the flood. To honour the unnamed
stream, the poet lists lofty examples of great rivers which have felt the power of love …
He then goes on to develop a long narrative example, the story of a river in love, but,
significantly, the story is of epic provenance: Mars’ rape of Ilia, who afterward was
offered consolation by the Anio. The entire story … appeared in a prominent position at
the beginning of Ennius’ Annales. This episode, though transcribed by Ovid in his own
manner and in the style of elegy, is indeed an unforeseen guest in a poem of the
Amores.’

26
A. Plagiarism:

‘Amores 3.6 is addressed to a river which is stopping Ovid from getting to his love. Ovid
leaves the love-situation in the background, and turns his whole attention to the river,
and strategies for overcoming this obstacle. The description of the river makes it
essentially “anti-Callimachean”: it has muddy banks and dirty waters. These features fit
the narrative function of the stream that obstruct the elegiac love-poet’s quest. Ovid’s
arguments to the river are very interesting. He lists lots of lofty examples of rivers in love,
and then develops a long narrative of a story about a river in love from epic. This story
concerns the river Anio, which offered his love to Ilia after Mars’ rape of her. The whole
story had a prominent position at the beginning of Ennius’ epic poem the Annales. Ovid
treats it in his own manner and in elegiac style; but it still comes as a surprise in the
Amores.’

This version adds almost nothing to the original; it mixes direct appropriation with close
paraphrase. There is no acknowledgement of the source; the writer suggests that the
argument and the development of it are his or her own.

B. Legitimate use of the passage:

‘Amores 3.6 forms part of the intensified conflict between genres which marks Book 3 of
the Amores. In the first poem of Book 3, Tragedy and Elegy vie for Ovid’s soul; in the last,
he wistfully abandons elegy for tragedy. In this poem, addressed to a river that prevents
the speaker from reaching his beloved, Ovid moves into the prolonged narration of a
story that comes in epic: the river Anio’s winning and wooing of Ilia after Mars has raped
her. This story came in the first book of Ennius’ Annales. Barchiesi has pointed out that
the river seems “anti-Callimachean” in its size and dirtiness.1 The relation with epic may,
however, be more elaborate and complicated. Within the Iliad, Achilles’ heroic advance
is halted by a river; he fears an ignominious and rustic death (21.279-83). The situation of
Am. 3.6 as a whole could be seen to mimic, on a lower level, an episode already
generically disruptive. And the Anio’s speech to Ilia (53-66) sounds very like a love-poem
– which naturally does not work as persuasion. Epic, then, does not simply interrupt
elegy in Amores 3.6; and the poem is part of a larger design, not just a curious surprise.
_______________________________________________________________________
1
A. Barchiesi, Speaking Volumes: Narrative and Intertext in Ovid and Other Latin Poets (London, 2001),
54.’

This version uses an acknowledged paraphrase of part of the passage in forming a wider
argument, with some fresh points. (The footnote is sound scholarly practice, but its omission
would not be a matter of plagiarism.) The reference to the Annales, though originally derived
from Barchiesi, does not require acknowledgement, since the writer can reasonably suppose
it to be common scholarly knowledge. The final phrase echoes Barchiesi’s, while disagreeing
with it; but no explicit acknowledgement is required, least of all after the earlier mention.

9. Examinations
It is your personal responsibility to enter for University examinations, and if you enter, or
change your options, after the due date, you must pay an administration fee. Information on
the exam entry process can be found in the Faculty’s online student handbook.

27
Examination conventions
The Examination Conventions are set out on pp. 28-48 below. In the event that the Faculties
of Classics or Philosophy make any changes to the Examination Conventions, students will be
informed of the changes as early as possible, and an updated version of the Examination
Conventions will be included in the Circular to Candidates sent out a few months before the
exam.

Boards of the Faculty of Classics and the Faculty of Philosophy

Honour School of Literae Humaniores 2023
Examination Conventions

1. Introduction

Examination conventions are the formal record of the specific assessment standards for the
course or courses to which they apply. They set out how examined work will be marked and
how the resulting marks will be used to arrive at a final result and classification of an award.

2. Rubrics for individual papers

See appendix for details of individual papers. Copies of past papers may be viewed in OXAM
at https://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/portal/hierarchy/oxam.

Where a paper is offered for the first time, a specimen paper may be found in Canvas at
https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/specimen-papers.

Points to note about individual papers and their rubrics

I. ANCIENT HISTORY

The Examiners will give credit for relevant information which falls outside the strict limits of
any period or topic, and for relevant material drawn from other parts of the course. (But not
for material repeated elsewhere: see the Circular to Candidates).

Period papers (401-406; 421-426)

Candidates will answer three questions. There are separate A and B sections on each period
paper. Candidates will be required to answer at least one question from Section A and at
least one question from Section B. In their essays candidates are strongly advised to show
knowledge and understanding of more than a narrow portion of the period. Questions in
section B will be more focused on sources and on broad thematic issues (including social,
economic and cultural history) which span large stretches of the period in question. There
will also be an optional gobbet question, using inscriptions, coins, and literary sources other
than the prescribed texts. All material will be provided in English translation as well as in the
original languages. Candidates will be asked to write a response to ONE gobbet; and they are
advised that a gobbet question may contain more than one passage or piece of evidence, in
which case an answer should provide comment on all the sources within the gobbet, as well
as reflecting awareness of the connections between or among them.

28
Passages set for comment in Roman History 5 and 6 (papers 405 and 406) may occasionally
contain short quotations in Ancient Greek; translations of these will be provided.

Ancient History translation and gobbet papers

A separate paper of 1.5 hours will be set for each of the six periods. This paper will account
for 35% of the overall mark for the period in question.

Candidates taking the text-based versions will be required to translate one passage of Greek
or Latin and to comment on three passages from a choice of seven. Candidates taking the
non-text-based versions (for Course II) will be required to comment on five passages out of a
choice of nine; they will be provided with all passages in both the original language and
English translation.

Topic papers (407-415)

In papers 407, 409, 411, 412 and 413 candidates will answer three questions. In papers 408,
410, 414 and 415 candidates will answer four questions. Candidates are reminded that they
will be expected to show knowledge of the prescribed texts in their answers. Optional
gobbet questions will be set in papers 407 ‘Athenian Democracy in the Classical Age’, 408
‘Alexander the Great and his Early Successors (336-302 BC)’, and 410 ‘Cicero: Politics and
Thought in the Late Republic’. In paper 408 ‘Alexander the Great and his Early Successors
(336 BC-302 BC)’ candidates must show knowledge of both Alexander and the Successors;
failure to do so will be penalised.

II. PHILOSOPHY

Candidates are reminded that the translations to be used (where appropriate) for subjects in
ancient philosophy are specified in the Examination Regulations.

III. GREEK AND LATIN LITERATURE

503 Historiography; 504 Lyric Poetry; 507 Comedy (essays)

Candidates are reminded that they should make appropriate use of beta texts as well as
alpha texts.

519 The Reception of Classical Poetry in English since 1900

SIX quotations of broad reference will be set, of which candidates will be instructed to take
one as their theme. Candidates are reminded that they must show knowledge of at least
THREE authors in their essay, at least ONE of whom must be a classical author.

521 Greek Core and 522 Latin Core (for candidates taking Second Classical Language)
Passages set for commentary will be given in the original language with an English
translation alongside.

IV. GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY

The first question in Papers 601-605 i.e. the compulsory picture question, will involve a
range of artefacts and images of which candidates are not expected necessarily to have prior
knowledge. Candidates should use their knowledge of the relevant subject to describe
briefly and assess the significance of the specific items shown.

29
V. PHILOLOGY

551 Greek Historical Linguistics

The texts for the text question will be drawn from the list in Canvas:
https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/48801/pages/551-greek-historical-
linguistics?module_item_id=524207

For the translation component of the text question, you will be asked to make your
translation literal (while also in clear English), so as to reflect your understanding of the
Greek. Any difficulties may be explored further in your linguistic commentary.

552 Latin Historical Linguistics

The texts for the text question will be drawn from the list in Canvas:
https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/118502/pages/552-latin-historical-
linguistics?module_item_id=1267652

For the translation component of the text question, you will be asked to make your
translation literal (while also in clear English), so as to reflect your understanding of the
Latin. Any difficulties may be explored further in your linguistic commentary.

3. Marking Conventions

University scale for standardised expression of agreed final marks

Agreed final marks for individual papers will be expressed using the following scale:

70-100 First Class

60-69 Upper second
50-59 Lower second
40-49 Third
30-39 Pass
0-29 Fail

Marking Descriptors

Marks are given on a numerical scale ranging from 0 to 100 (0 to 85 for translation papers).

(a) non-translation questions (essays and commentaries), pre-submitted essays and theses
in subjects other than Philosophy

Above 85 (Very high first class): truly exceptional work of quite remarkable acuity,
knowledge, originality and argumentative power, indicative of an extremely rare scholarly
talent. (For theses and extended essays, truly exceptional work, with expert handling of
scholarly apparatus, extremely wide-ranging research, command of a wide range of primary
and secondary material, and expert choice and handling of arguments to suit the limits of a
thesis or essay of the specified length.)

30
80-85 (High first class): outstanding and memorable, displaying powers of analysis and
argument to a very high degree, with excellent command of the facts and/or arguments
relevant to the questions and evidence of very high ability to organise them with clarity,
insight and efficiency. (For theses and extended essays, outstanding work, expertly
referenced and researched, with immaculate standards of presentation and expert choice
and handling of arguments to suit the limits of a thesis or essay of the specified length.)

70-79 (First class): work displaying most of the following – very good range and command of
material, analytical and argumentational power, command of the facts and ability to
organise them, but not so consistently or completely as to merit a mark in the previous
category. (For theses and extended essays, confident use of sources, evidence of primary
research, command of secondary material, and high standards of analytical and
argumentational power and scholarly accuracy.)

60-69 (Upper Second class): work displaying analytical power and argumentation of the
quality associated with a First, but with less comprehensive and thorough command of
evidence; or work showing considerable thoroughness but less analytical skill or less clarity
in organisation. (For theses and extended essays, competent use of resources and evidence
of research, and work showing many of the qualities required for a first-class mark but less
consistently.)

50-59 (Lower Second class): competent work with no major defects, but giving an
incomplete account of the question, or marred by inaccuracies; or work which demonstrates
lapses in (but does not lack) analytical and argumentational skills. (Similar considerations will
apply to theses and extended essays, in which poor presentation will also contribute to
lowering the mark.)

40-49 (Third class): work that is generally weak with muddled argumentation, but containing
some evidence of knowledge of facts and analytical skill; or work that, while knowledgeable
in itself, does not address the question asked by the examiners. (For theses or extended
essays, work which shows over-reliance on limited secondary sources, inadequate scholarly
apparatus or proof-reading, or vague or over-generalised expression.)

30-39 (Pass): very poor quality work, showing only slight evidence of effective study.

Below 30 (Fail): work which shows almost no knowledge of the topic or recognition of the
passage and no ability at critical thinking or analysis, and is of such a low standard that it
raises the question of whether the candidate should be awarded even a Pass degree.

(b) translations

The following are the criteria for the marking of translations in Second Classical Language:

Elegant and resourceful use of English will be rewarded, as will effectiveness in conveying
the spirit of the original; incorrect and unduly clumsy or literal English will be penalised.
More error will be tolerated in unseen than in prepared translation, and in the latter
candidates are liable to be penalised severely for errors in detail as well for as errors which
suggest ignorance of the context (if the passage has one) and essential drift of the passage.

31
80-85 (High first class): outstanding and memorable, showing all first class qualities to a
remarkable degree. Sense and register of the passage admirably handled. The odd failing
may be allowed.

70-79 (First class): candidate has got the passage mostly right, with only minor errors or very
few errors. Deals intelligently with difficulties. Handles the stylistic variations of the passage
well, and achieves a natural English style.

60-69 (Upper second class): candidate has grasped the general sense and drift of the passage
well, though with a number of errors. In prepared translation, the candidate appears to have
a good grasp of the context of the passage, if it has one.

50-59 (Lower second class): candidate has essentially grasped the drift of the passage (and of
the context, if relevant, of a prepared passage), but has made more, or more serious, errors
than in a II.1 script.

40-49 (Third class): candidate shows only a shaky grasp of what is happening in the passage
and has made a number of grave mistakes, but has shown some knowledge and
understanding of the language and (in a prepared translation) of the context, where
applicable, of the passage.

30-39 (Pass): very poor quality work, showing little knowledge of the language (or, in a
prepared text, of the context and content of the passage), but enough to justify the award of
a pass mark.

20-29 Displays seriously deficient knowledge of the ancient language, and little or no
knowledge or understanding of grammar, syntax and vocabulary and/or familiarity with set
texts. Translations into English entirely discontinuous and/or nonsensical, displaying little or
no grasp either of the language or of the meaning of the passage(s), and with little or no
sensible attempt at guesswork.

10-19 Work which suffers from the above shortcomings to a more extreme degree.

5-9 A seriously incomplete script, comprising no more than a few responses and/or making
no real effort to make sense of the passage.

1-4 A blank script or a response which entirely fails to make sense of the passage.

(c) Philosophy papers

The Philosophy Faculty has published separate marking descriptors for ancient and modern
philosophy papers. These can be found in Canvas at
https://canvas.ox.ac.uk/courses/42438/pages/ba-literae-humaniores-overview.

Verification and reconciliation of marks

All papers are independently marked by two examiners or assessors. Once they have each
awarded an initial mark for each script, the two markers confer in order to arrive at an
agreed mark; the final mark is not generated simply by averaging the two initial marks. In the

32
event that the two markers are unable to reach agreement on a final mark for a script, a
third marking is arranged; in such cases, the middle of the three marks will normally be
adopted as the final mark, although the board of examiners may at its discretion use an
alternative method of determining the final mark when appropriate.

Weighting of sections/components in particular papers

The weighting will also be noted on the front of question papers during the examination
itself, except for philosophy papers.

I. Ancient History

In each of the period subjects (401-6), the essay paper will be worth 65% of the overall mark
and the commentary paper 35%. The overall mark for the subject will be rounded to the
nearest whole integer. Within each paper, each question carries equal weight.

In all other Ancient History papers, each question carries equal weight. This includes gobbet
questions (i.e. the performance on the whole gobbet question is weighted the same as a
single essay).

II. Philosophy

In all papers, each question carries equal weight. This includes gobbet questions; i.e. the
performance on the whole gobbet question is weighted the same as one essay question.

III. Literature

In all subjects except those noted below, Question 1 will be worth 16⅔%; each commentary
in Question 2 will be worth 16⅔%; and the two essays will each be worth 25% of the overall
mark. In translation papers, each passage will contribute equally towards the mark.

The following subjects have special conventions:

Greek Core, Latin Core (papers 501 and 502)

The weight given to the various components will be as follows: translation 25%; commentary
25%; essays 50%. For Course II candidates sitting these papers in translation only, the weight
given to the various components will be as follows: commentary 1/3, essays 2/3.

Historiography, Lyric Poetry, Comedy (papers 503, 504 and 507)

The weight given to the various components will be as follows: extended essay 75%,
translation paper 25%.

Euripides, Orestes (paper 513); Catullus (paper 515); Seneca, Medea (paper 524)
25% of the overall mark for each question. In these papers the maximum mark for
transcription will be 85.

Byzantine Literature (paper 517)

1/3 of the overall mark for each question. In Question 1, translation and comment will carry
equal weight.

33
Modern Greek Poetry (paper 518)
Question 1 (translation 13.33%, comment 20%) 33.33%; Essays (2) 66.67%.

IV. Archaeology

In all Archaeology papers, each of the four questions carries equal weight.

V. Philology

In Greek Historical Linguistics and Latin Historical Linguistics, the compulsory Question 1 –
linguistic commentary on set texts – will be worth 40%; the two essay answers will be worth
30% each.

In Comparative Philology: Indo-European, Greek and Latin, Question 1 will be worth 19% of
the total mark; each of the other two questions from Section A will be worth 27%; and
Section B will be worth 27%. The two passages in Section B have equal weight.

VI. Second Classical Language

In each paper all three questions will be equally weighted, but in questions 1 and 2 (the
passages for prepared translation and comment) the translation will be assigned two thirds
of the mark for the question and the commentary one third.

Scaling

The Examiners may choose to scale marks where in their academic judgement:
a) a paper was more difficult or easy than in previous years;
b) a paper has generated a spread of marks which are not a fair reflection of student
performance in terms of the qualitative marks descriptors;
c) candidates’ performance in a paper has been generally impacted by any changes to
the examination relating to the Covid-19 pandemic.

Scaling will only be considered and undertaken once a complete run of marks for all papers
is available. In the event that scaling is undertaken, details of the reason for the scaling and
the algorithm used will be published in the examiners’ report.

Short-weight answers and departure from rubric

Where a candidate has failed to answer a compulsory question, or failed to answer the
required number of questions on a paper, a mark of zero shall be awarded for the
unanswered question(s).

Candidates will also be penalised for ignoring instructions on the question paper (such as
‘show knowledge of both authors’), the penalty varying according to the seriousness of the
omission.

Penalties for poor academic practice and plagiarism

Candidates must not submit work which has been submitted, either partially or in full, for

34
 their current degree or any other qualification at Oxford or another institution.

If examiners suspect plagiarism and the material concerned accounts for no more than 10%
of the whole piece of work, it is likely that this will be dealt with by the examiners as an
instance of poor academic practice (e.g. web sources with no clear authors; incomplete or
shoddy referencing). Markers will grade the work on its merits. The board will then use its
judgement to deduct up to a maximum of ten points depending on the gravity and extent of
the poor academic practice reported to the Chair of Examiners by the markers in question. If
the consequence of the deduction would result in an overall Fail classification, the case must
be referred to the Proctors.

If the material affected concerns more than 10% of the whole piece of work or more than
poor academic practice, the Chair must refer the case to the Proctors, summarising the
extent and seriousness of the plagiarism and including the relevant sources.

Penalties for late or non-submission of extended essays and theses

The following penalties shall apply for late submission of extended essays and theses:

Late submission Penalty

Up to one day -5 marks
(submitted on the day but after the deadline)
Each additional day -1 mark
(i.e. two days late = -6 marks
three days late = -7 marks etc.;
note that each weekend day counts as a full day for
the purposes of mark deductions)
Max. deducted marks up to 2 weeks late -18 marks
More than 2 weeks late Failure of the whole examination

Penalties for over-length work and departure from approved titles or subject-matter

The following penalties shall apply for exceeding the word limit for extended essays and
theses:

Percentage by which Penalty Example: essays with word Example: theses with word
the maximum word (up to a limit of 6,000 – number of limit of 10,000 – number of
limit is exceeded maximum of -10) words into which words into which
percentage translates percentage translates
Up to 5% -1 mark 1-300 words over 1-500 words over
Over 5% and up to 10% -2 marks 301-600 words over 501-1,000 words over
Over 10% and up to 15% -3 marks 601-900 words over 1,001-1,500 words over
Each further 5% -1 further mark Each further 300 words over Each further 500 words over

Penalty for non-attendance at examinations

Failure to attend an examination will result in the failure of the whole Second Public
Examination.

35
4. Classification

Qualitative descriptors of classes

See mark bands and descriptors in section 3 above.

Classification rules

Candidates are assigned to Classes according to the following criteria. 'Average mark' means
the average of the individual marks for the eight main subjects (adjusted as appropriate for
translation performance and with substitution of a mark for a Special Thesis when
appropriate: see below).

First Class: A First will be given to a candidate whose average mark is 68.5 or greater, with at
least two marks of 70 or above, and no mark below 50.

Alternatively, a first will be given to a candidate whose average mark is 67.5 or greater, with
at least four marks of 70 or above, and no mark below 50.

Upper Second Class: An Upper Second will be given to a candidate not getting a First whose
average mark is 59 or above, with at least two marks of 60 or above and no mark below 40.

Lower Second Class: A Lower Second will be given to a candidate not getting a First or an
Upper Second whose average mark is 49.5 or greater, with at least two marks of 50 or above
and no mark below 30.

Third Class: A Third will be given to a candidate not getting a Lower Second or better whose
average mark is 40 or above, with not more than one mark below 30.

Pass: A Pass will be given to a candidate not getting a Third or better whose average mark is
30 or greater, with not more than two marks below 30.

Fail: A fail will be awarded to any candidate not achieving a Pass or better.

Consideration of borderline cases

Before confirming students’ degree classifications, the Board will reconsider the cases of
candidates whose marks are very close to a borderline. Borderline cases will be defined as
those candidates whose average mark is not more than 0.25 below a classification threshold.
In addition, candidates whose average is 67.25 or above and who have obtained marks of 70
or above for three subjects will be considered as borderline cases for a first via the
alternative route. The Board will normally only reconsider scripts for which the raw marks of
the two assessors are significantly divergent, but may in exceptional circumstances
reconsider scripts on other grounds that it deems appropriate. The marks for any scripts
reconsidered as part of this process will only be changed if it is to the candidate’s advantage.

Special Theses

The mark for a Special Thesis (i.e. one offered in addition to the eight main subjects) may, if

36
it is to the candidate's advantage, be substituted for the lowest mark awarded for one of the
candidate’s eight main subjects, with the following restrictions:

• The mark for a Special Thesis may not replace a mark lower than 30 for a main
subject.

• After substitution, the resulting combination of eight marks used to determine the
candidate’s overall mark must conform to the rules concerning text-based subjects,
i.e. there must remain four text-based papers for Course I candidates (including at
least one in each of Greek and Latin) and for Course II candidates who are not taking
Second Classical Language, and three text-based papers for Course II candidates who
are taking Second Classical Language.

Alternatively, the examiners may, at their discretion and only if it is to the candidate’s
advantage, determine a candidate’s overall mark on the basis of the marks for all nine
subjects, for example in cases where the rules on text-based subjects preclude the
substitution of the mark for the Special Thesis for a lower mark in another subject.

Vivas

No vivas will be held as part of the examination.

5. Resits

Candidates who fail or gain a pass degree at the first attempt may resit the examination on
one occasion. They will be required to take the whole examination.

6. Mitigating Circumstances

Where a candidate or candidates have made a submission, under Part 13 of the Regulations
for Conduct of University Examinations, that unforeseen circumstances may have had an
impact on their performance in an examination, a subset of the board will meet to discuss
the individual applications and band the seriousness of each application on a scale of 1-3
(with 1 indicating minor impact, 2 indicating moderate impact, and 3 indicating very serious
impact). When reaching this decision, examiners will take into consideration the severity and
relevance of the circumstances, and the strength of the evidence. Examiners will also note
whether all or a subset of papers were affected, being aware that it is possible for
circumstances to have different levels of impact on different papers. The banding
information will be used at the final meeting of the board of examiners to adjudicate on the
merits of candidates. Further information is provided at
www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/exams/guidance.

Candidates who have indicated they wish to be considered for Declared to have deserved
Honours (DDH) will first be considered for a classified degree, taking into account any
individual mitigating circumstances. If that is not possible and they meet the eligibility
criteria for DDH, they will be awarded DDH.

37
Appendix: Setting Conventions for FHS examinations in Literae Humaniores
and Associated Joint Schools

A17309W1 Archaic Greek History: Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A17311W1 750 BC to 479 BC question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
(Essays) 401/421 question must be taken from Section B.
There is also an optional commentary question on non-
set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A17309W2 Archaic Greek History: Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
750 BC to 479 BC offer brief historical comment on three passages from
(Translation and the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
Passages for the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
Comment) 401
A17311W2 Archaic Greek History: Candidates are required to answer brief historical
750 BC to 479 BC comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
(Passages for count for 20% of the mark each.
Comment) 421
A12623W1 Thucydides and the Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A12629W1 Greek World: 479 BC question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
to 403 BC (Essays) question must be taken from Section B.
402/422 There is also an optional commentary question on non-
set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12623W2 Thucydides and the Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
Greek World: 479 BC offer brief historical comment on three passages from
to 403 BC (Translation the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
and Passages for the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
Comment) 402
A12629W2 Thucydides and the Candidates are required to answer brief historical
Greek World: 479 BC comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
to 403 BC (Passages count for 20% of the mark each.
for Comment) 422
A12624W1 The End of the Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A12630W1 Peloponnesian War to question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
the Death of Philip II question must be taken from Section B.

38
 of Macedon: 403 BC There is also an optional commentary question on non-
to 336 BC (Essays) set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
403/423 period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12624W2 The End of the Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
Peloponnesian War to offer brief historical comment on three passages from
the Death of Philip II the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
of Macedon: 403 BC the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
to 336 BC (Translation
and Passages for
Comment) 403

A12630W2 The End of the Candidates are required to answer brief historical
Peloponnesian War to comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
the Death of Philip II count for 20% of the mark each.
of Macedon: 403 BC
to 336 BC (Passages
for Comment) 423
A12625W1 Polybius, Rome and Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A12631W1 the Mediterranean: question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
241-146 BC (Essays) question must be taken from Section B.
404/424 There is also an optional commentary question on non-
set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12625W2 Polybius, Rome and Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
the Mediterranean: offer brief historical comment on three passages from
241-146 BC the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
(Translation and the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
Passages for
Comment) 404
A12631W2 Polybius, Rome and Candidates are required to answer brief historical
the Mediterranean: comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
241-146 BC (Passages count for 20% of the mark each.
for Comment) 424
A12626W1 Republic in Crisis: 146- Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A12632W1 46 BC (Essays) question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
405/425 question must be taken from Section B.
There is also an optional commentary question on non-

39
 set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12626W2 Republic in Crisis: 146- Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
46 BC (Translation offer brief historical comment on three passages from
and Passages for the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
Comment) 405 the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
A12632W2 Republic in Crisis: 146- Candidates are required to answer brief historical
46 BC (Passages for comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
Comment) 425 count for 20% of the mark each.
A12627W1 Rome, Italy and Candidates should answer three questions. At least one
A12633W1 Empire from Caesar to question must be taken from Section A, and at least one
Claudius: 46 BC to AD question must be taken from Section B.
54 (Essays) 406/426 There is also an optional commentary question on non-
set texts, inscriptions and other evidence relevant to the
period. In this question, candidates are required to
comment on all the material that comprises one option.
In their answers candidates should show knowledge of
the set texts.
Candidates are strongly advised to show knowledge and
understanding of more than a narrow portion of the
period.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12627W2 Rome, Italy and Candidates are required to translate one passage and to
A12633W2 Empire from Caesar to offer brief historical comment on three passages from
Claudius: 46 BC to AD the set texts. The translation counts for 40% of the mark;
54 (Translation and the commentaries for 60% (20% each).
Passages for
Comment) 406
A12633W2 Rome, Italy and Candidates are required to answer brief historical
Empire from Caesar to comment on five passages from the set texts, which will
Claudius: 46 BC to AD count for 20% of the mark each.
54 (Passages for
Comment) 426
A12634W1 Athenian Democracy Candidates should answer three questions. Candidates
in the Classical Age who answer Question 1 will be required to comment
407 briefly on three passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
reference to the prescribed sources.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12635W1 Alexander the Great Candidates should answer four questions. Candidates
and his Early who answer Question 1 will be required to comment
Successors from 336 briefly on three passages. The remainder of the paper
BC to 302 BC 408 comprises essay questions.

