IDEA OF DEVELOPMENT

Growth -> Quantitative Nature Development -> Qualitative Nature

Constitutional Body Statutory Body

EC NOW

POLICY = group of laws = rules (a course or principles of action adopted or proposed by an

organization/ individual - here by government)
PUBLIC = people government bodies (of or concerning people as a whole/community/open
wire)

1. Constitutional bodies: A body established by the constitution of india. These bodies get
their authority/ power by the constitution. Election Commission, Parliament, Supreme
court, etc
2. Statutory Bodies: Body established by a statute, passed by parliament. Ex. National
Human Rights Commission (NHRC), National Commission for women, etc.
3. Executive Bodies: not constitutional , not statutory. They are formed by executive
resolution or action, formed by government’s action only.
Can be changed into statutory body by menacing law- UIDAI (Aadhar card body)
4. Regulatory Bodies: Public or gov. Agencies responsible for exercising autonomous
authority over some area of human actively in a regulatory or supervisory capacity.
- Their ruler/ regulations are to be followed like law
- Very specific
- Ex. TRAI, RBI, central board of film certification, FSSAI, etc.
5. Judicial bodies: SC, HC
6. Quasi - Judicial body: body resembling wiyh power of court of law
- Can adjudicate and decide penalties on the guilty.
- Limited field
- Ex. SEBI(securities and exchange board of india), NHRC, national green tribunal.

GOPAL GANESH AGARKAR (social religious reformer)

● Indian social reformer, educationist and thinker

● Was called as maharashtrian representation of philosophical radicalism
● Philosophical Radicalism: originated in 18th and the 29th century by English liberals.
They support democratic reforms. They advocate for legal social and economic reforms.
● They advocate for more elections and secret ballots.
● He was a friend of Lokmanya Tilak, later became his advisor.
● He co-founded a number of institutions like the Deccan education society, fergusson
college and the new english school.
● Agarkar recognized that social reforms are the immediate need of the indian society
● Tilak believed that rather than social reforms, political reforms are needed.
 ● He was the first editor of kesari (marathi weekly) (founder was tilak)
● He left kesari because of ideological differences and started his new journal sudharak
(1887)
● Talked about a campaign against the oppressive caste system, untouchability and other
social evils.
● He was the forerunner of the liberal movement in India, which is the present day
movement of liberalization of women.
● Agarkar was deeply influenced by different thinkers. These included J S Mill, Spencer,
Auguste Comte and Chales Darwin.
● Biography - “futke naseeb”
● Published book- “Alankar Mimansa”
● He was a strong advocate of the power of human reason. He criticized the blind
dependence on tradition and false glorification of the past.

LOKMANYA TILAK

● Known as ‘father of Indian unrest’.

● One of the first leaders who stood for Swaraj, ie. Self-rule in india
● He is infamously known as the person who started a revolution in the minds of the
people
● “Swaraj is my birth right and i shall have it”
● Mahatma Gandhi called him “maker of modern India”
● He represented forces of extreme nationalism during the freedom struggle, actively
participated in politics
● Joined congress in 1890
● Hindu religious symbolism, Marath sentiments by Maratha Vs. Mughal struggles.
● He set up Akhara, a lathi club for the youth in order to mobilize them against the British
and to instill anti British sentiments as well as develop strength. These institutions
attracted the youth.
● He also set up an Anti cow killing club, attracted and united the hindu community to join
forces against the british rule.
● Swadeshi movement: he invented the swadeshi movement which was later heavily
popularized by Gandhi and played a key role in the freedom struggle.
● constitutional means should be a way for independence- moderate:this was against
tilak's ideology
● Tilak believed that the British could not do anything for the welfare of India because of
their imperialist selfish rule.

➔ Swaraj:
- Swaraj, according to tilak, referred to the self- rule of the individual and the self
rule of the political community.
- Swaraj, according to him, was full self-government-political, social, economic and
spiritual. Thus, Swaraj was something more than mere home rule. Home rule
 simply indicated a political arrangement of self-rule without severing British
connection.

POVERTY
Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and
essentials for a minimum standard of living. Poverty-stricken people and families might go
without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical attention.