40
 They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
reference to the prescribed sources. Candidates must
show knowledge of both Alexander and the Successors,
and failure to do so will be penalised.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12636W1 The Hellenistic World: Candidates should answer three questions.
Societies and They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
Cultures, c.300-100 reference to the prescribed sources and sites.
BC 409 Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12637W1 Cicero: Politics and Candidates should answer four questions Candidates
Thought in the Late who answer Question 1 will be required to comment
Republic 410 briefly on three passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
reference to the prescribed sources.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12638W1 Politics, Society and Candidates should answer three questions.
Culture from Nero to They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
Hadrian 411 reference to the prescribed sources.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12639W1 Religions in the Greek Candidates should answer three questions.
and Roman World They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
from c.31 BC to AD reference to the prescribed sources.
312 412 Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12640W1 Sexuality and Gender Candidates should answer three questions.
in Greece and Rome They should illustrate their answers, as far as possible, by
413 reference to the prescribed sources.
Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A12671W1 The Conversion of Candidates should attempt all four questions. In
Augustine 414 Question 1, candidates are required to translate and
comment on one passage. In each of Questions 2 and 3,
candidates are required to comment on two passages.
Question 4 comprises a choice of essay questions, from
which candidates answer one.
Marking scheme: 25% of the overall mark for each
question.
In Question 1 translation and comment will be given
equal weight.
A16803W1 The Achaemenid Candidates should attempt Question 1 and three other
Empire, 550-330 BC questions.
415 Marking scheme: all questions carry equal weight.
A15597W1 Greek Core Candidates are required to attempt Question 1 and two
(Commentary and others. In Question 1, candidates are required to
Essay) 501 comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: 12.5% of the overall mark for each
commentary in Question 1; 25% for each essay; 25% for
the separate translation paper.
A15597W2 Greek Core Candidates are required to translate all three passages
(Translation) 501 into English.
Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the

41
 overall mark.
A15598W1 Latin Core Candidates are required to attempt Question 1 and two
(Commentary and others. In Question 1, candidates are required to
Essay) 502 comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: 12.5% of the overall mark for each
commentary in Question 1; 25% for each essay; 25% for
the separate translation paper.
A15598W2 Latin Core Candidates are required to translate all three passages
(Translation) 502 into English.
Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12652W1 Historiography (Greek Candidates are required to translate both passages.
and Latin version) Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
(Translation) 503 overall mark.
A12653W1 Historiography (Greek Candidates are required to translate both passages.
version) (Translation) Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
503 overall mark.
A12654W1 Historiography (Latin Candidates are required to translate both passages.
version) (Translation) Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
503 overall mark.
A12655W1 Lyric Poetry (Greek Candidates are required to translate all three passages
and Latin version) into English.
(Translation) 504 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12656W1 Lyric Poetry (Greek Candidates are required to translate all three passages
version) (Translation) into English.
504 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12657W1 Lyric Poetry (Latin Candidates are required to translate all three passages
version) (Translation) into English.
504 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12658W1 Early Greek Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
Hexameter Poetry and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
505 translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12659W1 Greek Tragedy 506 Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.

42
A12660W1 Comedy (Greek and Candidates are required to translate all three passages
Latin version) into English.
(Translation) 507 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12661W1 Comedy (Greek Candidates are required to translate all three passages
version) (Translation) into English.
507 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12662W1 Comedy (Latin Candidates are required to translate all three passages
version) (Translation) into English.
507 Marking scheme: each passage contributes equally to the
overall mark.
A12663W1 Hellenistic Poetry 508 Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12664W1 Cicero the Orator 509 Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12665W1 Ovid 510 Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12666W1 Latin Didactic 511 Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12667W1 Neronian Literature Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
512 and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to

43
 comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12668W1 Euripides, Orestes 513 Candidates are required to attempt both Section A
(transcription) and Section B (textual and interpretative
commentary).
They should attempt both questions in Section A and two
passages from Section B.
Marking scheme: 25% of the overall mark for each
question.
A12670W1 Catullus 515 Candidates are required to attempt Question 1 and three
others. In Question 1, candidates are required to
transcribe and comment on a given passage. For each
passage in Questions 2-5, they should comment on
points of interpretation, textual uncertainty, and literary
interest. Translation is not required.
Marking scheme: 25% of the overall mark for each
question.
A12672W1 Byzantine Literature Candidates must attempt Question 1 and two other
517 questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of both the sixth and the
twelfth centuries.
Marking scheme: one third of the overall mark for each
question. In Question 1, each commentary will be given
equal weight.
A12673W1 Modern Greek Poetry Section A is compulsory. In addition, candidates must
518 answer one question from each of Sections B and C. In
Section A, candidates are required to translate one
passage and write comments on the other passage. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 33⅓% of overall mark
(translation 13⅓%, commentary 20%); essays, 33⅓%
each.
A15599W1 Greek Core Candidates should attempt Question 1 and two other
(Commentary and questions.
Essay) (for candidates In Question 1, candidates are required to comment on
offering Greek as a two passages. The remainder of the paper comprises
Second Classical essay questions.
Language) 521 Marking scheme: 16⅔% of the overall mark for each
commentary in Question 1; 33⅓% for each essay.
A15600W1 Latin Core Candidates should attempt Question 1 and two other
(Commentary and questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to
Essay) (for candidates comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
offering Latin as a comprises essay questions.
Second Classical Marking scheme: 16⅔% of the overall mark for each
Language) 522 commentary in Question 1; 33⅓% for each essay.

44
A15884W1 Seneca, Medea 524 Candidates are required to attempt Question 1 and three
others.
In Question 1, candidates are required to transcribe and
comment on a given passage. For each passage in
Questions 2-5, they should comment on points of
interpretation, textual uncertainty, and literary interest.
Translation is not required.
Marking scheme: 25% of the overall mark for each
question.
A17310W1 Latin Literature from Candidates are required to attempt Questions 1 and 2,
Titus to Trajan 525 and two others. Question 1 comprises a single passage of
translation. In Question 2, candidates are required to
comment on two passages. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of beta as well as alpha
texts.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 16⅔%; Question 2, 16⅔%
for each commentary; Essays, 25% each.
A12681W1 Greek Historical Candidates must answer Question 1 and two others.
Linguistics 551 In Question 1, candidates are required to translate and
write a linguistic commentary on three passages. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 40% of total mark; other
two questions, 30% each.
A12682W1 Latin Historical Candidates must answer Question 1 and two others.
Linguistics 552 In Question 1, candidates are required to translate and
write a linguistic commentary on three passages. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 40% of total mark; other
two questions, 30% each.
A12683W1 General Linguistics Candidates should attempt THREE questions, choosing
and Comparative from ANY TWO of the sections (I, II and III) and avoiding
Philology 553 duplication of material between questions.
The questions in SECTION II may be answered with
reference to any language or languages with which
candidates are familiar.
Marking scheme: All questions carry equal weight.
A12684W1 Comparative Candidates should attempt both Sections A and B. In
Philology: Indo- Section A, candidates must answer question 1 and two
European, Greek and other questions. In Section B, candidates must comment
Latin 554 on points of linguistic interest in two passages.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 19% of overall mark; each
of the other two questions from Section A, 27%; Section
B 27%. The two passages in Section B will carry equal
weight.
A12686W1 Second Classical Candidates should attempt all three questions. In
Language: Verse: Questions 1 and 2, candidates are required to translate
Homer and Euripides and comment on passages from the set texts. Question 3
566 comprises one passage of unprepared translation.
Each question contributes equally to the overall mark.
In Questions 1 and 2, translation contributes ⅔ of the

45
 mark for the question, commentary ⅓.
A12687W1 Second Classical Candidates should attempt all three questions. In
Language: Verse: Questions 1 and 2, candidates are required to translate
Virgil and Ovid 567 and comment on passages from the set texts. Question 3
comprises one passage of unprepared translation.
Each question contributes equally to the overall mark.
In Questions 1 and 2, translation contributes ⅔ of the
mark for the question, commentary ⅓.
A12688W1 Second Classical Candidates should attempt all three questions. In
Language: Prose: Questions 1 and 2, candidates are required to translate
Plato and Herodotus and comment on passages from the set texts. Question 3
568 comprises one passage of unprepared translation.
Each question contributes equally to the overall mark.
In Questions 1 and 2 translation contributes ⅔ of the
mark for the question, commentary ⅓.
A12689W1 Second Classical Candidates should attempt all three questions. In
Language: Prose: Questions 1 and 2, candidates are required to translate
Cicero and Seneca and comment on passages from the set texts. Question 3
569 comprises one passage of unprepared translation.
Each question contributes equally to the overall mark.
In Questions 1 and 2 translation contributes ⅔ of the
mark for the question, commentary ⅓.
A10945W1 Ancient and French Candidates are required to answer one question from
Classical Tragedy each of Sections A, B, and C. In each of the two questions
(Classics & Modern in Section A, candidates are required to write a
Languages) 582 comparative commentary on two passages. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
They should show knowledge of at least four of the
prescribed
writers and should avoid duplication of material.
All questions carry equal weight.
A12676W1 The Greeks and the Candidates should answer Question 1 and three other
Mediterranean World questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to
c.950-500 BC 601 describe briefly and comment on three images. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
They are expected to show knowledge of specific sites as
well as an understanding of general issues.
Marking scheme: 25% of overall mark for each question.
A12677W1 Greek Art and Candidates should answer Question 1 and one question
Archaeology from from each of the three Sections A, B and C. In Question
c.500 to 300 BC 602 1, candidates are required to describe briefly and
comment on three images. The remainder of the paper
comprises essay questions.
All questions carry equal weight.
A13371W1 Hellenistic Art and Candidates should answer Question 1 and three other
Archaeology, 330-30 questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to
BC 603 describe briefly and comment on three images. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: 25% of overall mark for each question.
A12678W1 Art under the Roman Candidates should answer Question 1 and three other
Empire, AD 14-337 questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to

46
 604 describe briefly and comment on three images. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Marking scheme: 25% of overall mark for each question.
A12679W1 Roman Archaeology: Candidates should answer Question 1 and three other
Cities and Settlement questions. In Question 1, candidates are required to
under the Empire 605 describe briefly and comment on three images. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
They are expected to show knowledge of specific sites as
well as an understanding of general issues.
Marking scheme: 25% of overall mark for each question.
A12614W1 Homer, Iliad (Classics Candidates must answer Questions 1, 2, 3 and two
& Oriental Studies) others. In Question 1, candidates are required to
541 translate two passages into English. In Question 2, they
are required to write out and scan a short extract from
one of the passages translated in Question 1. In Question
3, they are required to comment on two passages. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of the
whole of the Iliad.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 30% of overall mark;
Question 2, 4%; other questions, 22% each.
A12615W1 Virgil, Aeneid (Classics Candidates must answer Questions 1, 2, 3 and two
& Oriental Studies) others. In Question 1, candidates are required to
542 translate two passages into English. In Question 2, they
are required to write out and scan a short extract from
one of the passages translated in Question 1. In Question
3, they are required to comment on two passages. The
remainder of the paper comprises essay questions.
Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of the
whole of the Aeneid.
Marking scheme: Question 1, 30% of overall mark;
Question 2, 4%; other questions, 22% each.
A10938W1 Epic (Classics & Question 1 (a) and (b) are both compulsory, and two
English) further questions should be answered, including at least
one from Section B. In Question 1(a) candidates are
required to comment on one pair of passages, from a
choice of two pairs.
In Question 1 (b) candidates are required to comment on
a
given passage. The remainder of the paper comprises
essay questions.
For the essays in Section A, candidates may restrict an
answer to a single author, and may limit their treatment
to
either classical or English epic. In Section B, each answer
must address both classical and English works.
Candidates should avoid duplication of material.
Mark scheme: 20% for question 1(a), 20% for question
1(b), 30% for each of the two essay questions.
A10939W1 Tragedy (Classics & Candidates are required to answer three questions, at
English) least one of which must be from Section B, and they

47
 should avoid duplication of material.
In Section A, candidates may restrict an answer to a
single
author, and may treat either classical or English tragedy
on
any question.
In Section B, each answer must address both classical
and
English works.
All questions carry equal weight.
A10940W1 Comedy (Classics & Candidates are required to answer three questions, at
English) least one of which must be from Section B, and they
should avoid duplication of material.
In Section A, candidates may restrict an answer to a
single author, and may treat either classical or English
tragedy on any question.
In Section B, each answer must address both classical
and English works.
All questions carry equal weight.

48
10. Prospectus of Options
Please ensure that your chosen combination of options is permitted under the
regulations for your Honour School. The Examination Regulations may be consulted at
http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/examregs/.
Please pay special attention to the rules on choosing combinations of Ancient History
and Philosophy papers (see sections I and II below).
If you study an invalid combination of options, your college will need to apply to the
University’s Education Committee on your behalf for dispensation from the regulations.
Such requests will not automatically be approved.

I. Greek and Roman History

You may offer up to five Ancient History subjects (or up to four if you are offering Second
Classical Language in Course II). If you offer two or three Ancient History subjects, at least
one must be a period paper; if you offer four Ancient History subjects, at least two must be
period papers; if you offer five subjects, at least three must be period papers.

Ancient History is the systematic study of how we explain change over time in the period ca.
900 BC-ca. AD 500. It is thus essential to the understanding of ancient archaeology, art,
literature and thought. Its task is to chart vital and distinctive phases in the interaction and
mutual perceptions – hostile or peaceful – of the inhabitants of what is now Europe, north
Africa, and west Asia. Much of its subject matter is exotic and excitingly different from the
history of other periods, but it provides the foundation for a sympathetic appreciation of the
development and reception of numerous themes which can claim an important place in
world history - civic life, urbanism, rationality, politics, democracy; commercial slavery and
theories of freedom; the shaping of ideas about the character of humanity, individually or
collectively; technological and economic innovation and integration; the creation and
subdivision of large-scale unified cultures; ideologies of conquest, government, monarchy,
law and community; tradition, memory, literacy, and education; traditional religion, Judaism
and the origins of Christianity, and the beginnings of the transition to the post-classical world
of the Middle Ages in Christendom or under Islam.

Periods and options

Ancient History has traditionally been approached in Greats above all through concentration
on relatively short periods chosen for their intrinsic importance and studied through close
reading – where possible in the original – of ancient writers who provide especially
interesting evidence for, and treatment of, historical questions. There are six of these
periods, and the texts selected for study in Greek and Latin include the histories of
Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius, and Tacitus, and the letters of Cicero. This approach gives
you the opportunity to understand Greek and Roman history through the information
provided by such major authors and to engage critically with their view of history, society
and politics. But defining a period through a body of evidence also enables you to choose
your own interests within a period to a much greater degree than following a prescriptive
syllabus.

Certain important historical questions lend themselves to a more thematic treatment, and
there is a further range of papers which explore some of these, such as the history of the

49
social construction of gender and sexuality over the whole of classical antiquity, or the
radical changes in religious behaviour and thought which characterised the Roman empire.

Historical thinking benefits from the study of a number of different periods and types of
problem. You may offer a single Ancient History subject, or any other number up to five
(unless you are studying a Second Classical language, in which case the maximum is four). If
you do more than one, part of your Ancient History must include the period approach which
is characteristic of Greats: if you do two or three subjects one must, and all may, be periods;
if you do four, two must, and all may, be periods; if you do five, three must, and all may, be
periods. Remember that for the purpose of all these rules a Thesis in Ancient History (499)
counts as a subject in Ancient History.

Your choice will depend on your historical interests and the authors in whose work you are
most interested; you should consult your tutor about what will suit you best. Combining two
consecutive periods of Greek or Roman history offers the chance to consolidate the work of
two subjects so that they add up to an effective whole, but many other combinations are
rewarding too. The options demand a certain amount of background knowledge and as
much experience of studying history as you can offer, so it is the Sub-faculty’s view that they
should be timetabled as late as possible in your Greats sequence.

Period papers must be offered as text-based by LH Course I candidates. Course II candidates

may not offer more than one period paper as non-text-based. Course IIA candidates taking
periods 5 and 6 must offer them as text-based papers, while Course IIB candidates taking
periods 1-4 must offer them as text-based papers. For a list of prescribed editions, see
below, Section 8. Each period paper offered as text-based is accompanied by a 1.5-hour
translation and gobbets paper.

Before starting tutorials on a particular subject you will need to do some preparatory
reading. If you have not received guidance from your tutor, you should consult WebLearn
(https://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/x/58t6dq), which contains bibliographies (with notes on
preliminary reading) for each of these papers. For text-based subjects, you will certainly
need to read the prescribed texts in the original in the vacation. Once you have finished a
subject, you will also need to do some further work in the following vacation, normally in
preparation for a collection.

Ancient History subjects are taught in various combinations of tutorials, college classes, and
university classes.

The Sub-Faculty of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology will ensure lecture provision
for all papers, and attempt to take into account the normal teaching slots for the papers,
but candidates should bear in mind that lecture provision will vary, and that certain
lectures are laid on biennially. Consult your tutor for further information.

Students taking both period and topic papers are reminded that whether they study set
texts in the original or in translation, it is equally essential that they know them
thoroughly and make evident use of them in examinations.

50
 Greek and Roman History Periods 1-6

These subjects are normally covered in twelve contact hours; of these a quarter to a third
may be in the form of intra- or inter-collegiate classes, focusing directly on the
(documentary) evidence and / or gobbet technique.

Every period will be examined through two papers. The first will be an essay paper,
examined over three hours, in two sections, A & B. Candidates must write three essays. They
MUST answer at least ONE question from section A; and MUST attempt at least one question
from Section B. Section A is broadly concerned with the aspects of political and military
history of the period, and its questions may follow a broad chronological arc (e.g. in 402/422
perhaps starting with the foundations of the Athenian Empire and ending with the Athenian
oligarchies of the later fifth century); but candidates will also be asked to think across the
period and compare points within it. Section B is historiographical, methodological and
thematic: there will be questions on one (or more) of the set texts and their evidential value;
on other sources of evidence (coins, inscriptions, archaeology); and on topics which recur
throughout the period covered by the paper, such as the economy; slavery, empires and
imperialism; citizenship, identity and cultural change; religion; art; mobility (social and
geographical) etc. There will be a question which requires historical commentary on some of
the non-set-texts, inscriptions and other evidence relating to the period. All these themes
will form part of your weekly diet of reading, tutorials and lectures, and many of them recur
at significant moments in the set texts. To answer them, you need only apply the same skills
which you need to develop for section A: to identify the relevant information from what you
have at your disposal; extract it with an eye to its context and its strengths and weaknesses;
and redeploy it as part of a clear argument which answers the question. There are no
recorded fatalities associated with Section B answers; indeed, on some papers up to a
quarter of candidates answer TWO questions from Section B.

The second paper will be a 1.5 hour gobbet and translation paper. Candidates will be asked
to translate one passage (ca. 20 lines) and write a commentary on points of historical
interest in three other short passages. Within this paper, translation will count for 40% and
comment for 60% (20% for each comment) of the mark. Course II candidates offering a
period as a non-text-based option will be required to offer five comments, but no
translation. For the whole subject, the first paper (essays) will count for 65%, the second
paper (translations and gobbets) will count for 35% of the total mark.

Greek History 1: Archaic Greek History c.750 to 479 BC (401 text-based or 421
non-text-based)
Our knowledge of Greek History down to the great war with Persia is based on historical
allusions in the works of archaic poets, traditions handed down largely by oral transmission
and preserved in Herodotus or later writers, and on the archaeological record (on which
Greats subject 601, The Greeks and the Mediterranean World, concentrates more). This
paper emphasizes the literary evidence and in particular the oral and written traditions
preserved in Herodotus and the evidence of earlier texts and attitudes to earlier history
preserved in the Aristotelian Constitution of the Athenians.

This was a crucial period in the development of Greek culture. The great phase of Greek
expansion overseas (‘colonisation’) continued during it. But in the sixth century the Greeks

51
themselves came under pressure from their eastern neighbours, first the Lydians and then
the great new power of Persia. The city-state established itself firmly as the dominant form
of social organisation. Lawgivers wrote comprehensive codes – or so later Greeks believed.
In many places the leisured classes developed a luxurious life-style centred on the
symposium, though Sparta went the other way in the direction of austerity. Exploitation
took new forms, with chattel-slavery apparently growing greatly in importance. Many cities
were under the rule of ‘tyrants’ (not necessarily the hate-figures they later became), but by
the end of the period democracy had been established in Athens by Cleisthenes, and the first
tragedies were being performed. The delight of studying the period is greatly increased by
the charm of two of the main literary sources for it, Herodotus and the early lyric poets.

A document in WebLearn (‘Epigraphic Dossier) lists key documents, some of which will be
set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with the following one, and makes the Greek world of the
fifth century BC much easier to understand. It has an extremely fertile relationship with
archaeology subject 601 The Greeks and the Mediterranean World. This subject would also
go admirably with Literature subjects 503 Historiography, 504 Lyric Poetry, and 505 Early
Greek Hexameter Poetry.

Syllabus
For those studying this period as a text-based subject (401), the texts in α will be studied in
Greek and the texts in β in English translation. The translation and gobbets paper will
comprise passages from α only. Students should show knowledge of the texts in β in their
essays, and passages from these texts may be set for the optional gobbets question.

For those studying this period as a non-text-based subject (421), α and β will be studied in
English translation. The gobbets paper will comprise passages from α only. Students should
show knowledge of the texts in β in their essays, and passages from these texts may be set
for the optional gobbets question.

α
• Herodotus, Proem, III.39-60, V.28-VI.
(Prescribed translation for the non-text-based version of the paper: Waterfield, Oxford World’s
Classics)
β
• Herodotus I, III, VII-IX (Waterfield, Oxford World’s Classics)
• Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia 1-24
• Hesiod, Works and Days
• Homer, Odyssey I. 180 ff. , VI, XIII.250-86, XV.415 ff.
• Solon, fragments in Athenaion Politeia and frags. 1-3, 4, 9-10, 13, 15
• Tyrtaeus (Loeb, Elegaic Poetry)
• Dossier of inscriptions and coins (in WebLearn)

Greek History 2: Thucydides and the Greek World: 479 BC to 403 BC (402 text-
based or 422 non-text-based)
Victory over Persia led to the rise of the Athenian Empire, conflict between Athens and Sparta
and Sparta’s eventual victory in the Peloponnesian War. These years cover the transition from

52
archaic to classical Greece, the Periclean age of Athens, the masterpieces of art, architecture
and literature which are the supreme legacies of the Greek world, the contrasting lifestyles of
Sparta and democratic Athens, and the careers of Alcibiades, Socrates and their famous
contemporaries. They are studied through the History of Thucydides, antiquity’s most
masterly analysis of empire, inter-state relations and war, which Thucydides claimed to have
written, justifiably, as "a possession for all times". The issues of Thucydides’ own bias and
viewpoint and his shaping of his History remain among the storm centres of the study of
antiquity and are of far-reaching significance for our understanding of the moral, intellectual
and political changes in the Greek world. The period is also studied through inscriptions,
whose context and content are a fascinating challenge to modern historians.

A document on WebLearn (‘Greek History I.2. – Documents’) lists key documents, some of
which will be set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with both the preceding and the following one, and is of
special value to those who intend to offer the latter, since both the Peloponnesian war and
Thucydides’ reflections on it shape our understanding of what follows. It is extremely useful
for those studying subject 407 Athenian Democracy to acquaint themselves with the origins
of the democratic system at Athens. This period also offers excellent historical background
to work on both fifth-century literature (subjects 501, 503, 506 or 507) and on classical
Greek art (subject 602).

Syllabus
For those studying this period as a text-based subject (402), the texts in α will be studied in
Greek and the texts in β in English translation. The translation and gobbets paper will
comprise passages from α only. Students should show knowledge of the texts in β in their
essays, and passages from these texts may be set for the optional gobbets question.

For those studying this period as a non-text-based subject (422), α and β will be studied in
English translation. The gobbets paper will comprise passages from α only. Students should
show knowledge of the texts in β in their essays, and passages from these texts may be set
for the optional gobbets question.

α
• Thucydides I.1-23, I.89-II.46, II.65, III.35-85, V.84-116.
(Prescribed translation for the non-text-based version of the paper: Martin Hammond, Oxford
World’s Classics)
β
• Thucydides, rest of I-VIII (Martin Hammond, Oxford World’s Classics)
• Xenophon I-II (Rex Warner, Old Penguin)
• Plutarch, Cimon, Pericles
• Aristophanes, Acharnians, Birds
• Pindar, Pythian I, IV
• Bacchylides III
• Euripides, Suppliants, fragments of Erechtheus (Aris & Phillips Classical Texts)
• Old Oligarch
• Plato, Menexenus
• Antiphon, On the Revolution fr. B1 (Loeb, Minor Attic Orators)
• Dossier of inscriptions and coins (in WebLearn)

53
Greek History 3: The End of the Peloponnesian War to the Death of Philip II of
Macedon: 403 BC to 336 BC (403 text-based or 423 non-text-based)
Greek History in the years immediately after the Peloponnesian War is no longer dominated
by the two super-powers, Athens and Sparta. Cities which in the fifth century had been
constrained by them acquired independence; groups of small cities, such as Arcadia and
Boiotia, co-ordinated their actions to become significant players in inter-city politics. Areas in
which the city was not highly developed, and particularly Thessaly and then Macedon, were
sufficiently united by energetic rulers to play a major role in the politics of mainland Greece,
and the manipulation of relations with Persia preoccupied much of Greek diplomacy. This
society gave rise to the political theorising of Plato and Aristotle.

The absence of dominant cities in the fourth-century is paralleled by the absence of a single
dominant source. Students of this period have at their disposal two works which imitate
Thucydides, Xenophon’s Hellenica and the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, pamphlets and speeches
by Isocrates and Demosthenes aimed at influencing Athenian politics, specialist studies of
military matters, such as Aeneas’ Poliorcemata, and of particular cities, such as Xenophon’s
account of the Spartan Constitution, and an abundance of epigraphic material. The
compilations of later historians and biographers, such as Diodorus and Plutarch, who worked
from earlier texts now lost to us, provide further information: through these later works we
have access to contemporary accounts of high quality that illuminate the history of such
places as Thebes and Syracuse. The wealth of varied information, the multiplication of
sources, and the need to weave together the stories of many different cities, present a
challenge quite distinct from that offered by earlier periods of Greek history. The importance
of the events of the period for our understanding of Plato and Aristotle, on the one hand,
and of the history of Greek art, on the other, ensures that the complexities of the study bring
ample rewards.