→ india is a rich country of poor people, Acc to tendulkar committee in india is 22% of total
population is poor (they’re 1 dimension →only check calories intake)
Tendulkar Committee Calorie taking data
2900 → rural areas
2100 → urban areas
22% of 30 crore population
→ According to the Rangarajan Committee, 29% of the total population in India is por.(poverty
line) (they’re 1 dimension → only check income)
→ According to the multidimensional approach (poverty index) (they check health, education,
etc.),55% of the total Indian population is poor ie. BPL (below poverty line)

CAUSES OF POVERTY
Heavy Pressure of Population: High population growth outstrips available resources, leading to
overcrowding, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation, exacerbating poverty.

Lack of Health Infrastructure: Inadequate healthcare facilities and services limit access to
essential medical care, pushing families deeper into poverty due to illness-related expenses and
reduced productivity.

Lack of Employability and Productivity: Insufficient skills and education result in low workforce
participation and productivity, trapping individuals in low-paying, unstable jobs and perpetuating
poverty cycles.

ECONOMIC POVERTY

Cognitive Poverty
● poor people can't even think “for the future” ahead because they’re not even sure how
they’d survive today.
● Cognitive poverty can hinder individuals' capacity to fully participate in society,
understand complex issues, and make informed choices. It is often associated with
socioeconomic factors, including poverty, lack of access to quality education, and
environmental deprivation. Addressing cognitive poverty requires efforts to improve
access to education, promote literacy, enhance cognitive skills, and reduce systemic
barriers to intellectual development.
Recently, the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 has been released by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human
Development Initiative (OPHI).
The MPI measures “interlinked deprivations in health, education and standard of living that
directly affect a person’s life and wellbeing”.

What are the Key Highlights of the Index?

➔ Global Outlook:
● Globally, 1.1 billion people (18% of the total population) out of 6.1 billion people, are
acutely multidimensionally poor and live in acute multidimensional poverty across 110
countries.
● Sub-Saharan Africa has 534 million poor and South Asia has 389 million. These two
regions are home to approximately five out of every six poor people.
● Children under 18 years old account for half of MPI-poor people (566 million).
● The poverty rate among children is 27.7%, while among adults it is 13.4 %.

➔ Outlook for India:

● Poverty in India: India still has more than 230 million people who are poor.
-The UNDP defines, “Vulnerability — the share of people who are not poor but have
deprivations in 20 - 33.3% of all weighted indicators — can be much higher. India has some
18.7% population under this category.
-India’s Progress in Poverty Reduction: India is among 25 countries, including
Cambodia, China, Congo, Honduras, Indonesia, Morocco, Serbia, and Vietnam, that
successfully halved their global MPI values within 15 years.
● Some 415 million Indians escaped poverty between 2005-06 and 2019-21. The
incidence of poverty in India declined significantly, from 55.1% in 2005/2006 to
16.4% in 2019/2021.
● In 2005/2006, approximately 645 million people in India experienced
multidimensional poverty, a number that decreased to about 370 million in
2015/2016 and further to 230 million in 2019/2021.

● Improvement in Deprivation Indicators: India progressed significantly in all the three

deprivation indicators: Health, Education, Standard of living.
● Decline in poverty has been equal as well, cutting across regions and socio-economic
groups.

INEQUALITY
Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for
different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and
recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and
punishments.

WAYS TO DEAL WITH INEQUALITIES IN INDIA

1. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS: These provisions are enshrined in different parts of
the constitution of India, which reflects the commitment to building a more inclusive and
egalitarian society. Some key provisions are listed as follows.
- Fundamental Rights (equality before law, prohibition of discrimination).
- Directive Principles of State Policy (equal pay, welfare of marginalized).
- Reservation policy for backward classes.
- Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
- Reservation in local bodies.
- Affirmative action measures.
- Protection of cultural and educational rights for minorities.

2. PROGRESSIVE TAXATION: it helps redistribute wealth and reduce income inequality.

This can include higher tax rates for the wealthy, closing tax loopholes, and
implementing estate taxes.

3. WELFARE POLICIES: Strengthening and expanding social welfare programs like the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), food security schemes, and direct
benefit transfer programs can provide a safety net for vulnerable populations and
alleviate poverty.