A document on WebLearn (‘Greek History I.3. – Documents’) lists key documents, some of
which will be set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with the preceding one, since both the Peloponnesian war
and Thucydides’ reflections on it shape our understanding of what follows. The subject
studies the political history of the heyday of the democratic institutional and social system
which is thematically presented in subject 407 Athenian Democracy. Here you will also meet
the main problems which shape the age of Alexander and the early Hellenistic period, so
that it makes an excellent introduction to subjects 408 Alexander the Great and his early
Successors and 409 The Hellenistic World: Societies and Cultures. This period also offers
excellent historical background to work on both fourth-century literature (subject 507) and
on classical Greek art (subject 602), while illuminating the milieux in which fourth-century
philosophy developed (subjects 130, 131, 132 and 133).

Syllabus for those offering this period as a text-based subject (403)

Passages for compulsory comment and translation will be set from:
• Xenophon, Hellenica, Books III and V
• Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans
• Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas
• Demosthenes, Philippic I, On the Peace, Philippic III

54
Roman History 4: Polybius, Rome and the Mediterranean: 241 BC to 146 BC
(404 text-based or 424 non-text-based)
From the end of the cataclysmic first Punic war to the year of Rome’s final obliteration of her
old enemy Carthage and the great Greek city Corinth, this period saw the Roman conquest of
Greece and much of the Hellenistic east, and indeed the development of Rome into an
imperial state exercising dominion throughout the Mediterranean world. It saw also the
developing effects of this process, upon the Romans and, not least, upon those with whom
they dealt, in Italy itself and overseas. This time marked the beginning of the Roman Empire
and the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic. The ‘freedom of the Greeks’ was
proclaimed by a Roman general in 196 BC, but in fact these years marked the end of liberty
for Greece and much of the rest of the Mediterranean world. Rome and its allies in Italy all
prospered, but wealth and empire brought rapid social and economic change and mounting
political tensions.

This period shaped the views of one of the greatest historians of antiquity, Polybius of
Megalopolis, who made his subject precisely the ambition of the Romans for universal
conquest and the effects this had upon the lives of all the peoples involved. A contemporary
of the events, and detained in Rome in the 160s and 150s, he enables (and enlivens)
productive study of this period, which saw, amongst so much else, the beginnings of Roman
history writing, some of the early development of which there will be opportunity to trace.
Inquiry is aided by an increasing number of surviving inscriptions and an increasingly detailed
archaeological record.

A document on WebLearn (‘Roman History I.4. – Documents’) lists key documents, some of
which will be set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with the following one, since it offers a deep understanding
of the mature Roman Republic in its apparently stable state before the crises of its last
century, and many insights into the nature of the aggression which won Rome its empire.
Anyone who has enjoyed getting to grips with Herodotus and/or Thucydides will find the
encounter with Polybius especially rewarding. Since Rome in this period was integrated to a
much wider world this period makes a very imaginative and stimulating pair with subject 409
The Hellenistic World: Societies and Cultures.

Syllabus for those offering this period as a text-based subject (404)

Passages for compulsory comment and translation will be set from the following sections of
Polybius: I.1-4, 62-65; II.1-13, 21-4; III.1-34; V.101-10; VI.3-18; VII.9; XI.4-6; XVI.24-35; XVIII.1-
12; 34-52; XXI.29-32, 41-6; XXIII.1-5, 9, 17; XXIV.8-13; XXX.1-5, 30-1; XXXI.21-30; XXXVI.1-6, 9,
17; XXXVIII.1-18.

Roman History 5: Republic in Crisis: 146 BC to 46 BC (405 text-based or 425

non-text-based)
In 146 the Romans destroyed Carthage and Corinth. In 133 a popular tribune was beaten to
death in front of the Capitol by a mob led by the High Priest. At the other end of the period,
in 49 Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon, and in 46 crushed his enemies at the battle of
Thapsus, celebrating his victory with an unprecedented quadruple triumph.

55
Despite repeated deeply threatening crises, Rome survived – capital of an increasingly large
and organised Mediterranean-wide empire, its constantly growing populace more and more
diverse, its richest citizens vastly wealthier, its cityscape more and more monumental. But
the tradition of the ancestors, the rule of the aristocracy, the armies and their recruitment,
the sources of wealth, the cultural horizons of the literate, the government of allies and
subjects, the idea of a Roman citizen, the landscape of Italy, and Roman identity itself had all
changed for ever. This subject studies how.

For the earlier years, from the Gracchi to the Social War, we mainly have to rely on the
writings of later historians and on contemporary inscriptions, although Sallust and Cicero
offer some near-contemporary illumination. But for the latter part of this period our
knowledge is of a different quality from that of almost any other period of Roman history
thanks to the intimate light shed by the correspondence, speeches and other works of
Cicero, with strong backing from Caesar’s Gallic War and the surviving works of Sallust.

A document on WebLearn (‘Roman History I.5. – Documents (2010-)’) lists key documents,
some of which will be set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with both the preceding and the following one, since
subject 404/424 shows what Rome was like before the period of crises, and subject 406/426
explores how the legacy of Julius Caesar developed into the imperial monarchy. Those who
really want to understand Cicero and the circles in which he moved will combine it with
subject 410 Cicero: Politics and Thought. This period also offers excellent historical
background to work on first-century BC literature (subjects 502, 503, 509 or 511).

Syllabus for those offering this period as a text-based subject (405)

Passages for compulsory comment and translation will be set from:
• Sallust, Histories the following fragments:
1.55 = 1.48 McG (Speech of Lepidus)
1.77 = 1.67 McG (Speech of Philippus)
2.47 = 2.44 McG (Speech of Cotta)
2.98 = 2.82 McG (Letter of Pompey)
3.48 = 3.34 McG (Speech of Macer)
4.69 = 4.67 McG (Letter of Mithridates)
(first number that in the OCT, second that in the translation and commentary of P.
McGushin (Oxford 1992 and 1994))
• Cicero, Verrines I, De imperio Cn. Pompei
• Cicero, Letters: Ad fam. I. 2, 9; V. 7; VI. 6; VII. 5; VIII. 1, 4, 8, 13, 14; XIII. 9; XV. 2;
Ad Att. I. 1, 13, 14, 19; II. 16, 18, 19, 24; IV. 1, 3, 5; V. 16; VI. 2; VII. 5, 7, 10, 11; VIII. 3,
11, 12D, 13; IX. 6A, 9, 10, 11A; X. 8; XI. 6; XII. 2 Ad Qu. f. I. 2; II. 3, 4; III. 6.

Roman History 6: Rome, Italy and Empire from Caesar to Claudius: 46 BC to

AD 54 (406 text-based or 426 non-text-based)
Beginning this period in 46 BC immediately presents us with issues of uneasy adjustment and
faltering responses to shattering social and political change. The Civil War, fought from one
end of the Mediterranean to another, raised problems about the character of Urbs and

56
Orbis, city and world, and their relations. Caesar drew his own solutions from the widest
cultural range. The first years of the period set the scene for the developing drama of the
transformation of every aspect of the societies of the Mediterranean world ruled from
Rome, and of the identity of Rome itself, as experiment, setback and new accommodation
succeeded each other in the hands of the generals of the continuing war-years, and finally,
after Actium, of Augustus and his advisors. The central problems of this subject concern the
dynasty, charisma and authority of the Roman Emperor, the institutions of the Roman
provincial empire, and the most intensely creative age of Roman art and Latin literature, and
how these were related. The sequel addresses three very different rulers, Tiberius, Gaius
Caligula and Claudius, whose reigns did much to shape the idea of an imperial system and its
historiography, which we sample through Tacitus and the biographies of Suetonius, and the
virulent satirical sketch by Seneca of Claudius’ death and deification. The subject invites
consideration of the changing relations of Greek and Roman, and the increasing unity of the
Mediterranean world; and also of the social and economic foundations of the Roman state in
the city of Rome and in the towns and countryside of the Italy of the Georgics and Eclogues.
Within Roman society, political change was accompanied by upward social mobility and by
changes in the cultural representations of status, gender and power which pose complex and
rich questions for the historian.

A document in WebLearn (‘Roman History I.6. – Documents (2010-)’) lists key documents,
some of which will be set (with a translation) among the optional gobbets (qu. 17).

Choosing your combinations

This period makes a natural pair with the preceding one, since subject 405/425 explores the
conditions which made Caesar’s complete ascendancy possible. It also goes excellently well
with subject 411 Politics, Society and Culture from Nero to Hadrian, in which many of the
themes continue. This period also offers excellent historical background to both work on
literature of the late Republic and early Empire (subjects 502, 509 or 511) and on Roman art
and archaeology (subjects 604 and 605).

Syllabus for those offering this period as a text-based subject (406)

Passages for compulsory comment and translation will be set from:
• Res Gestae Divi Augusti ed. P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore (1967)
• Suetonius Life of Augustus
• Tacitus Annals I, XI-XII

Greek and Roman History Topics (407-414)

N.B. these papers will be taught in eight and not twelve tutorials.

407. Athenian Democracy in the Classical Age

Athenian Democracy is much praised but little understood. How did the largest city in the
classical Greek world manage to govern itself on the basis of meetings, held less often than
once a week, of those Athenian-born men aged over 18 who wanted to come? How did a
heterogeneous society whose size rendered many residents effectively anonymous maintain
law and order without a police force or lawyers? This topic looks at the institutions of
Athenian democracy, at the practice of democracy, at democratic ideology, and at Athenian
theories about government. It analyses the make-up of Athenian society and tries to

57
understand the contribution that groups without political rights, women, slaves and resident
foreigners, made to Athenian democracy and the extent to which democracy determined
the way in which these excluded groups were treated. Although details of Athenian military
history and of Athenian imperial activity are not at issue, the topic does attempt to explain
the sources and the effects of Athenian wealth and power. The literary and artistic
achievements of classical Athens are here examined both as phenomena that need to be
explained – why was it that it was at Athens that the most significant monuments in drama,
architecture, painting and sculpture were created? – and in themselves as sources of insight
into Athenian attitudes and pre-occupations.

If you offer this topic you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts listed below, in
translation, from which optional passages for comment will be set.

Choosing your combinations

It is highly desirable for candidates taking this paper to offer Greek History 2 (402/422) or
Greek History 3 (403/423).

The themes and problems studied here dovetail excellently with the events and evidence
which shape subjects 402/422 Thucydides and the Greek World and 403/423 The End of the
Peloponnesian War to the Death of Philip, and with the fifth- and fourth-century archaeology
and literature options mentioned under those periods above.

Syllabus
Candidates will be required to study the social, administrative, and constitutional
developments in Athens from 462 BC to 321 BC, and will only be required to show such
knowledge of external affairs as is necessary for an understanding of Athenian democracy.
The following texts are prescribed for study in translation; although compulsory passages for
comment will not be set, candidates will be expected to show knowledge of these texts in
their answers.

• Aristotle, Constitution of Athens (tr. P. J. Rhodes, Penguin Classics)

• Herodotus III.80-82 (Loeb)
• Thucydides I.31-44, 66-79, 140-5; II.35-65; III.35-50, 82-3; V.43-6; VI.8-29; VIII.47-97
(tr. M. Hammond, OUP: Oxford World’s Classics, 2009)
• Xenophon, Hellenica I.6 and 7; II.3 and 4 (Loeb)
• Memorabilia I.1 and 2; III.6 (Loeb)
• Revenues (Loeb)
• [Xenophon], Constitution of Athens (Loeb)
• Andocides I (Loeb, Attic Minor Orators I)
• Lysias XXII, XXV (Loeb)
• Aeschines II (Loeb)
• Demosthenes VI, XIX, LIX (Loeb)
• Aristophanes, Wasps, Clouds, Ecclesiazusae, Acharnians 1-173
• Thesmophoriazusae 295-530 (Penguin Classics)
• Plato, Apology, Gorgias, Protagoras 309-28 (Penguin Classics)
• Aeschylus, Eumenides; Sophocles, Antigone; Euripides, Supplices (The Complete Greek
Tragedies, ed. R. Lattimore, D. Grene, Chicago 1958-9)

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 • C. W. Fornara, Translated Documents of Greece and Rome 1: Archaic Times to the End
of the Peloponnesian War (Cambridge, 1983) nos. 15, 68, 75, 97, 100, 103, 106, 114,
119, 120, 128, 134, 140, 147, 155, 160, 166
• P. Harding, Translated Documents of Greece and Rome 2: From the End of the
Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Ipsus (Cambridge, 1985) nos. 3, 5, 9, 45, 47, 54,
55, 56, 66, 78, 82, 101, 108, 111, 121

Optional passages for comment will be set from these texts in translation.
Opportunity will be given to show knowledge of the archaeology of Classical Athens.

408. Alexander the Great and his early Successors (336 BC-302 BC)
Aged twenty-five, Alexander the Great defeated the collected might of the Persian Empire
and became the richest ruler in the world. As the self-proclaimed rival of Achilles, he led an
army which grew to be bigger than any known again in antiquity and reached India in his
ambition to march to the edge of the world. When he died, aged thirty-two, he left his
generals with conquests from India to Egypt, no designated heir and an uncertain tradition
of his plans.

This subject explores the controversial personality and resources of the conqueror, the
impact of his conquests on Asia, the nature and importance of Macedonian tradition and the
image and achievements of his early Successors. The relationship and authority of the
surviving sources pose large questions of interpretation on which depend our judgement of
the major figures’ abilities and achievements. The career which changed the scope of Greek
history is still a matter of dispute both for its immediate legacy and for the evidence on
which it rests.

If you offer this topic, you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts listed below,
from which optional passages for comment will be set.

Choosing your combinations

This subject makes an excellent sequel to subject 403/423 The End of the Peloponnesian War
to the Death of Philip, and introduces questions of great importance for subject 409 The
Hellenistic World: Societies and Cultures.

Syllabus
The following texts are prescribed for study in translation; although compulsory passages for
comment will not be set, candidates will be expected to show knowledge of these texts in
their answers.
• Arrian, Anabasis (Loeb, Brunt)
• [Demosthenes] XVII (Loeb)
• Diodorus Siculus, XVI.89, 91-5; XVII.5-7, 16-21, 32, 47-8, 62-3, 69-73, 76-7, 93-5, 100-
1, 108-11, 113-15, 117-18; XVIII, the whole; XIX.12-64, 66-8, 77-100, 105; XX.19-21,
27-8, 37, 45-53, 81-99, 100-3, 106-13 (Loeb)
• Plutarch, Lives of Alexander, Eumenes and Demetrios 1-27 (Loeb)
• P.J. Rhodes and R. Osborne, Greek Historical Inscriptions 404-323 BC (Oxford, 2003),
Nos. 76, 82, 83, 84, 86, 90, 94, 96, 101
• M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest, 2nd edn.
(Cambridge, 2006), Nos. 26, 29, 32, 38, 39, 43, 45, 50.

59
Optional passages for comment will be set from these texts in translation and from Arrian,
Anabasis VII (Loeb, Brunt) in Greek only.

409. The Hellenistic World: Societies and Cultures, ca. 300 BC-100 BC
An explosion of ideas, horizons, communications, power-structures at the end of the fourth
century tripled the size of the world to be studied by the ancient historian. We now have to
make sense of what was happening from what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan all the way
to the Strait of Gibraltar. Persian, Macedonian, and Greek were blended with a host of more
local cultures and societies across the world experienced by those who travelled with the
armies of the end of the classical period. The result of these changes was a new version of
Greek culture, conventionally known as Hellenistic, which exhibits fascinating patterns of
artistic, economic, institutional and social change which can be compared and contrasted in
extremely diverse settings. Inscriptions and archaeological discoveries illuminate the farthest
east reaches of the new culture, in the valleys of the Hindu Kush; a wide range of material
and textual evidence shows the different accommodations of local culture with Hellenism on
the Iranian plateau, in the plains of Mesopotamia, in Anatolia, Syria and Palestine, or in the
Nile valley and at the archetypal Hellenistic city of Alexandria, capital of the Ptolemies. The
explosion of the classical world also transformed the Aegean heartland of the Greeks, and
their interactions with their neighbours to the west, including Carthage and Rome. The scope
of the paper is thus very wide, and its historical problems challenging, but this is an area of
scholarship in rapid transition, and there is a constant supply of important new evidence,
especially from archaeology. This is therefore a particularly good subject for those seeking to
combine historical and archaeological techniques.

If you offer this topic, you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts, cities, sites and
monuments listed below, in translation.

Choosing your combinations

This subject makes an excellent sequel to subject 403/423 The End of the Peloponnesian War
to the Death of Philip, or 408 Alexander the Great and his Early Successors. It would make an
interesting and instructive combination with 404/424 Polybius, Rome and the
Mediterranean. This period also offers excellent historical background to literature subject
508 Hellenistic Poetry.

Syllabus
Candidates will be required to study the history, culture, and society of the Hellenistic world,
based on the detailed and integrated case study of primary evidence – literary, epigraphical,
archaeological. A knowledge of political history is expected, but the main focus is on social
and cultural history. Close familiarity with the epigraphical material and awareness of the
geography, topography, and physical and visual environment of the Hellenistic world are
required. The following texts are prescribed for study in translation. Compulsory passages
for comment will not be set, but candidates will be expected to show knowledge of these
texts in their answers:
• Plutarch, Demetrios, Philopoimen, Agis-Kleomenes
• Polybius, 4-5; 21.18 to end; 22.3-14; 23.1-4; 29-30 all frgs; 31.1-15
• Appian, Syriaca, Mithridatica
• Theokritos, 2, 14, 15, 17
• Callimachus, Hymn to Delos

60
 • Herodas, Mimiamboi 1 and 4.

Special attention will be given to the following cities, sites and monuments: Ai Khanum,
Alexandria, Athens, Delos, Pella, Pergamon, Priene.

410. Cicero: Politics and Thought in the Late Republic

Cicero is the crucial figure for understanding the political, cultural and intellectual life of the
Late Republic. Not only did he publish his speeches and write essays on rhetorical theory and
on all the branches of philosophy, he also corresponded with the most important and
cultivated men of his time. In fact the collection of his letters includes replies from such
famous historical figures as Pompey, Brutus, Cassius and Cato.

This topic explores Cicero’s political and private life, his education and training as an orator;
his political and moral philosophy; his views, and those of other contemporaries, on religion
and imperialism; the attitudes and lifestyle of his friend Atticus; the ethics of the Roman law-
courts. The texts (set in translation) include speeches, essays and letters by Cicero, letters
from his contemporaries, and works by his younger contemporaries Sallust and Cornelius
Nepos, who provide an external view of Cicero and his friend Atticus and offer a contrast
with Cicero’s style and attitudes.

Teaching is done through lectures and eight university classes. There is time for four tutorials
to be on Cicero’s career and political life, but students are advised to do Roman History 5
(405/425), and 6 (406/426) if possible, in conjunction with this topic.

If you offer this topic, you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts listed below,
from which optional passages for comment will be set.

Choosing your combinations

It is highly desirable for candidates taking this paper to offer Roman History 5 (405/425).
You are strongly recommended to study 405/425 Republic in Crisis if you offer this option, as
there is a very close relationship between the two papers. This paper is also very helpful for
subject 406/426 Rome, Italy and Empire.

Syllabus
The following texts are prescribed for study in translation; although compulsory passages for
comment will not be set, candidates will be expected to show knowledge of these texts in
their answers.
• Sallust, Catilina (Loeb)
• Cicero, In Verrem (Actio I) (Loeb)
• De Imperio Cn. Pompei (Loeb)
• Pro Sestio 97-137 (Loeb)
• In M. Antonium Philippica XI (Loeb)
• Pro Murena (Loeb)
• In Catilinam IV (Loeb)
• Epistulae ad Atticum I.1, 2, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19; II.1, 3, 16, 18; IV.1, 3, 5; V.16 and 21;
VI.1 and 2; VII.7, 9, 11; VIII.3 and 11; IX. 6A, 10, 11A, 18; X.8 (incl. A and B); XI.6; XII.21
and 40; XIII.19 and 52; XIV.1, 12, 13, 13A and B; XV.1A and 11; XVI.7, 8 and 11 (Loeb)

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 • Epistulae ad Familiares I.1, 8, 9; II.12; III.6 and 7; IV.4, 5; V.1, 2, 7, 12; VI.6; VII.3, 5, 30;
VIII.1, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 16; IX.16 and 17; X.24 and 28; XI.3, 20, 27, 28; XII.3 and 5; XIII.1,
and 9; XIV.4; XV.1, 4, 5, 6, 16, 19; XVI.12 (Loeb)
• Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem II.3, 15; III.5 and 6 (Loeb)
• Epistulae ad M. Brutum 17, 25 (Loeb)
• Brutus 301-33 (Loeb)
• De Oratore I.137-59, 185-203; II.30-8 (Loeb)
• Orator 113-20, 140-6 (Loeb)
• De Re Publica I.1-18, 58-71 (Loeb)
• De Legibus II.1-33; III. 1-49 (Loeb)
• Tusculanae Disputationes I.1-8 (Loeb)
• De Divinatione II.1-24; 136-50 (Loeb)
• De Natura Deorum I.1-13; III.1-10 (Loeb)
• De Officiis I.1-60; II.1-29, 44-60, 73-89 trans. Griffin and Atkins (Cambridge)
• Cornelius Nepos, Atticus (Loeb)

Optional passages for comment will be set from these texts in translation, and from In
Catilinam I (Loeb) and De Finibus I.1-12 (OCT) in Latin only.

411. Politics, Society and Culture from Nero to Hadrian

The subject begins with the accession of Nero, the ill-starred emperor who was the last
representative of the Julio-Claudian dynasty established by Augustus. Following his fall, and
the military and political convulsions of the ‘year of the four emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian
emerged triumphant and established the Flavian dynasty which came to an end with the
assassination of Domitian in AD 96. The last part of the period covers the reigns of Trajan
and Hadrian, the former an emperor with military and expansionist ideals, the latter a man
of literary and aesthetic interests who was bent on consolidation of the empire and its
frontiers. Despite some serious disturbances and wars, including revolts in Judaea and
warfare in Dacia and the east, this was a period in which the stability of the ‘Roman peace’
extended over virtually the whole of the Mediterranean world and enabled the empire to
reach, in the second century, its highest point of social, economic and cultural development.
At the same time the established institutions of Graeco-Roman paganism were beginning to
undergo profound change under the impact of the growth of Christianity. The evidence of
literary and historical writers, documents (inscriptions and papyri), coins and archaeology
combines to offer not merely a detailed account of individual emperors, political events and
governmental institutions, but also a rich and multi-faceted picture of the impact of Roman
rule on the Mediterranean world. This is therefore a particularly good subject for those
seeking to combine historical and archaeological techniques.
All offering this topic are also expected to show a familiarity with the texts, sites and
monuments listed below, in translation.

Choosing your combinations

It is recommended that candidates taking this paper offer Roman History 6 (406/426).
This paper forms a natural sequel and companion to subject 406/426 Rome, Italy and
Empire. With that paper, it provides excellent background to 412 Religions in the Roman
world. It would also make an excellent combination with either of the Roman archaeology
subjects, 604 or 605. All those interested in literature subject 512 Neronian Literature will

62
find the historical investigation of Roman culture in the middle of the first century AD
invaluable.

Syllabus
Candidates will be required to study the political, social, economic and cultural history of the
Roman empire in the period AD 54-138. The following texts are prescribed for study in
translation. Compulsory passages for comment will not be set, but candidates will be
expected to show knowledge of these texts in their answers.
• Tacitus, Annals XIII-XVI, Histories, I, IV, Agricola
• Suetonius, Lives of Nero, Vespasian, Domitian
• Josephus, Jewish War II, VII (Loeb)
• Pliny, Letters I-X, Panegyricus
• Dio Chrysostom, Orations 38-51 (Loeb)
• Juvenal, Satires VII, VIII, XI, XIV, XVI
• Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian
• R. K. Sherk, The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian (Translated Documents of
Greece and Rome 6), nos. 61-200

Attention will be given to relevant archaeological sites and monuments including the
following: Nero's Domus Aurea, the Colosseum, the Templum Pacis, The Arch of Titus,
Domitian's Palace, Trajan's Forum, the Arch of Trajan at Beneventum, Trajan's Column, the
Great Trajanic Frieze, Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.

412. Religions in the Greek and Roman World (c. 31 BC to AD 312)

During the Roman imperial period, notions of the divine and the human and the relationship
between them, and of the framework of those relationships, changed dramatically in many
different ways. As Greek and Roman cultures altered, as the Roman empire promoted
contact, mobility and social change, as attitudes to time and space, history, ethics, and
community shifted, an extraordinary variety of new ways of religious thinking and behaving
came into being. These changes include profound transformations in thinking about the
divine in philosophy and literature; the role of religion in displaced and diaspora
communities, and especially in Jewish ones; the religious order of the Roman state; the
formation of new religious allegiances out of old; and new types of religious competition,
conflict and self-definition. The evidence for these changes in literature, art, papyri,
inscriptions and material culture is rich, diverse and fascinating, and the issues among the
most important in ancient history. How do we model cultural change? What part does
psychology play in history? Does the social anthropology of religion offer important insights
to the historian? How can the historian use visual representations, artefacts, and the study
of space? How do we link the history of ideas to other forms of historical narrative? Mithraic
cave, curse-tablet, synagogue, and sacred spring – who used them and why? Isis, Jesus,
Jupiter and Taranis – who worshipped them and how? The subject takes you from Augustus
praying to the Greek Fates at the Secular Games, and Ovid on Anna Perenna, through the fall
of the Second Temple and the martyrdom of Felicity and Perpetua, to Aurelian's temple of
the Unconquered Sun and Constantine’s vision at the Milvian Bridge.

If you offer this topic, you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts listed below, in
translation.

63
Choosing your combinations – this option is greatly enhanced by an understanding of other
dimensions of Roman imperial history, and therefore fits very well with subject 406/426
Rome, Italy and Empire, and/or 411 Politics, Society and Culture from Nero to Hadrian. It
would also make a very rewarding combination with either of the Roman archaeology
subjects, 604 and 605.

Choosing your combinations

It is recommended that candidates taking this paper offer Politics, Society and Culture from
Nero to Hadrian (411).

Syllabus
Candidates will be required to study the workings of Greek and Roman religions, including
relevant aspects of Judaism and Christianity and other elective cults, between around 30 BC
and AD 312. They will be encouraged to display an understanding of relevant modern
theories of religious practice, and to be familiar with the relevant literary, epigraphic and
archaeological evidence contained in the following texts prescribed for study in translation;
although compulsory passages for comment will not be set, candidates will be expected to
show knowledge of these texts in their answers.

• Ovid, Fasti IV (Loeb)

• Acts of the Apostles (New English Bible)
• Josephus, Against Apion II (Loeb)
• Plutarch, Decline of Oracles (Loeb)
• Lucian, Alexander; Peregrinus (Loeb)
• Aelius Aristides, Oration XLVIII (=Sacred Tales II) (tr. C. A. Behr)
• Pausanias I.1-38 (Loeb)
• Apuleius, Metamorphoses XI (Hanson, Loeb)
• Minucius Felix, Octavius (Loeb, with Tertullian)
• H. A. Musurillo, Acts of the Christian Martyrs (1972) nos. 1, 6, 8, 10
• Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History VIII-X (Penguin)
• M. Beard, J. A. North & S. R. F. Price, Religions of Rome vol. 2 (Cambridge 1998)

413. Sexuality and Gender in Greece and Rome

How many sexes were there in the ancient world? How many genders? What is the
difference? When is a man not a man or a woman not a woman? What can we know about
the lives of women in antiquity, and what is the relationship between the way women lived
and the way men wrote about them, painted them, sculpted them or legislated for them?
This paper tackles the fundamental historical question of the implications, in any particular
time and place, of being gendered. From the archaic Greek world to the later Roman Empire,
it looks at how sex, sexuality and gender affected everyday life, what was and was not
acceptable sexual behaviour, and how writers and artists expressed, joked about, subverted
or reinvented the views of those around them. Relatively well-known evidence from
literature and art is put side by side with medical writings, magic, laws and graffiti. The
subject ends with the rise of Christianity and asks whether this new religion brought women
emancipation from men, or both sexes emancipation from sex, or altered the meaning of
gender completely. Texts are set in translation, though it is, as always, desirable to read
them in the original where possible. Scholarship in this area of Classics has been developing

64
apace in recent years, and you will also read some of the cutting-edge literature on gender
and sexuality by contemporary non-Classicist theorists.

If you offer this topic, you are expected to show a familiarity with the texts listed below, in
translation.

Choosing your combinations

Important note: In Literae Humaniores and Classics & Oriental Studies, this paper is only
available to candidates who are offering at least one Ancient History period paper (401-6 or
421-6).

Gender and sexuality as objects of study raise questions of importance to many parts of the
Greats course, and this paper involves issues of theory and methodology which will be of
interest to people working on literary theory and moral philosophy. The broad chronological
scope of the paper – which concerns itself with the whole sweep of classical antiquity – also
increases its appeal. The essentially historical objective of explaining change between
different places and periods remains an essential part of the framework, and background
knowledge of various historical Greek and Roman contexts, whether derived from the study
of Ancient History period papers or from Greek and Latin literature, is invaluable if the
debates in this paper are to be understood.

Syllabus
The following texts are prescribed for study in translation; although compulsory passages for
comment will not be set, candidates will be expected to show knowledge of these texts in
their answers.

• M. R. Lefkowitz and M. B. Fant, Women's Life in Greece and Rome, 2nd ed. (London,
1992), nos. 1-27, 36-50, 168, 176, 178-9, 181-207, 273-337, 369-440
• Semonides fr. 7 (Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb)
• Theognis II (lines 1231-1389) (Greek Elegiac Poetry, Loeb)
• Anacreon fr. 358 (Greek Lyric II, Loeb)
• Aeschylus, Agamemnon, Sophocles, Philoctetes, Euripides, Medea (in D. Grene and R.
Lattimore eds, The Complete Greek Tragedies in Translation (Chicago, 1957-9)
• Aristophanes, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, Ecclesiazusae (Penguin)
• Lysias I (Loeb)
• Xenophon, Oeconomicus (ed. and tr. S. Pomeroy, Oxford, 1992)
• Aeschines I Against Timarchus (Loeb)
• Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus, in M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of
Rome (Cambridge, 1998) 2, pp. 290-1
• Ovid, Ars Amatoria (Loeb)
• Musonius Rufus (tr. C. E. Lutz, Yale Classical Studies 10 [1947], 39-49, 89-91)
• Pliny, Letters III. 11, 16; IV. 10, 19; V. 16; VI. 33; VII. 19, 24; X. 120
• Juvenal VI
• Soranus, Gynaecology (tr. O. Temkin, Baltimore 1956)
• The Forgotten Desert Mothers: Sayings, Lives, and Stories of Early Christian Women
(tr. L. Swan, New York, 2001), lives of Amma Sarah, Syncletica and Theodora, Melania
the Elder, Melania the Younger, Macrina the Younger, and Marcella
• Pelagius, Letter to Demetrias in Pelagius: Life and Letters (tr. B. R. Rees, Woodbridge,

65
 1998)
• Jerome, Letters 22, 77, 107, 108, 117, 127, 128 (Loeb)

Opportunity will also be given to show knowledge of the artistic and archaeological
evidence.

414. The Conversion of Augustine

This option will be taught by Dr N. McLynn, in conjunction with a wider-ranging special
subject in Modern History taught by Dr Conrad Leyser and called St. Augustine and the Last
Days of Rome, 370-430, which makes possible a generous provision of teaching time.
University teaching is concentrated in Michaelmas Term, and consists of a weekly class
(some topics in the social and intellectual history of the second half of the 4th century AD)
and at least one weekly lecture. Tutorials are also arranged. The central theme is the
conversion, first to Neoplatonism and then to Christian asceticism, of a late-Roman teacher
of rhetoric at Milan in 386. This is described in intimate detail by Augustine in his
Confessions, the most brilliant intellectual autobiography to survive from the ancient world.
Other texts are studied to create a context for Augustine, the intellectual life of the western
Roman empire in the 380s, in which he played a major role. They include texts of the
controversy over the abolition of a major symbol of residual paganism, the Altar of Victory,
and of Jerome's advocacy of a rigorist Christian asceticism.

Knowledge of Latin is necessary, but not of Greek. This therefore counts as a language-
testing paper. An interest in philosophy or theology is helpful, but not at all necessary. The
approach is primarily historical. A useful starting point is Henry Chadwick's translation
(Oxford 1991) of the Confessions with introduction; and three excellent studies, John J.
O'Meara, The Young Augustine (London and New York, 1954), Peter Brown, Augustine of
Hippo (London 1967) and Gillian Clark, Augustine: the Confessions (Cambridge 1993). It is
essential to read the prescribed texts during the Long Vacation. Further advice about reading
will be given at a meeting towards the end of Trinity Term, and intending takers should get
in touch with Dr. McLynn at Corpus.

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from Augustine, Confessions V-
IX; Symmachus, Relationes III; Ambrose, Epist. 17-18; Jerome, Epist. 22, 38, 45, 107, 127.

415. The Achaemenid Empire, 550-330 BC

The empire of the Achaemenid kings was one of the largest the world has ever seen,
stretching from the shores of the Mediterranean to the foothills of the Hindu Kush. This
paper covers the history and material culture of the Achaemenid Persian empire, from the
conquests of Cyrus the Great to the Macedonian invasion of Asia. A typical eight-week
course will cover: (1) Cyrus at Babylon, and the Median, Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian
background; (2) Darius and Persepolis; (3) Cultural Hybridity and “Glocalization” (Karia, Lykia,
Kilikia); (4) The Achaemenids at War (the Deve Hüyük burials); (5) Imperial Connectivity (the
Black Sea hoard; Memphis customs-account); (6) Achaemenid Egypt (Arshama, Elephantine);
(7) Achaemenid Cyprus; (8) The Vampire (tribute; coinage; metalwork).

66
This paper will be of interest to anyone interested in the Ancient Near East, the comparative
history of empires, or the intellectual challenges in writing history from material culture. It
makes a good fit with any other ancient Greek history or archaeology paper you might
choose to take. This paper is taught in classes (a maximum of eight students per class) in the
Ashmolean Museum during Hilary term. AMH and CAAH students may attend the classes in
either their second or third year; Lit. Hum. students may attend the classes in either their
third or fourth year.

Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of the history, archaeology, and art of the
Persian empire from the conquests of Cyrus the Great to the death of Darius III. The
examination paper will include compulsory comment on both texts and images. The
prescribed texts for comment are those included in Maria Brosius, The Persian Empire from
Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I (LACTOR 16, 2000). Candidates are also expected to be familiar with a
dossier of artefacts in the Ashmolean Museum, available on WebLearn; the picture
questions will include (but may not be restricted to) images from this dossier.

499. Thesis in Ancient History

Any candidate who is not offering a thesis in any other branch of Greats may offer a thesis in
Ancient History. It may be combined with the Special Thesis (VII), but there must be no
overlap of content between the two. A Special Thesis on a historical theme should follow the
guidelines set out here.

The thesis should be equivalent in student workload to an entire subject in Ancient History,
and it should demonstrate expertise in a comparable body of evidence and understanding of
a comparable range of conceptual and interpretative problems.

There is no formal requirement for those offering an Ancient History thesis to do any other
subject or subjects in Ancient History. It is possible in a thesis to demonstrate an
understanding of a body of evidence and a set of problems equivalent in scale and
complexity to the periods and the options in Ancient History, and to learn the necessary
historical skills while researching and composing such a thesis, and your Ancient History
tutor will advise you as to how this may be achieved with the subject you have in mind.
Many problems raised in the study of archaeology and literature are closely related to
historical investigation too. Most of those intending to offer an Ancient History thesis will,
however, make a point of laying the foundations for it by offering one or more other Ancient
History subjects.

A thesis should not be merely an extended essay, but rather a short dissertation. It should
have a well-defined subject and a coherent sequence of arguments which reaches some kind
of conclusion, however open. It should show familiarity with the problems of the relevant
ancient evidence, and should cite it accurately; it should also show a good understanding of
the relevant scholarly literature and of the main trends, approaches and controversies in the
study of the general subject area within which the thesis falls.

A thesis should include an introduction (outlining the problem to be addressed, previous

scholarship on the problem and the nature of the evidence), a series of individual sub-
sections or chapters, and a conclusion. There must be a bibliography of works consulted.
Figures (e.g. maps and plans) or illustrations should be used if relevant. A professional level

67
of presentation is expected: you must use page numbers, and pay due attention to spelling,
punctuation, division into paragraphs and grammar. Citation of evidence and scholarly
discussion should be consistent and accord with professional practice.

For more guidance, and for the practicalities of having your thesis approved, and of
submitting it, see above, section 4.

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II. Philosophy

You may offer up to five subjects in Philosophy, from the list below (four, if you are a Lit.
Hum. II candidate offering a Second Classical language).

If you offer one Philosophy subject only, you have a free choice apart from 199, Thesis.

If you offer two or more Philosophy subjects you must select at least one subject in ancient
philosophy, i.e. one of 115, 116 and 130-139.

If you offer three or more Philosophy subjects you must also include ate least one non-
ancient philosophy subject, i.e. a subject other than 115, 116 and 130-139.

To offer subject 199 (Thesis in Philosophy), you must also offer at least three other subjects
in Philosophy.

Normal Prerequisites (indicated by NP)

In what follows, you will find that some subjects are named as ‘normal prerequisites’ for the
study of others. For instance: 112 The Philosophy of Kant (NP 101) means that those
studying 112, Kant, would either normally be expected to have studied 101 (History of
Philosophy from Descartes to Kant), or to have undertaken relevant background reading in
the History of Philosophy, as suggested by their tutor. In some cases alternatives are given as
the prerequisite, e.g. 107 Philosophy of Religion (NP 101 or 102) means that those studying
107, Philosophy of Religion, would normally be expected either to have studied 101 (History
of Philosophy) or 102 (Knowledge and Reality), or to have undertaken relevant preparatory
work in one or other of those areas, as suggested by their tutor. In cases of doubt students
are encouraged to consult their tutors and establish with them, in their individual
circumstances, what the best options are.

List of Philosophy Papers available to Greats candidates

101 Early Modern Philosophy

102 Knowledge and Reality
103 Ethics
104 Philosophy of Mind (NP 101 or 102)
106 Philosophy of Science and Social Science (can’t be combined with 124; NP 101 or 102)
107 Philosophy of Religion (NP 101 or 102)
108 The Philosophy of Logic and Language (NP Mods Logic)
109 Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Criticism (NP 101 or 102 or 103 or 104 or 115/130 or
116/132)
110 Medieval Philosophy: Aquinas (can’t be combined with 111)
111 Medieval Philosophy: Duns Scotus and Ockham (can’t be combined with 110)
112 The Philosophy of Kant (NP 101)
113 Post-Kantian Philosophy (NP 101 or 102 or 103 or 112 or 115/130 or 116/132)

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114 Theory of Politics (NP 103 or 115/130 or 116/132)
115 Plato: Republic (in translation) (can’t be combined with 130)
116 Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics (in translation) (can’t be combined with 132)
120 Intermediate Philosophy of Physics
122 Philosophy of Mathematics (NP 101 or 102 or 108 or 117 or 119 or 120)
124 Philosophy of Science (can’t be combined with 106)
125 Philosophy of Cognitive Science
127 Philosophical Logic
129 The Philosophy of Wittgenstein
*130 Plato: Republic (in Greek) (can’t be combined with 115)
*131 Plato on Knowledge, Language, & Reality in the Theaetetus & Sophist (in Greek) (can’t
be combined with 137)
*132 Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics (in Greek) (can’t be combined with 116)
*133 Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind (in Greek) (can’t be combined with 138)
*134 Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in Greek) (can’t be combined with
136 or 139)
*135 Latin Philosophy (in Latin)
*136 Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in Latin) (can’t be combined with
134 or 139)
137 Plato on Knowledge, Language and Reality in the Theaetetus & Sophist (in translation)
(can’t be combined with 131)
138 Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind (in translation) (can’t be combined with 133)
139 Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in translation) (can’t be combined
with 134 or 136)
198 Special Subjects in Philosophy
199 Thesis in Philosophy

An asterisk (*) indicates a text-based paper, as explained in ‘1. Structure of the Course’
above.

In general, before you study a particular paper, your tutor will set you some vacation
reading. Then, for each tutorial, your tutor will set you some specific reading for that topic.
Often, the reading list will be long and contain many more items than you are expected to
read. Your tutor will give you guidance as to which readings are essential, but one of the
skills that you will acquire is to make these judgements yourself. For text-based papers, you
will certainly need to read the prescribed texts in the original in the vacation. During term,
you will also want to attend lectures on the various subjects you are studying. These lectures
will probably offer a different angle on the subject from that of your tutor, and will help you
come to your own view. It is a good idea to attend at least one set of lectures on each paper
you are taking, even if those lectures do not happen in the term you are doing tutorials on
that paper.

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Most papers are taught in a course of eight tutorials, although your tutor might decide to
take groups of you in a small class.

Ancient Philosophy Subjects

Plato and Aristotle are the greatest of the ancient philosophers, and arguably the two
greatest philosophers of all time. Plato lived from c.428 BC to 347 BC; he became interested
in philosophy at an early age under the influence of Socrates. At some time in the 380s he
founded the first major philosophical school, the Academy, to which Aristotle (384-322)
came from the court of Philip II of Macedon as a pupil in 367. Plato wrote nearly 30 works,
almost all in dialogue form: his main interests were ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology,
and the three set texts are among his most important works in these areas. Aristotle
remained at the Academy until Plato’s death; after some years spent in East Greece – and a
later spell as the tutor of Alexander the Great – he returned to Athens and founded his own
school, the Lyceum. He had an astonishing range: in logic, psychology, physiology, zoology,
ethics, politics, metaphysics, the philosophy of science, mechanics, meteorology, cosmology,
and many other subjects, he was ‘the master of those who know’. The Outlines of
Pyrrhonism of Sextus Empiricus is a work of major importance both for Greek philosophy of
the Hellenistic period and for the development of modern scepticism. Sextus was a doctor as
well as a philosopher; he probably lived in the 2nd century AD, but he draws heavily on the
work of Greek philosophers of the 3rd-1st centuries BC. The Latin Philosophy option focuses
on the treatment of Stoic ethics in a selection of works by Cicero (106-43 BC) and Seneca (c.
AD 1-65). The purpose of these subjects is to enable you to study some of the most
important works in ancient philosophy. In each case you are expected to study the work or
works in detail. For a list of prescribed editions, see below, Appendix C.

Each text-based paper has a translation component. Poor translation marks serve to limit the
overall mark for the paper, and the final mark cannot be more than 20 points above the
mark for the translation. Very poor translation may receive even more severe penalties. On
the other hand, the overall mark on the paper will be raised for translations scoring 70 or
above.
Philosophy Subjects

101. Early Modern Philosophy

The purpose of this subject is to enable you to gain a critical understanding of some of the
metaphysical and epistemological ideas of some of the most important philosophers of the
early modern period, between the 1630s to the 1780s.

This period saw a great flowering of philosophy in Europe. Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz,
often collectively referred to as "the rationalists", placed the new "corpuscularian" science
within grand metaphysical systems which certified our God-given capacity to reason our way
to the laws of nature (as well as to many other, often astonishing conclusions about the
world). Locke wrote in a different, empiricist tradition. He argued that, since our concepts all
ultimately derive from experience, our knowledge is necessarily limited. Berkeley and Hume
developed this empiricism in the direction of a kind of idealism, according to which the
world studied by science is in some sense mind-dependent and mind-constructed.

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The examination paper is divided into two sections and students are required to answer at
least one question from Section A (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) and at least one from Section
B (Locke, Berkeley, Hume).

R.S.Woolhouse, The Empiricists

J.Cottingham, The Rationalists (both O.U.P. Opus series).

102. Knowledge and Reality

The purpose of this subject is to enable you to examine some central questions about the
nature of the world and the extent to which we can have knowledge of it.

In considering knowledge you will examine whether it is possible to attain knowledge of

what the world is really like. Is our knowledge of the world necessarily limited to what we
can observe to be the case? Indeed, are even our observational beliefs about the world
around us justified? Can we have knowledge of what will happen based on what has
happened? Is our understanding of the world necessarily limited to what we can prove to be
the case? Or can we understand claims about the remote past or distant future which we
cannot in principle prove to be true?

In considering reality you will focus on questions such as the following. Does the world really
contain the three-dimensional objects and their properties – such as red buses or black
horses – which we appear to encounter in everyday life? Or is it made up rather of the
somewhat different entities studied by science, such as colourless atoms or four-
dimensional space-time worms? What is the relation between the common sense picture of
the world and that provided by contemporary science? Is it correct to think of the objects
and their properties that make up the world as being what they are independently of our
preferred ways of dividing up reality? These issues are discussed with reference to a variety
of specific questions such as ‘What is time?’, ‘What is the nature of causation?’, and ‘What
are substances?’ There is an opportunity in this subject to study such topics as reference,
truth and definition, but candidates taking 102 and 108 should avoid repetition of material
across examinations, though it is safe to assume that good answers to questions would not
involve repetition for which you might be penalised.

Jonathan Dancy, Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology (Oxford), chs. 1-3; Michael J.

Loux, Metaphysics (Routledge).

103. Ethics
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to come to grips with some questions which
exercise many people, philosophers and non-philosophers alike. How should we decide what
is best to do, and how best to lead our lives? Are our value judgements on these and other
matters objective or do they merely reflect our subjective preferences and viewpoints? Are
we in fact free to make these choices, or have our decisions already been determined by
antecedent features of our environment and genetic endowment? In considering these
issues you will examine a variety of ethical concepts, such as those of justice, rights, equality,
virtue, and happiness, which are widely used in moral and political argument. There is also
opportunity to discuss some applied ethical issues. Knowledge of major historical thinkers,
e.g. Aristotle and Hume and Kant, will be encouraged, but not required in the examination.

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John Mackie, Ethics (Penguin), chs. 1-2.

104. Philosophy of Mind

NP 101 or 102
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to examine a variety of questions about the
nature of persons and their psychological states, including such general questions as: what is
the relation between persons and their minds? Could robots or automata be persons? What
is the relation between our minds and our brains? If we understood everything about the
brain, would we understand everything about consciousness and rational thought? If not,
why not? Several of these issues focus on the relation between our common sense
understanding of ourselves and others, and the view of the mind developed in scientific
psychology and neuroscience. Are the two accounts compatible? Should one be regarded as
better than the other? Should our common sense understanding of the mind be jettisoned in
favour of the scientific picture? Or does the latter leave out something essential to a proper
understanding of ourselves and others? Other more specific questions concern memory,
thought, belief, emotion, and perception.

Paul Churchland, Matter and Consciousness (Cambridge), chs. 1-3.

106. Philosophy of Science and Social Science

NP 101 or 102
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to study topics in the philosophy of science in
general, and topics in the philosophy of social science in particular.

In the broadest sense the philosophy of science is concerned with the theory of knowledge
and with associated questions in metaphysics. What is distinctive about the field is the focus
on “scientific” knowledge, and metaphysical questions – concerning space, time, causation,
probability, possibility, necessity, realism and idealism – that follow in their train. As such it
is concerned with distinctive traits of science: testability, objectivity, scientific explanation,
and the nature of scientific theories.

Whether economics, sociology, and political science are “really” sciences is a question that
lay people as well as philosophers have often asked. The technology spawned by the physical
sciences is more impressive than that based on the social sciences: bridges do not collapse
and aeroplanes do not fall from the sky, but no government can reliably control crime,
divorce, or unemployment, or make its citizens happy at will. Human behaviour often seems
less predictable, and less explicable than that of inanimate nature and non-human animals,
even though most of us believe that we know what we are doing and why. So philosophers
of social science have asked whether human action is to be explained causally or non-
causally, whether predictions are self-refuting, whether we can only explain behaviour that
is in some sense rational – and if so, what that sense is. Other central issues include social
relativism, the role of ideology, value-neutrality, and the relationship between the particular
social sciences, in particular whether economics provides a model for other social science.
Finally, some critics have asked whether a technological view of ‘social control’ does not
threaten democratic politics as usually understood.

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Martin Hollis, The Philosophy of Social Science (Cambridge); Alexander Rosenberg,
Philosophy of Social Science (Westview).

107. Philosophy of Religion

NP 101 or 102
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to examine claims about the existence of God
and God’s relationship to the world. What, if anything, is meant by them? Could they be
true? What justification, if any, can or needs to be provided for them? The paper is
concerned primarily with the claims of Western religions (Christianity, Judaism and Islam),
and with the central claim of those religions, that there is a God. God is said to be
omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly good, a source of moral obligation and so
on. But what does it mean to say that God has these properties, and are they consistent with
each other? Could God change the past, or choose to do evil? Does it make sense to say that
God is outside time? You will have the opportunity to study arguments for the existence of
God – for example, the teleological argument from the fact that the Universe is governed by
scientific laws, and the argument from people’s religious experiences. Other issues are
whether the fact of pain and suffering counts strongly, or even conclusively, against the
existence of God, whether there could be evidence for miracles, whether it could be shown
that prayer “works”, whether there could be life after death, and what philosophical
problems are raised by the existence of different religions. There may also be an optional
question in the exam paper about some specifically Christian doctrine – does it make sense
to say that the life and death of Jesus atoned for the sins of the world, and could one know
this? There is abundant scope for deploying all the knowledge and techniques which you
have acquired in other areas of philosophy. Among the major philosophers whose
contributions to the philosophy of religion you will need to study are Aquinas, Hume and
Kant.

M. Peterson and other authors, Reason and Religious Belief, An Introduction to the
Philosophy of Religion (Oxford).

108. The Philosophy of Logic and Language

NP Prelims/Mods Logic
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to examine some fundamental questions
relating to reasoning and language. The philosophy of logic is not itself a symbolic or
mathematical subject, but examines concepts of interest to the logician. If you want to know
the answer to the question ‘What is truth?’, this is a subject for you. Central also are
questions about the status of basic logical laws and the nature of logical necessity. What, if
anything, makes it true that nothing can be at the same time both green and not green all
over? Is that necessity the result of our conventions or stipulations, or the reflection of how
things have to be independently of us? Philosophy of language is closely related. It covers
the very general question how language can describe reality at all: what makes our
sentences meaningful and, on occasion, true? How do parts of our language refer to objects
in the world? What is involved in understanding speech (or the written word)? You may also
investigate more specific issues concerning the correct analysis of particular linguistic
expressions such as names, descriptions, pronouns, or adverbs, and aspects of linguistics and
grammatical theory. Candidates taking 102 as well as 108 should avoid repetition of material
across examinations.

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Mark Sainsbury, ‘Philosophical Logic’, in Philosophy, a Guide through the Subject, edited by
A. C. Grayling (Oxford).

109. Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Criticism

NP 101 or 102 or 103 or 104 or 115
The purpose of this subject is to enable you to study a number of questions about the nature
and value of beauty and of the arts. For example, do we enjoy sights and sounds because
they are beautiful, or are the beautiful because we enjoy them? Does the enjoyment of
beauty involve a particular sort of experience, and if so, how should we define it and what
psychological capacities does it presuppose? Is a work of art a physical object, an abstract
object, or what? Does the value of a work of art depend only upon its long- or short-term
effects on our minds or characters? If not, what sorts of reasons can we give for admiring a
work of art? Do reasons for admiring paintings, pieces of music and poems have enough in
common with one another, and little enough in common with reasons for admiring other
kinds of things, to support the idea that there is a distinctive sort of value which good art of
every sort, and only art, possesses? As well as general questions such as these ones, the
subject also addresses questions raised by particular art forms. For example, what is the
difference between a picture and a description in words? Can fiction embody truths about
its subject-matter? How does music express emotions? All of these questions, and others,
are addressed directly, and also by examining classic texts, including Plato’s Ion and Republic,
Aristotle’s Poetics, Hume’s essay ‘Of the Standard of Taste’ and Kant’s Critique of Aesthetic
Judgement.

Malcolm Budd, Values of Art (Penguin).

110. Medieval Philosophy: Aquinas

The purpose of this subject is to introduce you to many of Aquinas’s central ideas and
arguments on a wide variety of theological and philosophical topics. These include the
proofs of the existence of God (the famous “five ways”), the concept of the simplicity of God
(including the controversial issue of the identity of being and essence in God), the concept of
soul in general and of human soul in particular, the proof of the immortality of the human
soul, the nature of perception and of intellectual knowledge, the notion of free will and of
happiness, the theory of human actions. These are studied in translation rather than in the
Latin original, though a glance at Aquinas’s remarkably readable Latin can often be useful.
Candidates are encouraged to carefully read and analyse Aquinas’s texts and to focus on the
philosophical questions they raise. Subjects 133/138 Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind and
132 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, are a good background for this option. This Subject may
not be combined with Subject 111.