4. PROACTIVE CHANGE IN CIVIL SOCIETIES IN INDIA: it involves various actions and

initiatives aimed at addressing social issues, advocating for rights, and promoting
positive societal transformation.
- Advocacy and Awareness: Civil societies can lead campaigns to raise awareness
and advocate for policy changes addressing inequality.
- Community Empowerment: Implement programs empowering marginalized
communities to advocate for their rights and access resources.
- Legal Aid and Monitoring: Provide legal support and establish monitoring
mechanisms to ensure accountability in addressing inequalities.
- Research and Capacity Building: Conduct research, provide training, and build
capacity to address inequalities effectively.
- Intersectoral Collaboration: Foster partnerships across sectors to leverage
resources and expertise in tackling inequalities.
- Youth Engagement and Media: Engage youth, challenge stereotypes, and utilize
media to promote inclusivity and social justice.

5. EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES: Creating more job opportunities, particularly in

sectors that traditionally employ marginalized groups, such as agriculture and informal
sectors, can help reduce economic inequality. Promoting entrepreneurship and skill
development programs can also empower individuals to generate their own livelihoods.
VIEWS OF AMARTYA SEN ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (Socialist)
Amartya Sen, an Indian economist and Nobel laureate, has provided significant contributions to
the understanding of economic development, particularly through his capabilities approach. His
views on economic development can be summarized as follows:

1. Capabilities Approach: Sen emphasizes assessing development beyond economic growth,

focusing on individuals' freedom to lead fulfilling lives.
2. Human Development: He prioritizes investment in education, healthcare, and social inclusion
for sustainable development.
3. Social Choice Theory: Sen's work explores how collective decisions impact individual
well-being, stressing the need for diverse perspectives in policy making.
4. Poverty and Inequality: He critiques growth-focused approaches, advocating for
multidimensional solutions addressing poverty and inequality.
5. Public Policy and Governance: Sen highlights the role of policies promoting education,
healthcare, civil liberties, and inclusive economic growth.
6. Gender Equity: Sen emphasizes empowering women and girls as crucial for overall
development, recognizing their interconnectedness with poverty and health outcomes.
7. Sen has elaborated on how there are many things that we can learn from the kerala model.
He pointed out that the economic growth of Kerala has been able to achieve tremendous results
in important areas such as literacy,life expectancy and mortality rates, this is why the Indian
government should emulate the Kerala experience.
8. He emphasized on the need for qualitative indicators to be considered → HDI → Health
→ Education
→ Skills
→Standard of
Living
9. Welfare Government: government infuses money to boost economic growth.

VIEWS OF JAGDISH BHAGWATI ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (Capitalist)

Jagdish Bhagwati, an Indian-born economist, has been a prominent voice in the discussion of
India's economic development. His views have evolved over time, but some key points can be
summarized as follows:

1. Liberalization & Globalization: Bhagwati advocates opening up India's economy for

international trade and investment.
2. Free Trade: He emphasizes the benefits of reducing trade barriers and promoting
international trade.
3. Human Capital Development: Bhagwati stresses the importance of investing in education,
healthcare, and skill development.
4. Institutional Reforms: He calls for reforms to address corruption, bureaucracy, and regulatory
burdens.
5. Poverty Alleviation: Bhagwati supports targeted poverty alleviation programs alongside
market reforms.
6. Environmental Sustainability: He emphasizes the need for sustainable development policies.
7. Focus on economic growth can yield enough resources for investing in social resources
8. Model focus on CSR
9. The growth in the capital model might turn into inequality. But it's argued that sustained
growth will decrease inequality.

Eg: Agriculture, Animal Eg: Manufacturing and Eg: Service

Husbandry Industries

In India,

% Economy (GDP) % Employment

This diagram suggests that even though the economy of India is growing, the employment rate
has not increased.

HUNGER
33% of the world population is considered to be starving and 1.5M children die from hunger
every year (stats by WHO)

India ranked 111th in Global Hunger Index-2023 with the highest child wasting rate. New Delhi:
India with a score of 28.7 ranked 111th of 125 countries in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2023,
according to a report released on Thursday.