Text: Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Ia, 2 - 11, 75 - 89 (God, Metaphysics, and Mind); or
Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Ia IIae qq. 1 - 10, 90 - 97 (Action and Will; Natural Law), in The
Fathers of the English Dominican Province, 1911, rev. 1920.
Anthony Kenny, Aquinas (Oxford); F.C. Copleston, Aquinas (Pelican).

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111. Medieval Philosophy: Duns Scotus and Ockham
Duns Scotus and Ockham are, together with Aquinas, the most significant and influential
thinkers of the Middle Ages. The purpose of this subject is to make you familiar with some
fundamental aspects of their theological and philosophical thought. As to Scotus, these
include the proof of the existence and of the unicity of God (the most sophisticated one in
the Middle Ages) and the issues about causality that it raises, the theory of the existence of
concepts common to God and creatures (the univocity theory of religious language), the
discussion about the immateriality and the immortality of the human soul, the reply to
scepticism. As to Ockham, they include nominalism about universals and the refutation of
realism (including the realism of Duns Scotus), some issues in logic and especially the theory
of “suppositio” and its application in the debate about universals, the theory of intellectual
knowledge of singulars and the question of whether we can have evidence about contingent
properties of singulars, the nature of efficient causality and the problem of whether we can
prove the existence of a first efficient cause. These are studied in translation rather than in
the Latin original, though a glance at the Latin can often be useful. Candidates are
encouraged to carefully read and analyse Scotus’s and Ockham’s texts and to focus on the
philosophical questions they raise. Subject 133/138 Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind is a
good background for this option. This Subject may not be combined with Subject 110.

Texts: Duns Scotus, Philosophical Writings, trans. Wolter (Hackett) pp. 19-35 (chs II-IV);
Spade, Five Texts, pp. 57-113. Ockham, Philosophical Writings, trans. Boehner (Hackett), pp.
17-27, 96-113 (chapter 2, 1-2, chapters VIII-IX); Spade, Five Texts, pp. 114-231.
R. Cross, Duns Scotus (Oxford); M. McCord Adams, William Ockham, vol. 1 (Notre Dame,
Ind.).

112. The Philosophy of Kant

NP 101
The purpose of this paper is to enable you to make a critical study of some of the ideas of
one of the greatest of all philosophers.

Immanuel Kant lived from 1724 to 1804. He published the Critique of Pure Reason in 1781,
and the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals in 1785. The Critique is his greatest work
and, without question, the most influential work of modern philosophy. It is a difficult but
enormously rewarding work. This is largely because Kant, perhaps uniquely, combines in the
highest measure the cautious qualities of care, rigour and tenacity with the bolder quality of
philosophical imagination. Its concern is to give an account of human knowledge that will
steer a path between the dogmatism of traditional metaphysics and the scepticism that,
Kant believes, is the inevitable result of the empiricist criticism of metaphysics. Kant’s
approach, he claims in a famous metaphor, amounts to a “Copernican revolution” in
philosophy. Instead of looking at human knowledge by starting from what is known, we
should start from ourselves as knowing subjects and ask how the world must be for us to
have the kind of knowledge and experience that we have. Kant thinks that his Copernican
revolution also enables him to reconcile traditional Christian morality and modern science, in
the face of their apparently irreconcilable demands (in the one case, that we should be free
agents, and in the other case, that the world should be governed by inexorable mechanical
laws).

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In the Groundwork Kant develops his very distinctive and highly influential moral philosophy.
He argues that morality is grounded in reason. What we ought to do is what we would do if
we acted in a way that was purely rational. To act in a way that is purely rational is to act in
accordance with the famous “categorical imperative”, which Kant expresses as follows: “Act
only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law.”

Texts: Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (Macmillan); Groundwork of the
Metaphysics of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton (Hutchinson); Roger Scruton, Kant (Oxford).

113. Post-Kantian Philosophy

NP 101 or 102 or 103 or 112
Many of the questions raised by German and French philosophers of the 19th and early 20th
centuries were thought to arise directly out of Kant’s metaphysics, epistemology and ethics:
Hence the title of this subject, the purpose of which is to enable you to explore some of the
developments of (and departures from) Kantian themes in the work of Hegel, Schopenhauer,
Nietzsche, Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty. Students typically focus their study
on only two chosen authors.

Hegel and Schopenhauer delineate global, metaphysical systems out of which each develops
his own distinctive vision of ethical and (especially in the case of Hegel) political life.
Nietzsche’s writings less obviously constitute a ‘system’, but they too develop certain ethical
and existential implications of our epistemological and metaphysical commitments. Husserl
will interest those pupils attracted to problems in ontology and epistemology such as feature
in the Cartesian tradition; his work also serves to introduce one to phenomenology, the
philosophical method later developed and refined by Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty.

In Heidegger and Sartre, that method is brought to bear on such fundamental aspects of
human existence as authenticity, social understanding, bad faith, art and freedom. Merleau-
Ponty (who trained as a psychologist) presents a novel and important account of the genesis
of perception, cognition and feeling, and relates these to themes in aesthetics and political
philosophy. While this is very much a text-based paper, many of the questions addressed are
directly relevant to contemporary treatments of problems in epistemology and metaphysics,
in aesthetics, political theory and the philosophy of mind.

Robert C. Solomon, Continental Philosophy since 1750: The Rise and Fall of the Self (Oxford).

114. Theory of Politics

NP 103
In order to understand the world of politics, we also need to know which views of politics
and society people have when they make political decisions, and why we recommend certain
courses of action rather than others. This purpose of this subject is to enable you to look at
the main ideas we use when we think about politics: why do we have competing views of
social justice and what makes a particular view persuasive, possibly even right? What
happens when a concept such as freedom has different meanings, so that those who argue
that we must maximise freedom of choice are confronted with those who claim that some
choices will actually restrict your freedom? Is power desirable or harmful? Would feminists

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or nationalists give a different answer to that question? Political theory is concerned with
developing good responses to problems such as: when should we obey, and when should we
disobey, the state? But it is also concerned with mapping the ways in which we approach
questions such as: how does one argue in favour of human rights? In addition, you will
explore the main ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism and socialism, in order to
understand their main arguments and why each of them will direct us to different political
solutions and arrangements.

Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction (Oxford).

115. Plato, Republic, in translation

*130. Plato, Republic (in Greek)
This is one of Plato’s most famous, and most influential, works. It is primarily concerned with
the questions of the nature of justice and of the best possible kind of life we can live. These
questions prompt discussions of the ideal city (including Plato’s most famous discussions of
art), the nature of knowledge, the Theory of Forms, and the immortality of the soul. The
study of the Republic will thus introduce you to many of Plato’s central ideas and argument.
His thought on all these issues may have developed over time, and the Republic may
represent one stage in a continuous process of reflection and self-criticism rather than a
definitive and self-contained statement of his philosophy. For this reason you will wish to
look at some of the ideas and arguments to be found in other Platonic dialogues as well
(e.g., Gorgias, Meno, and Phaedo).

For students taking the paper in translation (115): The examination contains a compulsory
question requiring comments on passages in English translation, as well as essay questions.

Text: Plato, Republic, trans. Grube, revised Reeve (Hackett).

Julia Annas, An Introduction to Plato’s Republic (Oxford), introduction and ch. 1.

For students taking the paper in Greek (130): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions. You
will be expected to have read books I, IV-VII, X in Greek, and the rest in translation.
Text: Slings (OCT, 2003).
Translation: Grube, rev. Reeve (Hackett)
Julia Annas, An Introduction to Plato’s Republic (Oxford), introduction and ch. 1.

116. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, in translation

*132. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (in Greek)
The Nicomachean Ethics is one of the four treatises in the Aristotelian Corpus (the others are
the Eudemian Ethics, the Magna Moralia and the Politics) that examine the moral and
political questions discussed in Plato’s Republic and Laws. Like Plato in the Republic, Aristotle
is concerned with the question, what is the best possible sort of life? In the Ethics he
answers this question by examining the structure of human action, responsibility, the
virtues, the nature of moral knowledge, weakness of will, pleasure, friendship, and other
related issues. Much of what Aristotle has to say on these is ground-breaking, highly
perceptive, and still important in contemporary debate in ethics and moral psychology.

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For students taking the paper in translation (116): The examination includes a compulsory
question requiring comments on passages in English translation, as well as essay questions.

Text: Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Irwin, second edition (Hackett).

J. L. Ackrill, Aristotle the Philosopher (Oxford), ch. 10.

For students taking the paper in Greek (132): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions. You
will be expected to have read books I‐III, VI‐VII, X in Greek, and the rest in translation.

Text: Bywater (OCT).

Translation: Irwin (Hackett), 2nd edn.
J. L. Ackrill, Aristotle the Philosopher (Oxford), ch. 10.

120. Intermediate Philosophy of Physics

The purpose of this subject is to enable you to come to grips with conceptual problems in
special relativity and quantum mechanics. Only those with a substantial knowledge of
physics should offer this subject, which is principally intended for candidates reading Physics
and Philosophy.

122. Philosophy of Mathematics

NP 101 or 102 or 108 or 117 or 119 or 120
What is the relation of mathematical knowledge to other kinds of knowledge? Is it of a
special kind, concerning objects of a special kind? If so, what is the nature of those objects
and how do we come to know anything about them? If not, how do we explain the seeming
difference between proving a theorem in mathematics and establishing something about the
physical world? The purpose of this subject is to enable you to examine questions such as
these. Understanding the nature of mathematics has been important to many philosophers,
including Plato, Aristotle, and Kant, as a test or as an exemplar of their overall position, and
has also played a role in the development of mathematics at certain points. While no specific
knowledge of mathematics is required for study of this subject, it will be helpful to have
studied mathematics at A-level, or similar, and to have done Logic in Prelims/Mods.
Stephen F. Barker, Philosophy of Mathematics (Prentice-Hall).

124. Philosophy of Science

NP 101 or 102
Philosophy of science is applied epistemology and applied metaphysics. It is theory of
scientific knowledge and scientific method, including elements in philosophy of language,
philosophy of mathematics, and metaphysics. It deals with metaphysical questions – about
space, time, causation, ontology, necessity, truth – as they arise across the board in the
special sciences, not just in physics.

Questions of method include questions of the theory-observation distinction, testability,

induction, theory confirmation, and scientific explanation. They also include theory-change,
whether inter-theoretic reduction, unification, or revolutionary change. They are at once
questions about scientific rationality, and connect in turn with decision theory and the

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foundations of probability. They connect also with metaphysics, particularly realism: theory-
change, scepticism, fictionalism, naturalism, the under-determination of theory by data,
functionalism, and structuralism are all critiques of realism.

The subject also includes the study of major historical schools in philosophy of science. The
most important of these is logical positivism (later logical empiricism), that dominated the
second and third quarters of the last century. In fact, some of the most important current
schools in philosophy of science are broadly continuous with it, notably constructive
empiricism and structural realism.

Don Gillies, Philosophy of Science in the Twentieth Century (Blackwell); James Ladyman,
Understanding Philosophy of Science (Routledge).

125. Philosophy of Cognitive Science

This paper covers some of key questions about the nature of the mind dealt with by a variety
of cognitive scientific disciplines: experimental psychology, cognitive neuroscience,
linguistics and computational modelling of the mind. Studying this paper will provide insight
into the ways that contemporary scientific advances have improved our understanding of
aspects of the mind that have long been the focus of philosophical reflection. It will also
introduce you to a range of theoretical issues generated by current research in the
behavioural and brain sciences.

The core topics are:

▪ Levels of description and explanation (e.g. personal vs. subpersonal, functional vs.
mechanistic, mind vs. brain)
▪ Cognitive architecture, modularity, homuncular functionalism
▪ Conceptual foundations of information processing: rules and algorithms, tacit
knowledge (e.g. of grammar), competence vs. performance
▪ Nature and format of representations: representationalism vs. behaviourism, the
computational theory of mind and language of thought, connectionist alternatives
▪ The scientific study of consciousness, including the role of subjects’ reports, non-
verbal and direct measures; neural and computational correlates of consciousness;
and the problem of distinguishing phenomenal and access consciousness empirically

The lectures will also cover philosophical issues raised by some areas of cutting-edge
research, such as: agency and its phenomenology; attention and neglect; cognitive
neuropsychology; concepts; delusions; dual-process theories; dynamical systems, embodied
and embedded cognition; evolutionary psychology and massive modularity; forward models
and predictive coding; imagery; implicit processing (e.g. blindsight, prosopagnosia);
innateness (e.g. concept nativism); language processing and knowledge of language;
perception and action (e.g. dorsal vs. ventral visual systems); spatial representation; theory
of mind / mindreading; unity of consciousness. Lectures may also cover some historical
background (e.g. the cognitive revolution).

For those studying psychology, neuroscience, linguistics or computation, the paper is a

crucial bridge to philosophy. But you do not need to be studying a scientific subject to take
this paper, as long as you enjoy reading about scientific discoveries about the mind and
brain. The paper will be of great interest to philosophers without a scientific background

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who want to understand the benefits and limitations of bringing scientific data to bear on
deep issues in the philosophy of mind.

Recommended pathways:
Although there are no normal prerequisites, it would be beneficial to study FHS 102
Knowledge and Reality and/or FHS 104 Philosophy of Mind in conjunction with this paper.
For those doing so it would be useful to have begun work on one or both of those papers
first.

Background reading:
Martin Davies, ‘An approach to philosophy of cognitive science’, in F. Jackson & M. Smith
(eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy (Oxford: OUP, 2005). An expanded
version is available online at the Philosophy Faculty Weblearn (Undergraduate\Reading Lists)
Clark, A. (2001), Mindware: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Cognitive Science (Oxford,
OUP).

127. Philosophical Logic

This paper is a second course in logic. It follows on from the first logic course provided by
The Logic Manual (which is the basis of the Logic paper for Mods). This is a new paper, and
was first offered in the 2014-5 academic year.

This course exposes you to logical systems that extend and enrich—or challenge and deviate
from—classical logic, the standard propositional and predicate logic familiar from Prelims.
Why depart from classical logic? Here’s one example: classical logic has exactly two truth-
values, true and false. How, then, are we to deal with sentences like ‘Hamlet has blood type
O’ which appear to defy classification with either? One systematic answer is provided by
three-valued logics which deviate from classical logic by permitting their sentences to be
neither truth nor false. Another example: classical logic only has truth-functional
connectives. How, then, are we to deal with connectives like ‘It must be the case that…’
whose semantics cannot be captured with a truth-table? One systematic answer is provided
by modal logic, which extends classical logic by allowing its connectives to be non-truth-
functional.

The course has two principal aims. The first is to give you the technical competence to work
with, and prove things about, a number of logical systems which have come to play a central
role across philosophy. These include non-classical propositional logics, such as three-valued
and intuitionistic systems, and extensions of classical logic, such as propositional and
predicate modal logic, as well as systems for counterfactual conditionals and ‘two-
dimensional’ logic. The second principal aim is for you to come to appreciate the diverse
philosophical applications of these systems. The logic studied in this paper has important
connections to the metaphysics of time and existence, a priori knowledge, obligation,
vagueness, and conditionals, amongst many other issues, and is often presupposed in the
contemporary literature on these topics. Competence with the logic in this paper unlocks a
wide range of fascinating work across philosophy.

The paper is studied in conjunction with a set textbook:

Theodore Sider, Logic for Philosophy (Oxford University Press).

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Like Prelims/Mods logic, the paper is mostly examined through problems not essays. The
exam will require you to apply logic and prove things about it, as well as to critically discuss
its philosophical applications. Consequently, the course calls for some technical ability but is
considerably less mathematically demanding than the Logic and Set Theory paper (B1),
studied in mathematics. (B1 is also available to be studied by philosophy students, and in
very exceptional cases it is a suitable option for them. Note, however, that there is no
special teaching provision for philosophy students taking B1: they are taught in classes
alongside mathematicians and must be prepared for the possibility that knowledge of
relatively advanced mathematics will be presupposed. For the very great majority of Greats
students who wish to undertake further work in logic, paper 127 will be the better option.)

129. The Philosophy of Wittgenstein

The purpose of this subject is to enable you to study some of the most influential ideas, of
the 20th century, by perhaps the most well-known philosopher from that time, Ludwig
Wittgenstein. The paper revises the available options on Wittgenstein, replacing the earlier
papers 117 and 118.

The main texts on the paper belong to “the Later Wittgenstein”, and are studied by all
students taking the paper. These are the posthumously-published Philosophical
Investigations, The Blue and Brown Books, and On Certainty. These writings are famous not
just for their content but also for their distinctive style and conception of philosophy. In
them, Wittgenstein covers a great range of issues, principally in philosophy of language,
philosophy of mind, and epistemology. In philosophy of language, key topics include the
nature of rules and rule-following, whether language is systematic, the relationship between
linguistic and non-linguistic activities, and whether concepts can be illuminatingly analysed.
In the philosophy of mind, Wittgenstein is especially famous for the so-called ‘private
language argument’, which tries to show that words for sensations cannot get their
meanings by being attached to purely internal, introspective, ‘private objects’. Other topics
include the nature of the self, of introspection and of visual experience, and the
intentionality (the representative quality) of mental states. Finally, in epistemology,
Wittgenstein challenges philosophical skepticism, arguing that we must be exempted from
doubts about certain of our practices, lest they become impossible, and that radical doubt
must arise where our underlying beliefs are in fact inconsistent with one another.

These main texts are studied in one, compulsory section of the paper. In an optional section,
students may also study Wittgenstein’s earlier work, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, the
only major work of his to be published during his lifetime. In the Tractatus, he outlined an
ambitious project for giving a logical account of truths of logic (as tautologies). Like his later
work, the Tractatus is composed in a distinctive and memorable style. This optional section
allows students to study Wittgenstein as a philosopher developing over his lifetime.

Lectures on the later work (the compulsory element of the paper) will be offered every year,
and the Faculty will offer lectures on the Tractatus in years when it is possible to do so.

130. (see 115)

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*131. Plato on Knowledge, Language and Reality in the Theaetetus & Sophist
(in Greek)
137. Plato on Knowledge, Language and Reality in the Theaetetus & Sophist
(in translation)
The Theaetetus is a searching analysis of the nature of knowledge – ‘rich, inventive, and
profound’, as Bernard Williams says. Socrates and Theaetetus discuss the idea that
knowledge might be no more than perception; Socrates argues that this would require a
radical relativism of the sort developed by the sophist Protagoras, and a view of the world as
constituted by fleeting perceptions rather than by enduring physical objects. They go on to
discuss and reject the idea that knowledge is true judgement, turn aside from this to discuss
how certain sorts of false judgement might be possible, and finally examine what sort of
theory might underpin the claim that knowledge is true judgement together with a ‘logos’.
Plato’s treatment of these questions laid much of the foundation of subsequent
philosophical enquiry into knowledge. As well as being packed with philosophical argument
of great subtlety, the Theaetetus is also a literary masterpiece, thought by many to be Plato’s
finest dialogue.

The Sophist’s enquiry is a much more abstract but no less challenging one. Ostensibly a
search for the definition of a sophist, its philosophical focus is the discussion of a group of
problems – including those of falsehood (encountered also in Theaetetus) – arising from the
notion of not-being, or what is not. The philosopher Parmenides had argued that we cannot
think at all about what is not – perhaps on the basis that it is not there to be grasped or
thought about – and that, since any change would involve the coming to be of something
from what is not, there cannot in fact be any change: reality is a single unchanging thing.
Clearly Parmenides must be wrong: Plato attempts to show precisely why, and in the process
significantly modifies (some think he actually rejects) his own Theory of Forms.

While the recommended secondary literature and the lectures may make references to, and
comparisons with, other Platonic dialogues dealing with related questions about knowledge,
language, and reality, candidates will not have to answer any questions specifically on any
works other than the Theaetetus and the Sophist.

For students taking the paper in Greek (131): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions.

Set texts: Duke et al (OCT)

For students taking the paper in translation (137): The examination contains a compulsory
question requiring comments on passages in English translation, as well as essay questions.

Set translations: Theaetetus: Levett revised Burnyeat (Hackett); Sophist: White (Hackett).
[Both of these translations can also be found in Cooper J. (ed.), Plato: Complete Works,
Hackett, 1997.]

132. (see 116)

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*133. Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind (in Greek)
138. Aristotle on Nature, Life and Mind (in translation)
In this paper, we look at some of Aristotle’s writings on the natural world, and on the
distinctive capacities of living things and of humans. The central books of his Physics are
concerned with questions that we would now regard as parts of the study of metaphysics or
philosophy of science. He discusses the concept of nature, the types of explanation required
in natural science (including the issue of the legitimacy of teleological explanation in
biology), chance, the nature of change, agency, time, place and infinity. Aristotle’s De Anima
is concerned with questions that would now be regarded as parts of philosophy of mind: the
nature of the soul, the relation of the soul to the body, the nature of perception, emotion
and thought.

For students taking the paper in Greek (133): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions. You
will be expected to have read Physics II, III, IV and De Anima I.1, II.1-7, 9-12, III.1‐5 in Greek
and to have read Parts of Animals I in translation.

Texts:
Physics II, III, IV (in Greek): Ross (OCT)
De Anima I.1, II, 1‐7, 9‐12, III.1‐5 (in Greek): Ross (OCT 1956)
Parts of Animals I (in translation): Lennox (Clarendon commentary series)

For students taking the paper in translation (138): The examination contains a compulsory
question requiring comments on passages in English translation, as well as essay questions.
You will be expected to have read in translation, Physics II, III, IV, Parts of Animals I, and De
Anima I.1, II, 1‐7, 9‐12, III.1‐5

Texts:
Physics II (in translation): Charlton (Clarendon commentary series)
Physics III, IV (in translation): Hussey (Clarendon commentary series)
De Anima I.1, II, 1‐7, 9‐12, III.1‐5 (in translation): Shields (Clarendon commentary series)
Parts of Animals I (in translation): Lennox (Clarendon commentary series)

*134. Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in Greek)

*136. Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in Latin)
139. Knowledge and Scepticism in Hellenistic Philosophy (in translation)
‘Human beings have a natural desire for knowledge’, said Aristotle. However, both before
and after him the philosophical quest for knowledge led some to the view that it was a
hopeless or misguided aspiration. In the Hellenistic age the debate on the possibility of
knowledge took centre stage as Plato’s school, the Academy, ‘turned sceptical’ with
Arcesilaus and Carneades and argued against the epistemological optimism of the two major
rival Hellenistic schools, Stoicism and Epicureanism. Cicero’s Academic Books are our main
source for these debates. To complicate things, not long before Zeno of Citium and Epicurus
founded their schools, Pyrrho embraced and embodied the anti-dogmatic ideal of a human
life stripped of knowledge and belief and thereby free from anxiety as a recipe for human
happiness. That ideal was revived and developed more than two centuries later by
Aenesidemus, the founder of the Pyrrhonian school, a brand of Scepticism different from the

84
Academic one and in competition with it; the late writings of Sextus Empiricus are our best
source.

In this paper we study the central Hellenistic epistemological views and debates as they
developed between (and within) these philosophical schools. We look to understand
• some of the main sources for philosophical scepticism from the fourth century BC to
the 3rd century AD, and for the ‘empiricist’ epistemologies of Stoicism and
Epicureanism;
• the variety of different positions encompassed by the term ‘Sceptic’;
• the Sceptics’ attacks on ‘dogmatic’ epistemology and the various strategies adopted
by the ‘dogmatists’ to defend the possibility of knowledge;
• the ‘dogmatic’ counter-attacks against the Sceptical positions, and the Sceptics’
attempts to defend themselves;
• how the issue of epistemology impacted ethics and moral psychology: do we need
knowledge to live a good and happy life? Is it possible and desirable to live one’s
Scepticism in a consistent way?

For students taking the paper in Greek (134): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions.
Passages for translation will be from Sextus Empiricus; passages for commentary can also be
from Cicero or the Long & Sedley selection (such passages will be accompanied by a
translation). At least one commentary must be on a passage from Cicero or Long & Sedley.

Set texts:
Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I 1‐39; 164‐241; Book II 1‐204; Book III 1‐81;
168‐281 (in Greek): Bury (Loeb)
Cicero, Academic Books (in translation): Brittain (Hackett 2006)
Selected texts on Epicurean epistemology, Stoic epistemology, Pyrrhonian Scepticism,
Academic scepticism (in translation): Long & Sedley (CUP 1987, vol. 1), sections 1‐3 (Pyrrho);
15‐19 (Epicureans); 39‐42 (Stoics); 68‐70 (Academics); 71‐72 (Aenesidemus)

For students taking the paper in Latin (136): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well as essay questions.
Passages for translation will be from Cicero; passages for commentary can also be from
Sextus Empiricus or the Long & Sedley selection (but such passages will be accompanied by a
translation). At least one commentary must be on a passage from Sextus Empiricus or Long
& Sedley.

Set texts:
Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I 1‐39; 164‐241; Book II 1‐204; Book III 1‐81;
168‐281 (in translation): Annas and Barnes (CUP 2000)
Cicero, Academic Books (in Latin): Rackham (Loeb)
Selected texts on Epicurean epistemology, Stoic epistemology, Pyrrhonian Scepticism,
Academic scepticism (in translation): Long & Sedley (CUP 1987, vol. 1), sections 1‐3 (Pyrrho);
15‐19 (Epicureans); 39‐42 (Stoics); 68‐70 (Academics); 71‐72 (Aenesidemus)

For students taking the paper in translation (139): The examination includes a compulsory
question with passages for critical comment, as well as essay questions. Passages will be
from Sextus Empiricus, Cicero and the Long & Sedley selection. At least one commentary

85
must be on a passage from Sextus Empiricus and at least one commentary must be on a
passage from Cicero.

Set texts:
Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I 1‐39; 164‐241; Book II 1‐204; Book III 1‐81;
168‐281 (in translation): Annas and Barnes (CUP 2000)
Cicero, Academic Books (in translation): Brittain (Hackett 2006)
Selected texts on Epicurean epistemology, Stoic epistemology, Pyrrhonian
Scepticism, Academic scepticism (in translation): Long & Sedley (CUP 1987, vol. 1), sections
1‐3 (Pyrrho); 15‐19 (Epicureans); 39‐42 (Stoics); 68‐70 (Academics); 71‐72 (Aenesidemus)

*135. Latin Philosophy (in Latin)

These texts provide an introduction to Stoic ethics, in particular in the form it took in Roman
times. The Stoics claim to defend the central elements of Socrates’ ethical outlook. Their
sophisticated and influential theory combines moral theory with moral psychology
(especially an account of the emotions), and an account of responsibility within a
deterministic world view. They offer an important alternative to the ethical outlook of Plato
and Aristotle on (e.g.) the relation of virtue to happiness, the place of knowledge in virtue,
and the connections between the virtues.

Cicero’s De Finibus offers a critical discussion of Epicurean, Stoic, and Aristotelian ethics.
Book III presents the best extant ancient survey of Stoic moral theory. De Officiis I is based
on an important treatise by the Stoic Panaetius on what it is appropriate to do, covering
many questions in practical ethics, including some moral dilemmas. The texts by Seneca
offer a more detailed treatment of some of the questions raised by Cicero. The examination
includes a compulsory question with passages for translation and critical comment, as well
as essay questions.

Cicero, De Finibus III. Text: Reynolds (OCT). Translation: Cicero on Stoic Good and Evil, edited
by M. R. Wright (Aris and Phillips). De Officiis I (studied in translation; Cicero on Duties,
edited by M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins (Cambridge)).
Seneca, Epistulae Morales 92, 95, 121. Text: Reynolds (OCT). Translation: Gummere (Loeb),
Epistulae Morales, vol. 3. De Constantia and De Vita Beata. Text: Reynolds (OCT).
Translation: Basore (Loeb), Moral Essays, vols. 1 & 2.

136. (see 134)

137. (see 131)

138. (see 133)

139. (see 134)

198. Special Subjects in Philosophy

The Philosophy Faculty may from time to time offer special subjects in addition to those
listed above. Special subjects may not be available in every academic year, and may not in all
cases be open to Literae Humaniores students. For details of special subjects which are

86
currently available, please see the Philosophy Faculty’s WebLearn site
(https://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/x/1AKH60).

199. Thesis in Philosophy

Candidates offering a thesis in Philosophy must offer at least three other subjects in
Philosophy. This may not be combined with any of 499, 598, 599 or 699 (a thesis in Ancient
History, Philology & Linguistics, Greek & Latin Literature or Greek & Roman Archaeology).

87
III. Greek and Latin Literature

Course I candidates may offer up to a maximum of five subjects from 501-525 and 599
below. Course II candidates may offer up to a maximum of five subjects, or four if they take
VI, Second Classical Language. Candidates offering three or more subjects must offer at least
one of Greek Core (501 or 521) and Latin Core (502 or 522).

Remember that for the purpose of the above rules (for both Course I and Course II) a Thesis
in Literature (599) counts as a subject in Greek and Latin Literature.

You may offer only one of the subjects requiring an extended essay, namely 503
Historiography, 504 Lyric Poetry, 507 Comedy and 519 Reception of Classical Literature; and
you may offer only one of subjects 517, 518 and 519.

Note that most subjects are examined by a three-hour paper, except 503 Historiography,
504 Lyric Poetry, 507 Comedy, 519 Reception of Classical Literature and 599 Thesis. 503, 504
and 507 are examined by pre-submitted essays of up to 6,000 words plus a translation paper
of one-and-a-half hours for each paper; 519 by the essay alone. All these subjects should be
studied in a candidate’s last year; the titles for the essays will be released on Monday of
Week 6 of Hilary Term and essays should be submitted by Monday of Week 10 of the same
term (12 noon) to the University’s online exams platform, Inspera. N.B. The same penalties
for exceeding the word limit and for late submission apply to extended essays as to theses:
see section 4 above.

An additional translation paper of one-and-a-half hours for each paper will be set on 501
Greek Core and 502 Latin Core. Course II candidates offering Second Classical Language in
the language in question may if they wish offer Greek Core (521) or Latin Core (522) without
offering the translation paper, but in that case the Core subject will not count as text-based.

In all subjects credit will be given for showing wider knowledge of Greek and Roman culture.

For a list of prescribed editions, see below, Section 8.

Tutorial and lecturing arrangements

In Literature you will probably spend twelve weeks on each option: that is the scheme
which most colleges have agreed to operate. If you take four Literature subjects, on that
scheme you will regularly be combining one Literature subject with an option in another
branch, and will change over from one subject to the next in mid-Michaelmas and at the
beginning of the summer. If you take more or fewer than four, then the pattern may be
more complicated, and you will need to discuss it carefully with your tutors.

Some subjects are taught largely or wholly in University classes. Arrangements may vary
from year to year, but Tutors will be able to inform you.

501. Greek Core (text-based) or 521. Greek Core (non-text-based)

This course (examined by a three-hour paper of commentaries and essays and, if offered as
text-based, a one-and-a-half hour paper of translation) sets out to interrelate all kinds of
literature of the fifth century, and to set that literature in its cultural context. It includes set

88
texts and involves translation and comment on those texts, but candidates are also expected
to have some knowledge of the period more generally. There are lecture courses which
provide essential context and background, and tutors also seek to place the texts in a
context: for instance, Euripides and Aristophanes need to be set in the world of the sophists
and other intellectual activities of the time. Knowledge of other relevant works can be
usefully deployed: for instance, candidates should be ready to bring in material as
appropriate from their other options (historical, archaeological etc. as well as literary). As for
the relation between specific text-work and general questions, this is flexible. In answering
questions specifically concerned with the prescribed books, candidates should obviously deal
primarily with these, but should also feel free to include relevant points arising from their
reading of other texts, both on the syllabus and off it. Where the question is more general,
relating to the period as a whole, they should feel free to refer to any authors and texts they
think relevant. Translation and comment each account for 25% of the mark on this option,
and the two essays for the remainder. (Hence c. 1 hour should normally be spent on each of
the essays, not c. 45 minutes, as for the essays in most of the other literary options.) Since a
candidate may (but need not) answer an essay on a specific set text, the minimum amount
which must focus on more general questions is one essay, 25% of the mark. Even here, set
texts will certainly be relevant, but examiners will welcome some attempt to look beyond
these.

The grouping of possible topics which follow is very roughly divided and includes many
overlaps (at the same time the topics are not exhaustive).

(a) "Literary": genre, choral lyric, theatre, rhetoric, characterisation, diction.

(b) "Intellectual": medicine, music, visual arts, literacy, knowledge of myth, the "sophistic
movement".
(c) "Religious": festivals, oracles, hero cult, mystery religion, eschatology, questioning of
traditional religion, sacrifice.
(d) "Anthropological": gender, ethnicity, democracy, social divisions, rites of passage, inter-
city relations, hellenism.
(e) "Historical": Persian wars, slaves, the Athenian arche, stasis, militarism.

As noted above, Course II candidates offering Second Classical Language in Greek may if they
wish offer Greek Core without offering the translation paper, but in that case Greek Core will
not count as a text-based subject. Such candidates will be given translations of the passages
set for commentary.

Syllabus
Either (a) 501: One paper of three hours (commentary and essay) with an additional paper
(one-and-a-half hours) of translation.

or (b) 521: One paper of three hours (commentary and essay). Translations of the passages
set for commentary will be provided. This version of the subject is only available to those
taking VI. Second Classical Language in Greek and will not count as text-based.

For both (a) and (b) the subject is to be studied with special reference to the following texts,
from which the passages for translation and comment will be set.
• Simonides, ‘Plataea elegy’; Pindar Pythian 1; Bacchylides 17, 18
• Sophocles, Antigone

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 • Aristophanes, Clouds
• Gorgias, Epitaphios; Encomium of Helen
• Thucydides 2.34–65
• Plato, Symposium 172a–178a5, 188e2–223d

502. Latin Core (text-based) or 522. Latin Core (non-text-based)

This paper includes set texts and involves translation and comment on those texts, but
candidates are also expected to have some knowledge of the period more generally. There
will be one three-hour paper asking for essays and commentaries, and (for those offering the
paper as text-based) one one-and-a-half hour paper of translation. The translations and
passages for commentary will be chosen from the texts listed. In answering questions
specifically concerned with the prescribed books, candidates should obviously deal primarily
with these, but should also feel free to include relevant points arising from their reading of
other texts, both on the syllabus and off it. Where the question is more general, relating to
the period as a whole, they should feel free to refer to any authors and texts they think
relevant. Translation and comment each account for 25% of the mark on this option, and the
two essays for the remainder. (Hence c. 1 hour should normally be spent on each of the
essays, not c. 45 minutes, as for the essays in most of the other literary options). Since a
candidate may (but need not) answer an essay on a specific set text, the minimum amount
which must focus on more general questions is one essay, 25% of the mark. Even here, set
texts will certainly be relevant, but examiners will welcome some attempt to look beyond
these.
Latin Core is the study of a period of literature, and questions may span two or more of the
prescribed books, or may be addressed to the period more generally. In lectures the subject
will be studied through interesting and important topics. The kind of topics regarded as
important in the lecture courses are: tradition and innovation, the influence of preceding
Greek literature, the place of women in society and texts, questions of politics, patronage
and power, Roman identity, the impact of empire, the changing trajectory of the poetic
career, the evolution of Latin as a literary language, depictions of time and space, and the
interconnections between Latin literature and philosophy and religion. The ‘book’ both as a
technological and artistic fact is an important area of interest in the period. These key
authors also of course provoke study of more purely literary matters: questions of style,
imagery, symbolism, allegory, convention, originality and so on.

As noted above, Course II candidates offering Second Classical Language in Latin may if they
wish offer Latin Core without offering the translation paper, but in that case Latin Core will
not count as a text-based subject. Such candidates will be given translations of the passages
set for commentary.

Syllabus
Either (a) 502: One paper of three hours (commentary and essay) with an additional paper
(one-and-a-half hours) of translation.

or (b) 522: One paper of three hours (commentary and essay). Translations of the passages
set for commentary will be provided. This version of the subject is only available to those
taking VI. Second Classical Language in Latin and will not count as text-based.

For both (a) and (b) the subject is to be studied with special reference to the following texts,

90
from which the passages for translation and comment will be set.

• Cicero, Pro Marcello

• Virgil, Eclogues
• Horace, Odes 3
• Propertius 3
• Livy, 5.39-55
• Ovid, Fasti 6

503. Historiography
Greek and Roman historical writers offer us a remarkable collection of narratives, rich and
exciting not just in their subject-matter, but engaging also for the expressive style and
dramatic manner in which they were written. This option focuses on particularly rewarding
sections from some of the best-known historians (Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Caesar,
Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus), offering an overview of the development of one of the most
important genres in antiquity. Some of these authors were writing about their own times,
even about events in which they took a leading role themselves; but even when they were
constructing a narrative of the distant past, they often had their eye on their own
contemporary world and opened up suggestive parallels between past and present. The
option will be taught both through lectures (proceeding on an author-by-author basis) and
through classes that will consider a wide variety of over-arching thematic issues. These include
thinking about the creative authorial techniques in shaping and presenting conspiracy
narratives; the methods used to enliven accounts of battles and sieges for a sophisticated
audience (including how much overlap there might be with other genres such as epic); the
impact of speeches on the characterisation of individuals; the development of the biographical
character sketch within historiography; the use (and abuse) of geography and ethnography
(whether embedded in the main narrative or marked off in a formal digression); the theory
and practice of historiography (and how far they match up); the role played by religious issues
and the depiction of the gods (and whether such features hamper historical analysis of
causation); and the attitudes of these authors to important political questions (whether about
the best constitution, the nature of imperialism, or the use of rhetoric).

Advance reading: J. Marincola, Greek Historians (Greece and Rome New Surveys, 2002); C. S.
Kraus and A. J. Woodman, Latin Historians (Greece and Rome New Surveys, 1997).

Syllabus
This subject will be examined by a one-and-a-half hour paper of passages for translation
taken from the texts in list α, and an extended essay of up to 6,000 words. Essay topics set
by the examiners will be released on Monday of Week 6 of Hilary Term immediately
preceding the examination and essays should be submitted to the University’s online exams
platform, Inspera, by Monday of Week 10 of the same term (12 noon). Every extended essay
must be the work of the candidate alone, and he or she must not discuss with any tutor
either his or her choice of theme or the method of handling it. This subject may not be
combined with 504, 507 or 519.

One of the following:

(a) Greek and Latin version: for Course I candidates:

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α β
• Herodotus III.1-38, 61-88, 97-119 • Rest of Herodotus III
• Thucydides III.1-19, 37-48, 69-85, 94-114 • Rest of Thucydides III
• Claudius Quadrigarius fr. 10b Peter • Xenophon, Anabasis I-IV
• Livy, preface, I.1-16, 39-60, VII.9.6-10 • Caesar, De Bello Gallico VI-VII
• Tacitus, Annals XV.23-74 • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum
• Rest of Livy I

(b) Greek only version: for Course II candidates or single-language Classics & English, Classics
& Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies candidates offering Greek:

α β
• Herodotus III.1-38, 61-88, 97-119 • Rest of Herodotus III
• Thucydides III.1-19, 37-48, 69-85, 94-114 • Rest of Thucydides III
• Xenophon, Anabasis I.7-III.2 • Rest of Xenophon, Anabasis I-IV
• Claudius Quadrigarius fr. 10b Peter
• Caesar, De Bello Gallico VI-VII
• Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum
• Livy preface, I, VII.9.6-10
• Tacitus, Annals XV.23-74

(c) Latin only version: for Course II candidates or single-language Classics & English, Classics
& Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies candidates offering Latin:

α β
• Claudius Quadrigarius fr. 10b Peter • Herodotus III
• Caesar, De Bello Gallico VI • Thucydides III
• Livy, preface, I.1-16, 39-60, VII.9.6-10 • Xenophon, Anabasis I-IV
• Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum 1-10, 20-31, 77- • Caesar, De Bello Gallico VII
101, 107-14 • Rest of Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum
• Tacitus, Annals XV.23-74 • Rest of Livy I

504. Lyric Poetry

The development of lyric poetry is one of the most striking in ancient literary history, and the
‘genre’ presents some of the most attractive and rewarding smaller-scale poems in Greek
and Latin. Lyric poetry – poetry in stanzas, not couplets or repeated lines – starts as one of
the chief types of archaic poetry. It embraces a huge diversity of scale, performance, metre,
dialect, as part of localised cultures: Alcman’s choral songs, Sappho’s ‘personal’ poems, etc.
International poets emerge, working across the Greek world: the richly complex poems of
Pindar form a climax. After late fifth-century experimentation comes Hellenistic recreation of
archaic lyric; Latin lyric recreates Hellenistic lyric (Catullus) and, through the Hellenistic
recreations, archaic lyric (Horace). Horace’s work aims both at conquering the whole classic
territory and at producing a highly individual version of lyric, ironically based on limitations.
His endlessly subtle Odes restore lyric to literary centrality. The subject combines immense
range with much scope for the close analysis of poems.

Advance reading: G. O. Hutchinson, Greek Lyric Poetry: A Commentary on Selected Larger

Pieces (Oxford 2001), introductions to individual poets; D. C. Feeney, ‘Horace and the Greek

92
Lyric Poets’, in N. Rudd, ed., Horace 2000: A Celebration. Essays for the Bimillennium (London
1995), 41-63.

Syllabus
This subject will be examined by a one-and-a-half hour paper of passages for translation
taken from the texts in list α, and an extended essay of up to 6,000 words. Essay topics set
by the examiners will be released on Monday of Week 6 of Hilary Term immediately
preceding the examination and essays should be submitted to the University’s online exams
platform, Inspera, by Monday of Week 10 of the same term (12 noon). Every extended essay
must be the work of the candidate alone, and he or she must not discuss with any tutor
either his or her choice of theme or the method of handling it. This subject may not be
combined with 503, 507 or 519.

One of the following:

(a) Greek and Latin version: for Course I

α
• W. Allan, Greek Elegy and Iambus: A Selection (Cambridge): all texts
• F. Budelmann, Greek Lyric (Cambridge): all texts
• Pindar, Olympian 1, 6; Pythian 4, 8, 9, 11 (Race, Loeb)
• Bacchylides 3, 5 (Maehler, Cambridge)
• Catullus 11, 17, 34, 51, 61 (OCT)
• Horace, Odes I; Odes IV 1, 2, 7, 15 (OCT)
β
• M. L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry: a new translation (Oxford): all texts that are not α texts.
• Pindar: the remainder of the Olympians and Pythians; Nemean 7, 10; Isthmian 7; Paeans 2, 4,
6; Partheneion 2
• Bacchylides 17, 18, fr. 4, fr. 20B
• Timotheus 788-91
• Callimachus, Iambi 1, 4, 5, 13, and Ektheosis Arsinoes
• Theocritus 29 and 30
• Catullus 4, 16, 21-6, 29-30, 38, 40-3, 52-60, 63
• Horace, Odes II; the remainder of Odes IV; Carmen Saeculare; Epodes

(b) Greek only version: for Course II candidates or single-language candidates in Classics &
English, Classics & Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies offering Greek:

α
• W. Allan, Greek Elegy and Iambus: A Selection (Cambridge): all texts
• F. Budelmann, Greek Lyric (Cambridge): all texts
• Archilochus frr. 3, 23, 185-7 (Gerber, Loeb)
• Tyrtaeus frr. 10, 11 (Gerber, Loeb)
• Theognis 11-14, 101-12, 133-42, 173-8, 429-38, 1171-6 (Gerber, Loeb)
• Pindar, Olympian 1, 2, 6, 7; Pythian 4, 8, 9, 11; Nemean 7, 10; Isthmian 7; Paeans 2, 6;
Parthen. 2 (Race, Loeb)
• Bacchylides 3, 5, 17, 18, fr. 4, fr. 20B (Maehler, Cambridge)
β
• M. L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry: a new translation (Oxford): all texts that are not α texts
• Pindar, rest of Pythians and Paeans 4 and 6

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 • Timotheus 788-91
• Callimachus, Iambi 1, 4, 5, 13, and Ektheosis Arsinoes
• Theocritus 29 and 30
• Catullus 4, 11, 16, 17, 21-6, 29-30, 34, 38, 40-3, 51-61, 63
• Horace, Odes I, II and IV, Carmen Saeculare, Epodes

(c) Latin only version: for Course II candidates or single-language candidates in Classics &
English, Classics & Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies offering Latin:

α
• Catullus 4, 11, 16, 17, 21-6, 29-30, 34, 38, 40-3, 51-61, 63
• Horace, Odes I, II and IV, Carmen Saeculare, Epodes
β
• W. Allan, Greek Elegy and Iambus: A Selection (Cambridge): all texts
• F. Budelmann, Greek Lyric (Cambridge): all texts
• M. L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry: a new translation (Oxford): all texts that are not otherwise β
texts.
• Pindar: all Olympians and Pythians; Nemean 7, 10; Isthmian 7; Paeans 2, 4, 6; Partheneion 2
• Bacchylides 3, 5, 17, 18, fr. 4, fr. 20B
• Timotheus 788-91
• Callimachus, Iambi 1, 4, 5, 13, and Ektheosis Arsinoes
• Theocritus 29 and 30

505. Early Greek Hexameter Poetry

The selection includes most of what is worth reading in this field. The Odyssey is the perfect
counterpoint to the Iliad, blending fantasy and realism in a broader view of the heroic world,
and building up to the dramatic climax of Odysseus's revenge against the suitors of
Penelope. Hesiod's Theogony describes how the Olympian order of things under Zeus's rule
came into being. His Works and Days makes a powerful moral statement about the justice of
the gods, combining this with practical advice on how to live. Hesiod's theology was a major
influence on later Greek thought, and his Works and Days helped to inspire Virgil's Georgics.
The Homeric Hymns praise the Olympian gods in shorter narrative poems, which chart their
birth and exploits, and their impact on human society in myth and cult. Their style is a
delightful blend of gravity and charm. The fragments of the Epic Cycle fill in the background
to Homer and Hesiod, giving us a wider view of the early epic tradition. Major themes of this
poetry are the moral and religious framework of the world, crime and punishment, the
nature of the gods and man's relationship to them, and the limits of human achievement.

Preliminary reading
Odyssey: translation in verse by R. Fagles (New York 1996); translation in prose by E. V. and
D. C. H. Rieu (Penguin 1991)
Jasper Griffin, The Odyssey (Cambridge 1987)
Hesiod: translations by M. L. West (Oxford 1988), or G. Most (Loeb 2006)
Homeric Hymns: translations by A. N. Athanassakis (Johns Hopkins 1976) or M. L. West (Loeb
2003)
Malcolm Davies, The Epic Cycle (Bristol 1989)

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Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α
• Homer, Odyssey I, V.1-XIII.92
• Hesiod, Works and Days (including the bracketed portions)
• Homeric Hymns 2 (Demeter), 5 (Aphrodite)
β
• Homer, Odyssey II-IV, XIII.93-XXIV.548
• Hesiod, Theogony
• Fragments of the Epic Cycle (in M. L. West, Greek Epic Fragments (Loeb, 2003), pp. 38-171)

Candidates will also be expected to be familiar with the Iliad.

506. Greek Tragedy

Tragedy stands as the supreme poetic achievement of fifth-century Athenian culture.
Indeed, one could argue that no ancient literary form has had a more profound effect on
Western culture as a whole. This option gives the opportunity to study a range of works from
the three greatest exponents of the genre, ranging from Aeschylus' Oresteia of 458 BC, the
only surviving tragic trilogy, to Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus, the most famous Greek tragedy
of all, and Euripides’ so-called tragi-comedies Ion and Helen. Combining speech, song, and
dance, tragedy embodies and animates the gods and heroes of myth as never before, and
recreates their stories for a (largely) Athenian audience. The option should appeal to all
students of Greek literature and culture.

A good introduction to the genre (and current critical approaches to it) is given by J. Gregory
ed., The Blackwell Companion to Greek Tragedy (2005); start with the chapters on the
individual tragedians. For introductions to the alpha texts, see B. Goward, Aeschylus:
Agamemnon (Duckworth 2005), C. Segal, Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of
Knowledge (2nd edn, Oxford 2001), and W. Allan, Euripides: Medea (Duckworth 2002).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α β
• Aeschylus, Agamemnon • Aeschylus, Choephori, Eumenides
• Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus • Sophocles, Electra, Oedipus Coloneus
• Euripides, Medea • Euripides, Electra, Helen, Ion
• Aristophanes, Frogs

507. Comedy
This subject enables you to read works by all the surviving comic writers of antiquity, and to
survey the development of this genre from the exuberant comic fantasy of ‘Old’ Comedy, as
composed in the fifth century by Aristophanes, through the elegant sophistication of the
‘New’ comedy of Menander at the end of the fourth, to the Latin plays of his imitators,
Plautus and Terence (c.210-160 BC). The plays of Aristophanes on the syllabus display the
variety of his output, and show him pointing the way towards later developments in one of
his last surviving plays, Ekklesiazousai. The plays of Menander had been lost since late

95
antiquity, but during the twentieth century substantial portions of several plays by
Menander were rediscovered (including one complete play, Dyskolos, first published in
1959). We can now see why he was so admired in antiquity for the ‘realism’ of his drama,
with its concentration on family relationships and love. Plautus and Terence adapted plays
by Menander and his contemporaries; theirs are the earliest complete works of Latin
literature that survive. Widely read and imitated for many centuries, they have played a key
role in the history of European culture, above all in the history of the theatre. They were
much more than translators, and it is now possible to see more clearly their relation to their
Greek models, and their own originality. The texts are studied in much the same way as any
other dramatic texts; questions discussed include techniques of humour (irony, surprise,
slapstick, jokes, puns, parody etc.), stagecraft, characterisation, use of stock characters,
language, plot construction, the relationship of comedy to tragedy, the role of moralising
and of philosophy, and the relationship of the theatre to society. The distinctive qualities of
each author are examined.

For introductions to different aspects, see K. J. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy (London 1972);
D. M. MacDowell, Aristophanes and Athens (Oxford 1995); R. L. Hunter, The New Comedy of
Greece and Rome (Cambridge 1985).

Syllabus
This subject will be examined by a one-and-a-half hour paper of passages for translation
taken from the texts in list α, and an extended essay of up to 6,000 words. Essay topics set
by the examiners will be released on Monday of Week 6 of Hilary Term immediately
preceding the examination and essays should be submitted to the University’s online exams
platform, Inspera, by Monday of Week 10 of the same term (12 noon). Every extended essay
must be the work of the candidate alone, and he or she must not discuss with any tutor
either his or her choice of theme or the method of handling it. This subject may not be
combined with 503, 504 or 519.

One of the following:

(a) Greek and Latin version: for Course I candidates:

α
• Aristophanes, Birds 1-684, 956-1765
• Menander, Dyskolos
• Plautus, Pseudolus
• Terence, Eunuchus
β
• Aristophanes, Birds 685-955, Ekklesiazousai
• Menander, Aspis, Dis Exapaton, Epitrepontes, Kolax, Misoumenos, Perikeiromene, Samia,
Sikyonios
• Plautus, Bacchides
• Terence, Adelphoe

(b) Greek only version: for Course II candidates or single-language Classics & English, Classics
& Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies candidates offering Greek:

96
α
• Aristophanes, Birds 1-684, 956-1765, Ekklesiazousai
• Menander, Dyskolos, Samia, Epitrepontes 218-581, 853-922, 1062-1131

β
• Aristophanes, Birds 685-955
• Menander, Aspis, Dis Exapaton, rest of Epitrepontes, Kolax, Misoumenos, Perikeiromene, Sikyonios
• Plautus, Bacchides, Pseudolus
• Terence, Adelphoe, Eunuchus

(c) Latin only version: for Course II candidates or single-language Classics & English, Classics
& Modern Languages and Classics & Oriental Studies candidates offering Latin:

α
• Plautus, Bacchides, Pseudolus
• Terence, Eunuchus, Adelphoe
β
• Aristophanes, Birds, Ekklesiazousai
• Menander, Aspis, Dis Exapaton, Dyskolos, Epitrepontes, Kolax, Misoumenos Perikeiromene, Samia,
Sikyonios

508. Hellenistic Poetry

The third century BC introduces a new political era (Greek monarchies extend over the Near
East), but also a new set of intellectual and literary emphases. The scholars (above all in
Alexandria) collect, edit and explain the Greek literary inheritance; the poets (often scholars
themselves) rework and recreate that inheritance to produce a poetry of small-scale forms,
refined diction and complex allusive textures. There is new-style epic (Apollonius Rhodius),
and a new genre of pocket-epic, which diversifies by digression (Moschus, Europa) and
domesticates the heroic (Callimachus, Hecale). There are new hymns, literary rather than
ritual in function; a new civilised invective (Callimachus, Iambi) and a new pseudo-realism
(Herodas); a new fashion in personal poetry, which transposes the old lyric into the brilliant
miniature of the epigram. Greek roots grew in tradition as well as in literature: so
Callimachus' Aetia traces the origins of festivals and rituals with ironised erudition.
Theocritus spans the whole scene: myth, mime, pastiche, panegyric and the genre he made
his own, the pastoral, in which the rustic frame sets off simply the eclectic elegance of the
content.