According to CNNS - 2019 (Comprehensional National Nutritional Survey)

1. Highest no. of stunting wasting undernourished and anemic children are in India (MPN).
 2. 50% of the female population of India is suffering from anemia.
3. 190.7 M people in our country sleep hungry.

CAUSES OF HUNGER
1. Poverty: India has a significant portion of its population living below the poverty line.
Poverty limits access to food due to financial constraints.
2. Unequal Distribution of Food: Despite India being a major food producer, there's
unequal distribution of food across the country. Some regions suffer from food scarcity
while others have surplus.
3. Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure for storage and transportation leads to
food wastage, especially perishable goods like fruits and vegetables, contributing to
scarcity in certain areas.
4. Social Inequality: Marginalized communities, including tribal populations and lower
castes, often face discrimination and have limited access to resources, including food.
5. Government Policies: Inefficiencies in government welfare programs, inadequate
implementation of food security schemes, and corruption can hinder access to food for
those in need.

CAUSES OF CHRONIC HUNGER

● Malnutrition: Inadequate intake of essential nutrients due to chronic hunger weakens
immune systems and impairs physical and cognitive development, perpetuating the
cycle of hunger and poverty.
● Lack of Maternal Education and Breastfeeding Practices: Limited maternal education
leads to poor understanding of proper nutrition during pregnancy and lactation, while
suboptimal breastfeeding practices contribute to malnutrition and stunted growth in
children.
● Child Marriage? Lack of family planning: Child brides face increased health risks during
pregnancy and childbirth, limiting access to education and healthcare, perpetuating
poverty and malnutrition for themselves and their children.
● Poor Sanitation: Inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices contribute to the spread of
waterborne diseases, compromising nutritional status and overall health, especially
among children.
● Lack of Nutrition: Limited access to diverse and nutrient-rich foods results in insufficient
dietary intake and micronutrient deficiencies, impairing growth, development, and
cognitive function.
● Unbalanced Distribution: Unequal access to food within households or communities
perpetuates hunger and malnutrition, particularly affecting vulnerable groups like women
and children, hindering efforts to achieve food security and sustainable development.

HOW TO ELIMINATE HUNGER?

1. Nutritional security
2. Shifting the focus from communicable diseases to non communicable diseases to non
communicable diseases
3. Hunger and inequality- need to be addressed simultaneously
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Modernization Theory:
This theory emerged in the mid-20th century and suggests that societies progress through
stages of development similar to those experienced by Western societies. It emphasizes factors
such as industrialization, urbanization, technological advancement, and cultural changes as
drivers of development. Modernization theory often assumes a linear path of development, with
less developed countries eventually catching up to more developed ones through modernization
processes.
It focuses on economic development in the initial stages and believes that it’ll
automatically convert into political development
- Theorists →Samuel B Huntington and Edward Sohills →introduced
modernization theory
- Development from the above (top down approach) is the basic of Modernization
theory
- According to the theory of line approach is not followed , a country may suffer
from political decay

● Features of Political Decay:

- Disempowerment of political institutions
- Rapid increase in political mobilization (farmers protest)(Article 19)
- Decline of parliament → (undereducated parliamentarians hence assisted by
bureaucrats)

2. Structuralism:
Structuralist theories of development focus on the role of economic structures, institutions, and
policies in shaping development outcomes. They emphasize the need for state intervention,
industrialization, and redistribution of resources to address structural imbalances and promote
inclusive development. Structuralist approaches often advocate for import substitution
industrialization and development strategies that prioritize domestic industries and reduce
dependency on foreign markets.

The structuralist theory of development seeks to explain why some regions lag behind in terms
of per capita income and why this lag is accompanied by sharp inequalities in distribution, both
within the lagging region and within countries.

● Structuralism is improved system theory

 - Political System → Political Socialization and Recruitment (government)
→ Interest Aggregation (political parties)
→ Interest Articulation (pressure groups and interest groups - like truck
drivers association)
→Political Communication(Media)
→rule making (legislation)
→Rule application (Executive)
→Rule Adjudication (Judiciary)

3. Dependency Theory

Developed in response to modernization theory, dependency theory posits that

underdevelopment in less developed countries is the result of historical and ongoing economic
exploitation and dependency on more developed countries. It highlights unequal power
relations, unequal exchange, and structural barriers that perpetuate dependency and hinder
development in poorer nations.