G. O. Hutchinson, Hellenistic Poetry (Oxford 1988); R. L. Hunter and M. Fantuzzi, Tradition

and Innovation in Hellenistic Poetry (Cambridge 2004); K. Gutzwiller, A Guide to Hellenistic
Literature (Blackwell 2007).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α
• Theocritus 1, 2, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17, 28
• Callimachus, Hymns 1, 5, 6; frr. 1, 67-75, 110, 178, 191, 194, 260 Pfeiffer (this last fr. to be read in
Callimachus, Hecale (ed. A. S. Hollis) frr. 69-74); epigrams 2, 4, 8, 13, 16, 19, 21, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30,
41, 43, 46, 50 Pf.

97
• Posidippus, Epigrams 1-20 Austin-Bastianini
• Apollonius, Argonautica III.439-1162
• Asclepiades 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 25, 26, 28, 32 Page

β
• Apollonius Argonautica III.1-438, 1163-IV.481
• Theocritus 3
• Moschus, Europa
• Herodas, 2, 4, 6
• Callimachus, Hymn 2

509. Cicero the Orator

This option gives the opportunity to engage in depth with some of the greatest speeches of
the greatest Latin orator. They span his career, and show Cicero responding to many
different situations, for Rome, his clients and victims, and himself; they conjure up colourful
characters, and present a wide range in manner and tone (from gentle mockery to outraged
invective). Study includes the background in rhetorical thinking offered by theoretical works
of the time. This is made a compelling option by Cicero's art and strategy and by the world of
Late Republican Rome and Italy which the speeches evoke; it may well appeal to those
taking Roman History 5, but non-historians need not feel shy.

A good introduction to Cicero the man is given by E. Rawson, Cicero (London 1975), and to
the rhetorical background by M. L. Clarke, Rhetoric at Rome (London 1953; revised edn. by
D. Berry, 1996). See also J. Patterson & J. Powell (edd.), Cicero the Advocate (Oxford 2004).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α β
• Pro S. Roscio Amerino • Auctor ad Herennium I; II. 1-12, 47-50; IV. 11-
• Pro Murena 16
• Pro Milone • De Oratore II. 71-216, 290-349
• Philippic II • Verrine V
• Divinatio in Caecilium
• Philippics III and IV

510. Ovid
After spending some years in the critics' bad books, Ovid is now a poet firmly back in fashion.
His wit and humour are well-known and appealing aspects of his poetry, but there is plenty
there too for a reader who likes to dig beneath the surface, whether in search of complex
literary references, or political allusions, or even reflections on the human condition. The
syllabus offers a selection of works from the whole range of Ovid's poetic output: from the
Amores and Ars Amatoria, products of his younger years when love and love elegy were
foremost in his thoughts, together with the experimental mix of the elegiac and epistolary in
the Heroides, to the grander undertaking of the Metamorphoses (a challenging mythological
epic fascinated by change, time and genre), and on to the doleful coda of the Tristia, elegiac
letters from exile in which the poet reflects on his life, work and banishment by Augustus.

98
A recent overview can be found in N. Holzberg, Ovid: The Poet and his Work (2002).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.
α β
• Amores II • Catullus 64
• Heroides I, II, V, VII, X • Ars Amatoria I
• Metamorphoses I-IV • Metamorphoses XIII-XV
• Tristia I • Heroides 18-21

511. Latin Didactic

The aim of this paper is to explore the three major didactic poems of the late Republic / early
Empire, Lucretius’ De rerum natura, Virgil’s Georgics and Ovid’s Ars Amatoria, in relation to
each other and against the background of the didactic tradition. What is it that these poems
‘teach’? What themes and preoccupations are shared by these apparently very different
didactics, and how does each react to its predecessor? How does all this relate to our view of
Roman culture and politics at the moment of transition from Republic to Empire? And how
can technical or quasi-technical material make poetry?

P. Toohey, Epic Lessons (London 1996); K. Volk, The Poetics of Latin Didactic: Lucretius, Virgil,
Ovid, Manilius (Oxford 2002).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α β
• Lucretius I and III • Hesiod, Works and Days
• Virgil, Georgics • Aratus, Phaenomena 1-136, 733-1154
• Ovid, Ars Amatoria III • Lucretius VI

512. Neronian Literature

The literary culture of Neronian Rome is remarkable. This course covers some of its most
distinctive products across a range of genres: epic, tragedy, the novel, satire, philosophical
prose, and pastoral. The literature of this period is markedly free from decorum and charm,
and its hallmark is grotesque violence of thought and action, profound pessimism, and an
often desolate hilarity. The Annaei are the most important literary circle in this period, and
students will engage with the works of the philosopher and tragedian Seneca as well as with
those of his nephew, the epic poet Lucan. Stoicism is another dominant influence, whether it
be in Seneca's prose letters and dialogues or in the dysfunctional Stoic universe of the same
writer's tragedies and Lucan's epic of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Other
highlights include the mockery of the dead Claudius in Seneca's Menippean satire, the
Apocolocyntosis; the wandering littérateurs who populate Petronius' Satyricon; and the
explosive assault on literary declamation in the first satire of Persius. For those convinced
that there must be something else in Latin beyond the canonical texts of the Golden Age,
this is it.

99
O. Taplin (ed.), Literature in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Oxford 2000), chs 14-16 (= chs 6-8
of O. Taplin (ed.), Literature in the Roman World, Oxford 2001).

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.
α β
• Lucan I, VII • Seneca, Medea
• Seneca, Thyestes • Petronius, Satyrica 79-80, 91-113, 124.4-end
• Seneca, Epistles 28, 47, 53, 56, 63, 77 • Calpurnius Siculus 1, 4, 7
• Seneca, De Brevitate Vitae • Suetonius, Nero
• Seneca, Apocolocyntosis • Tacitus, Annals XIII-XVI
• Petronius, Satyrica 1-26.6, 81-90, 114-124.3 • Seneca, Naturales Quaestiones I praefatio, 16,
• Persius 1 III praefatio, 17-18, IVb.13, VI.1-3, 32

513. Euripides, Orestes: papyri, manuscripts, text

This paper uses both your eyes and your mind. You study a text in real detail, delving much
deeper into primary questions of text and interpretation than other options allow. You also
study how texts have been transmitted from Euripides’ time on, and learn how to read
Greek papyri and Greek medieval manuscripts. The teaching will make use of Oxford’s
outstanding collection of medieval manuscripts and its unrivalled collection of papyri. The
practical and visual experience makes textual criticism much more tangible. Detailed work
on the text gives you a much fuller grasp of metre, poetic language, and dramatic convention
and form. The Orestes is Euripides’ most experimental and challenging reconfiguration of the
basics of tragedy. New lyrical and musical forms, contemporary politics and mythological
invention, disconcerting movements between pathos and near-burlesque, morality and
amorality make this a rewarding play to study closely. It was particularly popular: so it is
richly represented by papyri (one with music) and manuscripts; and there are numerous
problems of interpolation.

The papyrological and palaeographical part of the teaching is designed to help with work on
the papyri and manuscripts of Orestes itself. Only a relatively modest stage need be reached.
This is tested in the exam by transcription from a (relatively easy) papyrus of Greek poetry
and of a medieval manuscript of the Orestes. The classes on the text will discuss the
problems in detail, and enable you to build up what is virtually your own commentary on the
800-odd lines of the play prescribed for special study. This subject is not abstruse but
exciting; it will change your approach to reading classical literature.

Advance reading: L. D. Reynolds and N. G. Wilson, Scribes and Scholars (3rd edn., Oxford
1991), esp. ch. 6; M. L. West, Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique (Stuttgart 1973).

Syllabus
The paper will consist of: (i) transcription of short passages from both (a) a papyrus of Greek
poetry and (b) a medieval manuscript of the Orestes; (ii) textual and interpretative
commentary on a choice of passages (with apparatus criticus), from Euripides, Orestes 1-347
and 1246-1693. Both (i) and (ii) are to be attempted. Candidates will be expected to show
appropriate knowledge of the history of transmission and the principles of textual criticism;
they will also be expected to show, as appropriate, knowledge of the whole play.

100
515. Catullus: manuscripts, texts, interpretation or
524. Seneca, Medea: manuscripts, text, interpretation

NB University teaching is given in only one of these subjects each year. It is envisaged that
candidates for Greats in 2023 will normally offer Catullus, rather than Seneca, Medea. In
2020‐21 and 2022-23 University teaching will be available on Catullus; in 2021-22 and 2023-
24 on Seneca, Medea.

These options are designed to give students concrete experience of Latin manuscripts, an
understanding of the history of textual transmission, and an initiation into the fundamental
and absorbing detailed study of Latin texts. The palaeographical part of the course will
introduce students to the basics of Latin palaeography, with the opportunity to read
manuscripts from the 5th century to the 15th, in capitals and minuscule (e.g. Caroline,
Beneventan, gothic, humanistic).

Preparatory reading: L. D. Reynolds and N. G. Wilson, Scribes and Scholars (4th edn., Oxford
2013), esp. ch. 6; M. L. West, Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique (Stuttgart 1973).

Syllabus (515: Catullus)

1‐14, 44‐51, 61, 68‐76, 95‐101, 114‐116.

Despite the small extent of his corpus Catullus is perhaps the most varied Latin poet. Besides
his love poems, both hetero‐ and homosexual, he produced wedding songs, scurrilous
epigrams, translations of Sappho and of Callimachus, attacks on the politically important and
the self‐important, reflections of friendship displayed and betrayed, on departure and
homecoming, on bereavement. He uses a considerable range of metres, and mixes direct
diction with learning in a unique fashion. His poetry was very influential on subsequent
generations, providing a vital impetus to the development of love elegy in particular. The
selection chosen for this paper covers a broad range (but not the mini‐epic 64). This is thus
an excellent subject for anyone who wants to study Latin poetry in depth.

The text is badly transmitted, none of the three independently authoritative mss being older
than c.1370 (the oldest [O] is in the Bodleian; there are images of this and G available via the
website catullusonline). The technical side of the course will consider scribal corruption,
problems of poem division, scansion and the use of metrical arguments, and above all what
would make the best sense compatible with Catullus’s style.

Syllabus (524: Seneca, Medea)

The main witnesses are an 11th‐century manuscript (E) and a group of 13th‐ and 15th‐
century manuscripts all going back to one lost 12th‐century manuscript (A). The course will
use images of Senecan MSS, and some original MSS in the Bodleian. Seneca’s Medea is both
an exploration of the psychopathology of the wronged, isolated but powerful heroine, and a
reflection on classic earlier versions of the myth (Euripides, Ennius, Ovid); it explores the
nature of anger, evil, and identity. The basic nature of the work is uncertain (was it staged? is
it dramatized philosophy?). The specifically textual problems are made particularly
interesting by Seneca’s pithy and potent writing, the diverging readings and characteristics
of E and A, and the ideas and work of critics in the 20th century and before. It is a great text

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to study closely, and makes an excellent climax to an undergraduate’s reading of ancient
literature.

517. Byzantine Literature

The world of Byzantium, or the East Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, offers a rich
variety of writings in prose and verse. Some of these are cast in forms that will be familiar to
classicists, like the histories of Procopius or Niketas Choniates. Others, like the kontakia (a
type of hymn) of Romanos, will seem rather strange. In its more than a thousand years of
existence Byzantium drew on its heritage from the classical world of Greece and Rome,
blended it with the developing Christian tradition, and produced a unique culture to which
this course is intended to be an introduction. The texts chosen for study come, for the most
part, from those written in the learned form of the language, which corresponds very closely
to Ancient Greek. Particular attention will be paid to the sixth century and the Age of
Justinian, and to the late eleventh and the twelfth centuries and the Age of the Komnenoi,
both of which were periods of exciting literary activity. Prose authors who will be studied
include the historians Procopius and Agathias from the sixth century and Anna Komnene and
Niketas Choniates from the twelfth. Verse to be studied covers a wide range of styles from
the hymns of Romanos and the epigrams of Agathias to the court poetry of the versatile
Theodore Prodromos and the enigmatic epic of Digenis Akritis.

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set; candidates will be required to
take all the passages they offer either from (i) below or from (ii). In their essays, candidates
will be expected to show knowledge of both (i) and (ii).

(i) [sixth century AD]

• Romanos the Melodist, Kontakia 1, 17, and 54, from Sancti Romani Melodi Cantica: Cantica
Genuina, ed. C. A. Trypanis and P. Maas (Oxford, 1963)
• Procopius, Persian Wars 1.24, 2.22-23, Gothic Wars 4.20, Secret History 6-12, from Opera omnia,
ed. J. Haury, rev. P. Wirth (Leipzig, 1962-4)
• Agathias, Book 1, from Historiarum libri quinque, ed. R. Keydell (Berlin, 1967)
• Agathias, Epigrams 1-24, 66-75, from G. Viansino, Epigrammi (Milan, 1967)

(ii) [twelfth century AD]

• Anna Komnene, Alexias, Book 1, ed. D.-R. Reinsch (Berlin, 2001)
• Niketas Choniates, Historia, Book 4, ed. J.-L. van Dieten (Berlin, 1975)
• Digenis Akritis, Grottaferrata version Book 4, from Digenis Akritis, ed. E. M. Jeffreys (Cambridge,
1998)
• Theodore Prodromos, Poems 3, 4, and 6, from Historische Gedichte, ed. W. Hörandner (Vienna,
1974)

518. Modern Greek Poetry

The aim of this course is to introduce students of Classics to Modern Greek Language and
Literature through the detailed study of two of the most important poets of the 20th
Century, C. P. Cavafy and George Seferis. Both poets famously used ancient Greek myth and
history as a main source of inspiration. Using their work as a key example, the course will
also discuss the complex dialogue Modern Greek Literature has established with the classical
past.

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Candidates who do not have a good linguistic knowledge of Modern Greek (especially those
who have not had any previous contact with the language), should attend language classes
in the Michaelmas and Hilary Terms of their third year, before they attend lectures or
tutorials (for information about language classes please contact Dr. Dimitris Papanikolaou:
dimitris.papanikolaou@mod-langs.ox.ac.uk). There are 8 Lectures and 8-10 tutorials for the
literature part of the paper. The lectures are given in Hilary Term and tutorials are normally
offered during Michaelmas and Hilary terms.

Syllabus
Candidates will be expected to have read Kavafis, Poiemata, and G. Seferis, Mythistorema,
Gymnopaidia, Hemerologio Katastromatos I-III and Kichle. Compulsory passages for
translation and comment will be set.

519. The Reception of Classical Literature in Poetry in English since 1900

Poetry in English since 1900 has had a vital and continuing engagement with classical
models. In the first half of the twentieth century, this constituted reaction to and against
culturally central texts such as Homer, Virgil and Greek tragedy; from the last third of the
century, classical texts have been taken up again by poets who established themselves in
other modes (Hughes and Heaney), as well as being a central thread in a career (Harrison,
Carson), and the revival of Greek drama in major versions and of Ovid’s Metamorphoses in
poetic treatments have been particular features. The reception of classical texts has also
been a framework for treating the fall-out of colonialism (Walcott) or the politics of
Northern Ireland (Heaney, Longley). This subject looks at this continuing and vital afterlife of
classical literature in our own times.

Authors who are likely to feature include Hardy, Yeats, Frost, Eliot, Pound, H.D., Auden,
MacNeice, Lowell, Hughes, Walcott, Carson, Harrison, Longley and Heaney in English, and
Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Virgil, Horace and Ovid in Classics.

Lorna Hardwick, Reception Studies (G&R New Surveys 33, Oxford 2003).

Syllabus
Authors in English for study will include Auden, H.D., Eliot, Frost, Longley, Lowell, MacNeice,
Carson, Harrison, Heaney, Hughes and Walcott. This paper will be examined only by
extended essay of up to 6,000 words. Essay topics set by the examiners will be released on
Monday of Week 6 of Hilary Term and essays should be submitted by Monday of Week 10 of
the same term (12 noon) to the University’s online exams platform, Inspera. Candidates will
be required to use at least three authors in their essays, at least one of which must be a
classical author. Every extended essay must be the work of the candidate alone, and he or
she must not discuss with any tutor either his or her choice of theme or the method of
handling it. This subject may not be combined with 503, 504, 507, 517 or 518.

525. Latin Literature from Titus to Trajan

This paper explores Latin poetry and prose from the end of the first and the early second
century AD, a flowering of literary activity comparable to the Augustan age. Politically and
artistically this was a turning point, its literature (and politics) anticipating developments in
Late Antiquity, while still aware of past achievements. You will find the familiar and the

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strikingly unfamiliar. In verse: the epic Thebaid of Statius, a poem of violence, monstrosity
and madness whose aesthetic owes much to both Ovid and Lucan (not least in its evident
anxiety of influence); the same poet’s occasional Silvae, miniature masterpieces of ecphrasis
and epideixis which reflect elements in contemporary Greek literary culture, and play
fascinatingly with the familiar poetic conventions of Augustan poetry; the dense and pointed
epigrams of Martial, ranging from panegyric to satire to nihilism; the exuberant indignation
of Juvenal’s first book of Satires, poetry as funny and compelling as it is shocking, with its
own profound relation to tradition in tension with its claims of immediacy. Prose offerings
are just as rich: the biography of Tacitus’ father-in-law in the Agricola; the affected leisure
and nonchalance of the Roman gentleman in Pliny’s Epistles; the astonishing imperial
encyclopedia compiled by Pliny’s uncle. Imperial power, projection and succession is a
recurring concern of this literature; the figure of Domitian, in particular, casts a long shadow.
Another abiding concern–as anticipated–is the irresistible authority of the Roman literary
past, and the requirements it lays down for continual reinvention, opposition, and creative
imitation.

Syllabus
Compulsory passages for translation and comment will be set from those in list α.

α β
• Juvenal, Satires 1, 2, 4 • Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Preface,
• Martial book IX books VII-VIII
• Pliny the Younger, Epistles II • Pliny the Younger, Panegyricus
• Statius, Silvae IV • Statius, Achilleid
• Statius, Thebaid I and VIII • Tacitus, Histories II-III
• Tacitus, Agricola

599. Thesis in Literature

Any candidate may offer a thesis in classical Greek and Latin literature or their reception; in
the latter case the thesis should include a substantial consideration of the ancient aspects of
the topic. This subject may not be combined with a thesis in Greek and Roman History (499),
Philosophy (199), Greek and Roman Archaeology (699), or Philology and Linguistics (598).

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IV. Greek and Roman Archaeology

Five options are available in Greek and Roman art and archaeology that look at different
material and periods with different emphases and questions. The maximum you can take is
two of these options and a thesis. That is, you can do two Archaeology options, and if you
wish you may also offer an Archaeology thesis as a third option; or, if you offer only one or
two options, you may offer an Archaeology thesis as that option or as one of those two
options. All these possibilities are subject to an overall requirement that Greats candidates
may offer only one thesis in all, except in the case of those offering a Special Thesis as an
additional ninth option.

There are two Greek, one Hellenistic, and two Roman options. One Greek paper (601 The
Greeks and the Mediterranean) concerns the early period, 950-500 BC, and is more
archaeological in emphasis. The second Greek paper (602 Greek Art and Archaeology)
concentrates on the monuments of the classical period (500-300 BC) and is more concerned
with images and representation. 603 Hellenistic Art and Archaeology, 330-30 BC studies the
visual culture of the period set against the archaeology of the best-preserved cities in
Hellenistic Asia, Greece, and Italy. One Roman paper (604 Art under the Roman Empire) is
concerned with monuments, images, and visual culture from the Julio-Claudians to
Constantine. The second Roman paper (605 Cities and Settlement) looks at the broader
archaeology of the empire, urban and rural. Any two of the five subjects can usefully be
taken together.

601. The Greeks and the Mediterranean World c.950 BC-500 BC

The period from 950 to 500 BC sees the emergence of many of the institutions, practices and
products that characterise Greek culture, the city-states, the Panhellenic sanctuaries, the
colonies in the west, the introduction of alphabetic writing, coinage, and many others. It is a
period within which Greeks, Phoenicians, and others travelled widely in the Mediterranean,
in search of wealth in both finished goods and raw materials. The evidence for much of the
period is almost entirely archaeological, much of it recovered only in the last 30 years or so.
The course introduces this physical evidence, and examines how it can be used to illuminate
changes in social and religious behaviour, to demonstrate contacts between the Greeks and
their Mediterranean neighbours, and to investigate important questions of origin and
development. Some of these questions naturally overlap with subject 401/421 Greek History
650-479 BC, with which this paper may usefully be combined. This course has a distinctive
emphasis on understanding the physical evidence, and on the strengths and weaknesses of
the archaeological methods used to reconstruct unrecorded aspects of society.

Lectures for this option are given in Michaelmas or Hilary term. For a flavour of this option
you might like to look at J. N. Coldstream, Geometric Greece, 2nd edn (Routledge, 2003), and
J. M. Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek world, ca. 1200-479 BCE (Blackwell, 2007).

Syllabus
Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of the material evidence from the Greek
world and the areas of contact between Greek and other Mediterranean peoples. Areas of
emphasis will include Athens and Attica; the non-Greek states bordering the Mediterranean
and their reciprocal relationships with the Greeks; Greek colonial settlements; trade and
coinage; problems of method and chronology. Knowledge of the principal series of artefacts

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of the period, their development and problems of method and chronology will be examined.
In the examination candidates will be required to answer one picture question and three
others.

602. Greek Art and Archaeology from c.500 to 300 BC

The images and monuments of the fifth century BC made a decisive break with the visual
modes of the archaic aristocracy and established the influential idea that images should try
to look like what and whom they represent. This subject involves the study of the buildings
of classical Greek cities and sanctuaries as well as the images and artefacts that were
displayed in them, and one of its major themes is the swift emergence and consolidation of
the revolutionary way of seeing and representing that we know as ‘Classical art’. The images
and objects are best studied in their archaeological and broader historical contexts, and
typical questions to ask about them would include: What were they used for? Who paid for
them, made them and looked at them? And what ideas and priorities did they express in
their local settings?

The course looks at the full range of ancient artefacts, from bronze statues and marble
temples to painted pots and clay figurines. The Ashmolean Museum has a fine collection of
relevant objects, especially of painted pottery, and the Cast Gallery houses plaster copies of
many of the key sculptured monuments of the period, from the Delphi Charioteer and the
Olympia sculptures to portrait statues of Demosthenes and Alexander the Great.

A wide range of lectures and classes are given throughout each academic year – on the
sculpture, wall-painting, vase-painting, and architecture of the period, and on their
archaeological contexts in sanctuaries, cities, and cemeteries.

Good brief introductions are: J. J. Pollitt, Art and experience in Classical Greece (Cambridge,
1972), and R. Osborne, Archaic and Classical Greek Art (Oxford 1998). For different modern
approaches, you might try: T. Hölscher, 'Images and political identity: The case of Athens', in
D. Boedeker, K. A. Raaflaub, Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-century Athens
(Cambridge, Mass 1998; Paperback 2003), 153-83, and R. R. R. Smith, 'Pindar, athletes, and
the early Greek statue habit', in S. Hornblower, C. Morgan (eds), Pindar's Poetry, Patrons,
and Festivals: from Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire (Oxford 2007), 83-139.

Syllabus
Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of the architecture, sculpture, and other
representational arts of the classical Greek city. Areas of emphasis will include the city of
Athens and the historical context and significance of the art and monuments of the period.
In the examination candidates will be required to answer one picture question and three
others, one each from the following sections: (a) architecture, buildings, and urbanism, (b)
statues, reliefs, temple sculptures, (c) painting, painted pottery, and other figured artefacts.
Credit will be given for knowledge of relevant material in the Ashmolean Museum and Cast
Gallery.

603. Hellenistic Art and Archaeology, 330 – 30 BC

The Macedonian conquest of Asia brought a forced expansion of the Greek imagination and
environment that has left an abundant and varied trace in the visual and material culture of

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the period. The course studies major themes, contexts, and media of Hellenistic art, set
against the dense archaeology of the best-preserved cities and sites of the period – from
Macedonia to Bactria, from the Aegean to central Italy. The material includes distinctive
categories of object, such as bronzeware, clay seals, gems, glassware, grave stelai, jewellery,
mosaics, silverware, statues in bronze, statues in marble, terracottas, and wall-paintings.
Major subjects include: (1) the art and cities of the kings at the height of their power in the
late fourth and third centuries BC, (2) the visual remains of Greek-local interaction in Egypt
and Iran, (3) the monuments of the old city-states that flourished within and between the
Macedonian kingdoms, and (4) the complex process of acculturation by which the apparatus
and technology of Hellenistic art and material culture were adopted in Italy.

Burn, L. Hellenistic Art (London 2004)

Dillon, S. Ancient Greek portrait sculpture: contexts, subjects, and styles
(Cambridge 2006), esp. ch. 5
Pollitt, J.J. Art in the Hellenistic Age (Cambridge 1986)
Smith, R.R.R. Hellenistic Sculpture: A Handbook (London 1991)
Smith, R.R.R. Hellenistic Royal Portraits (Oxford 1988)
Venit, M. S. Monumental Tombs of Ancient Alexandria: The Theater of the Dead
(Cambridge 2002)
Wallace-Hadrill, A. Rome’s Cultural Revolution (Cambridge 2008)
Zanker, P. The Mask of Sokrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity
(Berkeley 1995), esp. ch. 2

There are 16-20 lectures on Hellenistic Art and Archaeology given in two independent series
in Hilary Term on an alternating two-year cycle and 6 lectures on Hellenistic sanctuaries in
every second Michaelmas Term (next in MT 2018). Tutorials are given through the year, and
there are 4 university revision classes in Trinity Term.

Syllabus
The paper studies major themes, contexts, and media of Hellenistic art, set against the
archaeology of the best-preserved cities and sites of the period – from Macedonia to Bactria,
from the Aegean to central Italy. The material includes distinctive categories of object, such
as bronzeware, clay seals, gems, glassware, grave stelai, jewellery, mosaics, silverware,
statues in bronze, statues in marble, terracottas, and wall-paintings. The contexts are cities,
sanctuaries, tombs, palaces, villas, and houses. The period extends from Alexander’s
conquest of Asia to the adoption of Hellenistic art and material technology in Italy and the
end of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Alexandria.

604. Art under the Roman Empire, AD 14-337

The long imperial Roman peace has left the densest and most varied record of artistic and
visual representation of any period of antiquity, and at the height of the empire more cities,
communities, and individuals than ever before came to invest in the 'classical' culture of
monumental representation. The course studies the art and visual culture of the Roman
empire in its physical, social, and historical contexts.