● Dependency Theory is a tool to study the development of post colonial states

(PCS)
● PCS are like instrument for developed countries for their business and economic
project
● PCS are also dependant on developed countries for their development
● Immanuel Wolesteen → World System Theory → Core Countries
(developed countries)
(US, UK)
→ Semi-periphery
(semi-industrial country)
(China, Mexico, Malaysia, Brazil)
→Peripheral Countries
(underdeveloped countries)
(Afghanistan, Bangladesh)

He had prejudice against semi periphery ( China, Mexico, Brazil, Malaysia, South
Africa)- accused them of exploiting peripheries (poor countries/ underdeveloped
countries)

Neocolonialism: the control of less-developed countries by developed countries through indirect

means. The term is now an unambiguously negative one that is widely used to refer to a form of
global power in which transnational corporations and global and multilateral institutions combine
to perpetuate colonial forms of exploitation of developing countries. Neocolonialism has been
broadly understood as a further development of capitalism that enables capitalist powers (both
nations and corporations) to dominate subject nations through the operations of international
capitalism rather than by means of direct rule.
 4. Neoclassical Development Theory

Neo-classical theory of development, also known as the neoclassical growth theory, emerged as
a response to the shortcomings of classical economic theories in explaining long-term economic
growth and development.

Key features of the neoclassical approach to development in India include:

1. Liberalization: Neoclassical economists advocate for liberalizing trade and investment policies
to foster greater integration into the global economy. In India, this translated into reducing tariffs,
dismantling trade barriers, and opening up various sectors to foreign investment.

2. Privatization: Neoclassical theory emphasizes the role of private enterprise as the engine of
economic growth. Accordingly, privatization initiatives were undertaken in India to transfer
state-owned enterprises and industries into private hands, with the belief that private ownership
would lead to greater efficiency and productivity.

3. Deregulation: Neoclassical economists argue that excessive government regulation stifles

entrepreneurship and innovation. In the Indian context, deregulation efforts aimed to simplify
bureaucratic procedures, reduce red tape, and create a more conducive business environment
to attract domestic and foreign investment.

4. Market-Based Reforms: Neoclassical policies in India focused on market-based reforms such

as fiscal discipline, monetary stabilization, and exchange rate liberalization. These measures
were intended to create macroeconomic stability and foster investor confidence in the Indian
economy.

5. Export-Led Growth: Neoclassical theory often advocates for export-led growth as a means to
boost economic development. In India, policies were implemented to encourage exports by
providing incentives to export-oriented industries and promoting competitiveness in global
markets.

6. Human Capital Development: While neoclassical theory primarily emphasizes market

mechanisms, it also recognizes the importance of human capital development for long-term
economic growth. In the Indian context, efforts were made to improve education and skill
development to enhance the productivity of the workforce.

LIBERALISM

People should have freedom, rights abd choices

● It is the government’s job is to protect people’s right and not establish their power
forcefully
 ● People were unhappy with the systems put by monarchy and feudalism, they wanted
less control of government over them and economic activities
● They had to take permission from the monarch for everything.
● Father of liberalism: John loche

Classical Liberalism: during 17th- 18th century got famous

● Classical liberalism emerged during the 17th and 18th centuries as a political and
economic philosophy that emphasized individual liberty, free markets, and limited
government intervention. It developed as a response to the authoritarianism of absolute
monarchies and the mercantilist economic policies prevalent at the time.
● During this period, classical liberal thinkers such as John Locke, Adam Smith, and David
Hume articulated key principles that laid the foundation for classical liberalism:

● 1. Individual Rights: Classical liberals argued that individuals possess inherent rights,
such as life, liberty, and property, which are not granted by governments but are natural
and inalienable.

● 2. Limited Government: They advocated for a minimal role of government, primarily to

protect individuals' rights and maintain social order. Governments should be limited in
scope and power to prevent encroachment on individual freedoms.

● 3. Free Markets: Classical liberals championed free-market capitalism as the most

efficient economic system, where prices and production are determined by supply and
demand rather than government intervention. They believed that free trade and
competition would lead to economic prosperity and innovation.

● 4. Rule of Law: They emphasized the importance of a legal system based on objective
laws that apply equally to all individuals, including those in government. The rule of law
serves as a safeguard against arbitrary exercise of power.

● 5. Individualism: Classical liberals valued the autonomy and dignity of the individual,
asserting that individuals should have the freedom to pursue their own goals and
interests without undue interference from the state or other individuals.

● 6. Tolerance: Many classical liberals advocated for religious and cultural tolerance,
arguing that individuals should be free to practice their own beliefs without persecution.

● 7. Civil Liberties: They emphasized the importance of civil liberties such as freedom of
speech, press, and assembly as essential components of a free society.

Modern Liberalism: it combines ideas of civil liberty and equality with support for social justice.

Key features of modern liberalism include:

 1. **Civil Liberties and Individual Rights**: Like classical liberalism, modern liberalism
values civil liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, as well as
individual rights such as privacy and due process under the law.

2. **Social Justice**: Modern liberalism places a strong emphasis on social justice, which
involves addressing systemic inequalities and ensuring fair treatment and opportunities
for all individuals, especially those from marginalized or disadvantaged groups.

3. **Equality**: Modern liberals advocate for policies that promote equality of opportunity
and outcomes, seeking to reduce disparities in income, wealth, education, and
healthcare.

4. **Government Intervention**: While classical liberals generally advocate for limited

government intervention in the economy, modern liberals believe that government has a
significant role to play in regulating markets, providing social services, and implementing
policies to address social and economic inequalities.

5. **Welfare State**: Modern liberals support the establishment and expansion of social
welfare programs, such as healthcare, unemployment benefits, and public education, to
provide a safety net for those in need and promote social cohesion.

6. **Environmental Protection**: Many modern liberals prioritize environmental

sustainability and advocate for policies to address climate change and protect natural
resources for future generations.

7. **Multiculturalism and Diversity**: Modern liberalism often embraces multiculturalism

and values diversity, seeking to create inclusive societies where individuals of different
backgrounds and identities are respected and empowered.

8. **Human Rights**: Modern liberals are often strong advocates for human rights both
domestically and internationally, supporting efforts to combat discrimination, promote
democracy, and uphold the rule of law.

Neo- liberalism: Neoliberalism is an economic and political ideology that advocates for
free-market capitalism, deregulation, privatization, and limited government intervention in the
economy. It emerged as a response to the perceived failures of Keynesian economics and the
welfare state model in the mid-20th century.

Key tenets of neoliberalism include:

● Free Market: Neoliberalism promotes the idea that free markets, unencumbered by
government regulation, are the most efficient way to allocate resources and promote
economic growth.
 ● Deregulation: Neoliberalism calls for reducing or eliminating government regulations on
businesses and industries, believing that excessive regulation stifles innovation and
economic activity.

● Privatization: Neoliberalism advocates for transferring government-owned enterprises

and services into private hands, arguing that private ownership fosters competition,
efficiency, and innovation.

● Fiscal Conservatism: Neoliberalism generally supports fiscal policies aimed at reducing

government spending, lowering taxes, and balancing budgets. This approach is often
associated with austerity measures to control public debt.

● Individualism: Neoliberalism emphasizes individual responsibility and self-reliance,

viewing individuals as rational actors who make choices in their own self-interest. This
perspective influences policies related to welfare, social safety nets, and poverty
alleviation.

● Critics of neoliberalism argue that it leads to increased economic inequality, undermines

social welfare programs, exploits labor, and prioritizes corporate profits over the
well-being of people and the environment. They also highlight how deregulation can lead
to financial instability and market failures, as seen in events like the 2008 global financial
crisis. Despite criticisms, neoliberal ideas have significantly influenced economic policy
worldwide since the late 20th century.