The period saw the creation of a new imperial iconography – the good emperor portrayed in
exemplary roles and activities at peace and war. These images were deployed in a wide
range of media and contexts in Rome and around the empire, where the imperial image

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competed with a variety of other representations, from the public monuments of city
aristocrats to the tombs of wealthy freed slaves. The course studies the way in which Roman
images, self-representation, and art were moulded by their local contexts and functions and
by the concerns and values of their target viewers and 'user-groups'.

Students learn about major monuments in Rome and Italy and other leading centres of the
empire (such as Aphrodisias, Athens, Ephesus, and Lepcis Magna) and about the main
strands and contexts of representation in the eastern and western provinces. They will
become familiar with the main media and categories of surviving images – statues, portrait
busts, historical reliefs, funerary monuments, cameos, wall-paintings, mosaics, silverware,
and coins – and learn how to analyse and interpret Roman art and images in well-
documented contexts and how to assess the relation between written and visual evidence.

The following give a good idea of the material and of varied approaches to it: E. D'Ambra,
Roman Art (Cambridge 1998); J. Elsner, Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: The Art of the
Roman Empire, AD 100-450 (Oxford 1998); P. Zanker, Pompeii: Public and Private Life
(Cambridge, Mass. 1998).

Syllabus
Candidates will be expected to be familiar with major monuments in Rome and Italy and
other leading centres of the empire (such as Aphrodisias, Athens, Ephesus, and Lepcis
Magna) and with the main strands and contexts of representation in the eastern and
western provinces. They will be expected to show knowledge of written evidence where
relevant as well as of the main media and categories of surviving images – statues, portrait
busts, historical reliefs, funerary monuments, cameos, wallpaintings, mosaics, silverware,
and coins. In the examination candidates will be required to answer one picture question
and three others.

605. Roman Archaeology: Cities and Settlement under the Empire

In exploring the development of towns and their related territories in the first three
centuries AD, this course provides an introduction to Roman urbanism and the lively debate
over how it worked and whom it served. The study of the physical design of the city, its
public and private buildings, and its infrastructure, along with the objects of trade and
manufacture, is placed in the broader context of the types and patterns of rural settlement,
agricultural production, transport and communications. This allows various themes to be
investigated, including what it meant to live in a Roman town, and in its countryside, and
what contributed to the remarkable prosperity of urban centres before the widespread
retrenchment of the third century.

Those taking the course will become familiar with the physical character of Roman cities
based on selected representative sites (primarily Ostia, Pompeii, Corinth, Caesarea Maritima,
Palmyra, Lepcis Magna, and Silchester) and with major landscape studies in Italy, Greece and
North Africa. Particular attention is paid to problems and biases in assessing the character of
the physical evidence; and in testing theoretical models against hard data. Evidence from
written sources will be incorporated where appropriate.

Lectures for this course are provided in Michaelmas and Hilary terms, and lectures and
classes on related topics (architecture, art, artefacts) are normally also available.

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K. Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (London, 1986) is readable, stimulating
and well illustrated. J. E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Baltimore and London, 1988)
is a useful introduction to aspects of city life.

Syllabus
The subject comprises the study of the Roman city from Augustus to the Tetrarchy placed in
the broader context of patterns of rural settlement, agricultural production, transport, and
trade. Areas of emphasis include selected key sites (Ostia, Pompeii, Corinth, Caesarea
Maritima, Palmyra, Lepcis Magna, and Silchester) and major landscape studies in Italy,
Greece, and North Africa. Particular attention is paid to problems and biases in assessing the
character of the surviving evidence and in testing theoretical models against physical data.
Candidates will be expected to show knowledge of written evidence where relevant as well
as of the main categories of surviving ancient material evidence. In the examination
candidates will be required to answer one picture question and three others.

699. Thesis in Greek and Roman Archaeology

Any candidate may offer a thesis in Greek or Roman Archaeology. This subject may not be
combined with a thesis in Greek and Roman History (499), Philosophy (199), Greek and Latin
Literature (599), or Philology and Linguistics (598).

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V. Philology and Linguistics

Currently three different papers are offered, which are described in more detail below, and
of which you may take one or two (* indicates a text‐based paper):

551 *Greek Historical Linguistics

552 *Latin Historical Linguistics
554 Comparative Philology: Indo‐European, Greek and Latin.

It is not certain whether paper 553 General Linguistics and Comparative Philology will be
on offer to students sitting finals in 2023. Some of its component parts have been
integrated into the other Philology papers.

Paper 554 (Comparative Philology: Indo‐European, Greek and Latin) may not be offered by
anyone who took the special subject Historical Linguistics and Comparative Philology in
Mods. It is not necessary to have taken the Mods special subject to tackle the other Greats
papers (551 and 552), since they have been designed to be generally accessible.

You may offer a thesis in Philology and Linguistics, whether or not you are also offering one,
or two, papers in Philology and Linguistics. The maximum number of options you may take in
Philology and Linguistics is therefore two papers and a thesis. The possibility of offering a
thesis is subject to an overall requirement that Greats candidates may offer only one thesis
in all, except in the case of those offering a Special Thesis as an additional ninth option.

The teaching for the first two papers (551, 552) is spread over six consecutive terms;
however, both papers are structured in such a way that candidates need not attend all the
lectures/classes throughout these six terms but can choose those that suit best their
interests and/or schedules (minimally: two of the classes marked with ‘†’ below + one of the
two lecture courses not so marked).

The schedule of lectures/classes is as follows for 551 Greek Historical Linguistics († indicates
a class focussing on set texts for the translation/commentary part of the exam paper; cf.
below):

TT 2020, 2022: History of the Greek Language

MT 2020, 2022: Greek Dialect Inscriptions (†)
HT 2021, 2023: Linear B (†)
TT 2021, 2023: Linguistic Description of Greek I: Topics
MT 2021, 2023: Greek Literary Dialects (†)
HT 2022, 2024: Linguistic Description of Greek II: Texts (†)

The schedule of lectures/classes is as follows for 552 Latin Historical Linguistics († indicates a
class focussing on set texts for the translation/commentary part of the exam paper; cf.
below):

TT 2020, 2022: History of the Latin Language

MT 2020, 2022: Imperial and Late Latin (†)
HT 2021, 2023: Oscan and Umbrian (†)
TT 2021, 2023: Linguistic Description of Latin I: Topics

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MT 2021, 2023: Archaic Latin: Inscriptions and Plautus (†)
HT 2022, 2024: Linguistic Description of Latin II: Texts (†)

The lectures and classes for 554 Comparative Philology: Indo‐European, Greek and Latin are
largely the same as those for the Mods special subject; they thus follow a different pattern,
repeated annually and spread over four terms, starting in MT. Candidates taking this Greats
paper should go to the lectures from the Michaelmas of their third year.

MT 2020 (or 2021 etc.): Introductory Circus: Historical Linguistics and Comparative
Philology
HT 2021 (or 2022 etc.): Indo-European, Greek and Latin: Phonology
Indo-European, Greek and Latin: Morphology (start)
TT 2021 (or 2022 etc.): Indo-European, Greek and Latin: Morphology (end)
Advanced IE Phonology/Morphology (for Greats students only)
MT 2021 (or 2022 etc.): Homeric Greek AND/OR Early Latin Texts

For each paper, in addition to the University teaching provided, you will have a total of 6
tutorials with essays with one (or more) of the philologists and linguists teaching these
courses. (If, in a given year, there are just one or two candidates for a paper or a topic within
a paper, the subject may be taught entirely in longer courses of tutorials, for which
individual arrangements will be made.)

551. Greek Historical Linguistics

The subject consists of two main parts: (a) specific topics to be explored through texts and
(b) the general history and structure of the Greek language. There are four text‐based topics
(and you will have to answer questions on two of these in the Finals paper): (i) Greek Literary
Dialects, which will involve looking in detail at several lyric poets; (ii) Greek Dialect
Inscriptions, which will offer an introduction to some of the many local varieties of Greek
attested in inscriptions; (iii) Linear B, which will provide an opportunity to read some texts in
Mycenaean Greek, preserved on clay tablets from the second millennium BC, our earliest
evidence for the language; and (iv) Linguistic Description of Greek: Texts, which will look at
selected extracts from a variety of mainly classical authors, with a focus on syntactic,
semantic, and pragmatic matters.

The general History of the Greek Language course will cover topics such as the
Indo‐European origins of Greek, varieties of Greek, the influence of neighbouring languages,
the history of writing in Greece, the linguistic traditions of poetry, the development of
formal prose and scientific language, the emergence of the koine (common language), etc.

The Linguistic Description of Greek: Topics course will concentrate on structural features of
the language such as the use of tenses, moods and aspects, or word order, placing these
within the framework of general linguistic theory. (NB: Candidates intending to attend the
Linguistic Description of Greek: Texts class should normally attend this course first.)

Preliminary reading
L. R. Palmer, The Greek Language (London 1980)
A. Meillet, Aperçu d’une histoire de la langue grecque (Paris, 8th ed. 1975)
G. Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers (Chichester, 2nd ed. 2010)

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J. Wackernagel, Lectures on Syntax, with special reference to Greek, Latin, and Germanic (ed.
and trans. D. Langslow) (Oxford 2009)

Syllabus
The paper will consist of two sections: (a) Greek Literary Dialects; Greek Dialect Inscriptions;
Linear B; Classical Greek (broadly conceived); (b) the history and structure of the Greek
language. Candidates must answer questions from both sections. In (a) compulsory passages
will be set for translation and linguistic commentary. All candidates must answer from two of
the four parts of (a).

552. Latin Historical Linguistics

The subject consists of two main parts: (a) specific topics to be explored through texts and
(b) the general history and structure of the Latin language. There are four text‐based topics
(and you will have to answer questions on two of these in the finals paper): (i) Archaic Latin:
Inscriptions and Plautus, which will deal with some of the earliest records of Latin, both
inscriptional and literary, and considering both grammatical and stylistic features (e.g. poetic
vs. colloquial registers); (ii) Imperial and Late Latin, which will examine the language of
mainly sub‐literary and non‐literary texts (including papyri) from the first century AD
onwards; (iii) Oscan and Umbrian, which will offer an introduction to two languages of
ancient Italy, quite distinct from Latin though related to it, that are known from inscriptions;
and (iv) Linguistic Description of Latin: Texts, which will look at selected extracts from a
variety of mainly classical authors, with a focus on syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic
matters.

The general History of the Latin Language course will cover topics such as the Indo‐European
origins of Latin, other languages of ancient Italy, the spread of Latin within Italy and beyond,
the influence of Greek, the emergence of a poetic language, the creation of the classical
standard, ‘vulgar’ Latin, post‐classical developments, the rise of the Romance languages, etc.
The Linguistic Description of Latin: Topics course will concentrate on structural features of
the language such as the use of tenses and moods, or word order, placing these within the
framework of general linguistic theory. (NB: Candidates intending to attend the Linguistic
Description of Latin: Texts class should normally attend this course first.)

Preliminary reading
L. R. Palmer, The Latin Language (London 1954)
A. Meillet, Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine (Paris, 3rd ed. 1977)
J. Clackson and G. Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language (Oxford 2007)
J. Wackernagel, Lectures on Syntax, with special reference to Greek, Latin, and Germanic (ed.
and trans. D. Langslow) (Oxford 2009).

Syllabus
The paper will consist of two sections: (a) Archaic Latin (Inscriptions and Plautus); Imperial
and Late Latin; Oscan and Umbrian; Classical Latin (broadly conceived); (b) the history and
structure of the Latin language. Candidates must answer questions from both sections. In (a)
compulsory passages will be set for translation and linguistic commentary. All candidates
must answer from two of the four parts of (a).

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554. Comparative Philology: Indo‐European, Greek and Latin
This paper provides an introduction to the study of the origins of Greek and Latin and their
development from a common ancestor, Indo‐European (which is also the ancestor of
English). The lectures and classes cover the methods of historical and comparative
linguistics, the reconstruction of the (unattested) Indo‐European proto‐language, the
numerous changes in sounds and forms that resulted in the Greek and Latin languages as we
know them, and some of the ways in which these languages continued to change down to
the classical period. Selected passages of Homer and some archaic Latin inscriptions are
examined in detail with regard to points of linguistic interest, to show how an understanding
of the prehistory of Greek and Latin, and of the processes of change, can illuminate early
records of the language.

Preliminary reading
J. Clackson, Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (Cambridge 2007)
B. W. Fortson IV, Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (Chichester, 2nd ed.
2010)

Syllabus
The paper will consist of two sections: (a) the methods and aims of historical and
comparative linguistics, the reconstruction of the Indo‐European protolanguage, and its
development into Latin and Greek (the questions set will require specific competence in one
of the two classical languages, but not necessarily both); (b) linguistic commentary on
passages of Greek or Latin. Candidates must answer questions from both sections.
This subject may not be offered by any candidate who offered the Special Subject Historical
Linguistics and Comparative Philology in Honour Moderations in Classics or in the
Preliminary Examination in Classics.

598. Thesis in Philology and Linguistics

Any candidate may offer a thesis in Philology and Linguistics. This subject may not be
combined with a thesis in Greek and Roman History (499), Philosophy (199), Greek and Latin
Literature (599) or Greek and Roman Archaeology (699).

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VI. Second Classical Language

Second Classical Language is available only in Course II, and counts as TWO papers in Greats.
Candidates offering Second Classical Language who satisfied the Moderators in Course IIA of
Honour Moderations in Classics or of Preliminary Examination in Classics must offer 566
Greek Verse and 568 Greek Prose. Candidates offering Second Classical Language who
satisfied the Moderators in Course IIB of Honour Moderations in Classics or of Preliminary
Examination in Classics must offer 567 Latin Verse and 569 Latin Prose.

Teaching for this option will vary according to individual needs and college practice, but (a)
tutorial essays will help the candidate to explore the literary, historical, and philosophical
backgrounds, and (b) unseens and commentary practice will allow the candidate to prepare
for the exam (see below). College instruction should be scheduled from TT of the 3rd year, to
complement the central, faculty-run language instruction in MT and HT of the 3rd year, and
the reading classes (depending on take-up) in TT of the 3rd year and MT of the 4th year.

Syllabus
Each subject will be examined in one three‐hour paper. In each paper candidates will be
required (i) to translate and comment on two passages, one from each of the prescribed
texts in the language they offer, and (ii) to translate into English one unseen passage from
the language they offer.

The commentaries will focus on the passage as literature (and so will be evaluated with the
same criteria as the Language and Literature Text-based papers: see under 5 ii (c) above),
but the candidate should also show knowledge of the relevant historical and / or
philosophical backgrounds to the texts.

For a list of prescribed editions, see Section 11 below.

566. Greek Verse

Homer, Iliad 24
Euripides, Bacchae

567. Latin Verse

Virgil, Aeneid 6
Ovid, Metamorphoses 8

568. Greek Prose

Plato, Protagoras 309a1-338e5

Herodotus 1.1-94

569. Latin Prose

Cicero, In Catilinam I, Pro Archia
Seneca, Epistles 28, 47, 53, 56, 57, 63, 77, 108, 114, 122.

114
11. Teaching Provision for Greats Options
The table below shows the typical teaching provision for Classics options in Greats. Please see separate information published by the Philosophy
Faculty for details of teaching provision for philosophy options.

Please note that it may occasionally be necessary to make changes to the teaching provision for a given option, and that teaching may take place in a
different term from the one shown below.

Faculty teaching provision (hours) Typical college teaching provision

Lectures Classes (hours)
Paper MT HT TT MT HT TT Tutorials Classes
401/421. Greek History 1 (The Early Greek World and Herodotus' Histories: 8 4* 12
c.750-479 BC)
402/422. Greek History 2 (Thucydides and the Greek World: 479-403 BC) 4 8 + 4* 12
403/423. Greek History 3 (The End of the Peloponnesian War to the Death 8 + 4* 12
of Philip II of Macedon: 403 BC to 336 BC)
404/424. Roman History 4 (Polybius, Rome and the Mediterranean: 241- 8 4* 12
146 BC)
405/425. Roman History 5 (Republic in Crisis: 146-46 BC) 8 + 4* 8 + 4* 12
406/426. Roman History 6 (Rome, Italy and Empire from Caesar to 8 4 + 4* 12
Claudius: 46 BC to AD 54)
407. Athenian Democracy 8 8
408. Alexander the Great and his Early Successors, 336-302 BC 8+4 4 8
409. The Hellenistic World: Societies and Cultures, ca. 300 BC‐100 BC 8* 8
410. Cicero: Politics and Thought in the Late Republic 8 8 in either MT or HT 4
411. Politics, Society and Culture from Nero to Hadrian 8 8
412. Religions in the Greek and Roman World, c. 31 BC to AD 312 8 8
413. Sexuality and Gender in Greece and Rome 8 8 in either MT or HT
414. The Conversion of Augustine 8 8
415. The Achaemenid Empire, 550-330 BC 8 8
501/521. Greek Core 4 8 12
502/522. Latin Core 3 6 12
503. Historiography 8 6 6
504. Lyric Poetry 8 4 8
505. Early Greek Hexameter Poetry 12 12 12
506. Greek Tragedy 4 8 12

115
 Faculty teaching provision (hours) Typical college teaching provision
Lectures Classes (hours)
Paper MT HT TT MT HT TT Tutorials Classes
507. Comedy 8 8
508. Hellenistic Poetry 6 6 12
509. Cicero the Orator 8 12
510. Ovid 8 8 12
511. Latin Didactic 8 8 12
512. Neronian Literature 8* 16*
513. Euripides, Orestes: papyri, manuscripts, text 4 28
515. Catullus: manuscripts, texts, interpretation 8* 12* 12* 4
517. Byzantine Literature 12
518. Modern Greek Poetry Recommended to attend 8 8
lectures in MML Faculty
519. The Reception of Classical Literature in Poetry in English since 1900 8 3
524. Seneca, Medea: manuscripts, text, interpretation 8* 12* 12* 4
525. Latin Literature from Titus to Trajan 16*

551. Greek Historical Linguistics 8 c. 36 (min. c. 24 across MT 6

and HT)
552. Latin Historical Linguistics 8 c. 36 (min. c. 24 across MT 6
and HT)
554. Comparative Philology: Indo‐European, Greek and Latin 8 16 c.20 6
566 & 568. Second Classical Language (Greek) 40 40 8 8
567 & 569. Second Classical Language (Latin) 40 40 8 8
601. The Greeks and the Mediterranean World c.950 BC‐500 BC 8 8 12
602. Greek Art and Archaeology from c.500 to 300 BC 4 12
603. Hellenistic Art and Archaeology, 330 – 30 BC 12 8 4
604. Art under the Roman Empire, AD 14‐337 8 8 12 12
605. Roman Archaeology: Cities and Settlement under the Empire 16 8 8
Theses varies depending on the
needs of the student

* teaching provided in alternate years

116
12. Prescribed Editions for Greats
The following editions will be used in the examination; if more than one impression or edition
has appeared, the latest will be used. Where no publisher’s name is given, the book is published
by the Clarendon Press or the Oxford University Press. * denotes an Oxford Classical Text.

Passages set will normally be scanned directly from the prescribed edition. Words enclosed in
square brackets are not normally to be translated (except in the case of Hesiod), but square
brackets mean something different in the case of works transmitted only on papyrus by authors
such as Callimachus, Menander, Posidippus, and Timotheus: in their case anything enclosed in
square brackets should be translated.

Aeschylus: *Page.
Ambrose: Epistles, in Lavarenne, Prudence, vol. iii (Budé).
Apollonius: Hunter (Cambridge University Press).
Aristophanes: *Wilson.
Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, *Bywater; Physics, *Ross; Athenaion Politeia, *Kenyon.
Asclepiades: *Page (Epigrammata Graeca).
Augustine: Confessions, ed. Skutella (Teubner).
Bacchylides: Maehler, Bacchylides: A Selection (Cambridge University Press).
Callimachus: Pfeiffer.
Catullus: *Mynors.
Caesar: *du Pontet.
Cicero: De Finibus, *Reynolds; De Officiis, in translation, Griffin and Atkins (Cicero, On Duties,
Cambridge); Speeches, *Clark and Peterson; Letters, *Shackleton Bailey and Watt.
Claudius Quadrigarius: item 4 in Russell, An Anthology of Latin Prose.
Demosthenes: *Dilts.
Euripides: *Diggle, except for Bacchae in Second Classical Language, Dodds (Clarendon
Paperbacks)
Gorgias: Epitaphios; Encomium of Helen, Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (6th
ed.), Vol. 2, 285-6 and 288-94
Herodotus: *Wilson.
Hesiod: *Solmsen.
Homer (including the Homeric Hymns): *Monro and Allen.
Horace: *Wickham and Garrod.
Jerome: Wright (Loeb).
Juvenal: *Clausen.
Kavafis: Poiemata, Savidis (Athens, 1975; two volumes).
Livy: Books I and V, *Ogilvie; Book VII, *Conway & Walters.
Lucan: Housman (Blackwell).
Lucretius: Rouse-Smith (Loeb), revised 2nd edn, 1992 or later.
Martial: *Lindsay.
Menander: *Sandbach.
Ovid: Amores, *Kenney; Metamorphoses, *Tarrant; Ars Amatoria *Kenney; Fasti VI, Alton,
Wormell and Courtney (Teubner); Heroides, Knox (Cambridge University Press); Tristia I,
*Owen.
Persius: *Clausen.
Petronius: Müller (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 4th edition).

117
Pindar: Race (Loeb); Victory Odes, Willcock (CUP)
Plato: Gorgias, Dodds; Protagoras, Denyer (Cambridge University Press); Republic *Slings;
Symposium, Dover (Cambridge University Press); Theaetetus, Sophist, *Duke et al.; other
dialogues, *Burnet.
Plautus: Bacchides, Barsby (Aris and Phillips); Pseudolus, Christenson (Cambridge University
Press).
Pliny the Younger: *Mynors.
Plutarch: Pelopidas, Perrin (Loeb).
Polybius: Paton, rev. Walbank and Habicht (Loeb).
Posidippus: Bastianini, Gallazzi and Austin (LED, Milan).
Propertius: *Heyworth.
Sallust: *Reynolds.
Seferis: Poiemata (Athens, 1972).
Seneca: Epistulae Morales (in Philosophy and in Greek and Latin Literature), *Reynolds;
Epistles (in Second Classical Language), Summers (Select Letters, Macmillan, repr. Bristol
Classical Press); De Constantia, De Vita Beata, de Brevitate Vitae, *Reynolds;
Apocolocyntosis, Eden (Cambridge University Press); Thyestes, Tarrant (American Philological
Association); Medea, Zwierlein*.
Sextus Empiricus: Bury (Loeb).
Simonides: Plataea elegy, West, Iambi et Elegi Graeci (2nd ed.), Vol. 2, 118-22
Sophocles: *Lloyd-Jones and Wilson.
Statius: Silvae, *Courtney; Thebaid, Shackleton-Bailey (Loeb).
Suetonius: *Kaster.
Symmachus: Symmachus, Relatio 3, Seeck (reprinted in Barrow, Prefect and Emperor).
Tacitus: Dialogus, *Winterbottom; Annals and Histories, *Fisher; Agricola, *Ogilvie.
Terence: Eunuchus, Barsby (Cambridge University Press); Adelphoe, Martin (Cambridge
University Press).
Theocritus: *Gow, Bucolici Graeci.
Timotheus: Hordern.
Thucydides: *Stuart Jones.
Virgil: *Mynors.
Xenophon: *Marchant.

*Oxford Classical Texts.

118
13. List of Faculty and Sub-Faculty Officers
This list gives the names of the various members of the Classics and Philosophy Faculties who are
holding major administrative jobs (as at November 2021), some of whom are referred to in the
course of this handbook.

If you need to contact any of them, you can do so either direct by mail to their colleges, or via the
Classics Office (or in Philosophy via the Philosophy Centre). Contact details for academic staff can
be found at www.classics.ox.ac.uk/faculty/directory. Email addresses and telephone numbers for
the whole University are available at www.ox.ac.uk/contact.

Faculty of Classics
Chair: Dr Neil McLynn (Corpus Christi)
Head of Administration: TBC
Academic Administrative Officer: Mr Andrew Dixon (Ioannou Centre, 66 St Giles')
Academic Support Officer: Miss Erica Clarke (Ioannou Centre, 66 St Giles')

Sub-Faculty of Classical Languages and Literature

Chair: Professor Tim Rood (St Hugh’s)
Secretary and Lecture-List Secretary: Dr Barnaby Taylor (Exeter)

Sub-Faculty of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology

Chair: Dr Georgy Kantor (St John’s)
Secretary and Lecture-List Secretary: Dr Christina Kuhn (Lady Margaret Hall)

Faculty of Philosophy
Chair of the Faculty Board: Professor Christopher Timpson (Brasenose)
Director of Undergraduate Studies: Dr Thomas Sinclair (Wadham)
Undergraduate Studies Administrator: Mr James Knight (Philosophy Centre)
Head of Administration: Dr Rachael Sanders (Philosophy Centre)

Chair of Standing Committee for Mods and Greats

Professor Tim Rood (St Hugh’s)

Chairs of Joint Consultative Committees

Philosophy: TBC
Classics: Dr Barnaby Taylor (Exeter)

Harassment Officers
Classics: Dr Ed Bispham (Brasenose)
Professor Constanze Güthenke (Corpus Christi)
Philosophy: Dr Bernhard Salow (Magdalen)
Dr Hilla Wait (Bodleian Libraries)

Other Useful Contacts

Schools Liaison Officer for Classics: Dr Llewelyn Morgan (Brasenose)

119
Classics Outreach Officer: Mrs Edith Johnson
Schools Liaison Officer for Philosophy: Dr Dave Leal (Brasenose)
Classics Librarian (for Bodleian and Sackler Libraries): Ms Charlotte Goodall
Philosophy Librarian: Dr Hilla Wait

120
Corrections to the Handbook
Date Version Page(s) Description of Change
07/01/2020 1.1 62, 98 Correction to information about paper 509, Cicero the
Orator.
19/01/2021 2.0 101 Revised prescription for paper 515, Latin Textual
Criticism: Catullus
18/11/2021 2.1 93-4 Revised text prescription for Lyric Poetry with effect
from the 2023 year of examination
18/11/2021 2.1 118 Prescribed edition for Plautus, Pseudolus updated
22/12/2021 2.2 4 Links to information sources in Canvas updated
22/12/2021 2.2 23-4, 88, Hard-copy submission of theses and presubmitted
91, 93, essays replaced with online submission via Inspera.
96, 103
22/12/2021 2.2 29-48 Examination Conventions updated to latest version.

Greats Handbook 2023

Version 2.2
Issued 22 December 2021

Produced by:
The Faculty of Classics
Ioannou Centre for Classical and Byzantine Studies
66 St Giles’
Oxford
OX1 3LU
Email: undergraduate@classics.ox.ac.uk