Social Liberalism:Social liberalism is a political ideology that combines elements of liberalism

with a commitment to social justice and equality. It emphasizes individual freedoms and civil
liberties, while also advocating for government intervention to address social and economic
inequalities. Social liberals believe that the government has a role to play in promoting equality
of opportunity and ensuring a basic standard of living for all citizens.

Key principles of social liberalism include:

● Individual Rights and Freedoms: Social liberals prioritize individual rights and freedoms,
including freedom of speech, religion, and expression. They believe in protecting these
liberties from encroachment by both state and private actors.

● Social Justice: Social liberals are committed to addressing social inequalities and
promoting fairness in society. They advocate for policies that aim to reduce poverty,
inequality, and discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, sexual orientation,
and socioeconomic status.
 ● Welfare State: Social liberals support the establishment of a welfare state that provides
social safety nets and assistance to those in need. This can include programs such as
healthcare, education, housing, and unemployment benefits.

● Regulation and Redistribution: While social liberals generally support free-market

principles, they also recognize the need for government regulation to prevent abuses of
power and ensure fair competition. They advocate for progressive taxation and other
redistributive policies to address economic disparities and fund social programs.

● Environmental Protection: Social liberals often prioritize environmental sustainability and

advocate for policies to combat climate change, protect natural resources, and promote
renewable energy.

● Social liberalism is often associated with political parties and movements that promote
progressive policies on social issues, such as LGBTQ+ rights, reproductive rights, and
racial justice. It stands in contrast to more laissez-faire forms of liberalism, which
prioritize limited government intervention in both social and economic matters.

MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT:

POD Kerala Model Gujarat Model

Economic Focus The Kerala model prioritizes The Gujarat model emphasizes rapid
social development, human industrialization, infrastructure
capital formation, and development, and
welfare-oriented policies. It investment-friendly policies to
emphasizes investments in stimulate economic growth. It
education, healthcare, and social focuses on attracting domestic and
security to improve the well-being foreign investment, promoting
and quality of life of its citizens, entrepreneurship, and fostering a
particularly the marginalized and business-friendly environment.
vulnerable groups.

Industrialization vs. The Kerala model focuses on The Gujarat model places a strong
Human human development indicators emphasis on industrialization and
Development such as literacy, life expectancy, manufacturing sectors as drivers of
and healthcare access. It economic growth. It aims to attract
prioritizes investments in investment in industries such as
education and healthcare manufacturing, petrochemicals,
infrastructure to improve the textiles, and pharmaceuticals to
overall standard of living and create jobs and generate revenue.
socio-economic indicators of the
population.

Role of development The Kerala model involves a more The Gujarat model advocates for
 interventionist role for the minimal government intervention in
government, particularly in the the economy and promotes a
provision of social services such business-friendly environment with
as education, healthcare, and deregulation and incentives for
poverty alleviation programs. The private investment. The
government plays an active role in government's role is primarily seen
redistributing wealth and as facilitating economic growth
resources to ensure equitable through infrastructure development
access to social services and and investment promotion.
opportunities.

Social Development The Kerala model prioritizes The Gujarat model prioritizes
vs. Economic social development and human economic growth and development,
Growth welfare over economic growth. It with a focus on increasing per capita
aims to achieve high levels of income, GDP growth, and industrial
literacy, healthcare access, and output. While improvements in social
social equity, even if it means indicators are also pursued, they are
sacrificing some measures of often viewed as secondary to
economic growth in the short economic objectives.
term.

Income Inequality The Kerala model is known for its The Gujarat model has been
and Social Equity: emphasis on social equity and criticized for exacerbating income
inclusiveness. It has achieved inequality and disparities between
relatively low levels of income urban and rural areas. While
inequality and poverty compared economic growth has been
to other Indian states, with a impressive, critics argue that it has
strong focus on social welfare not always translated into improved
programs and poverty alleviation living standards for all segments of
measures. society.

DEVELOPMENTAL ADMINISTRATION

● De Facto and De Jure Heads of India: In the Indian democracy, the Prime Minister or
Chief Minister is considered the de facto leader of the country or state, respectively. This
is because they hold the true power to make decisions and govern based on the
mandate they receive from the people through elections.
● The President, on the other hand, is the de jure head of India. The President holds a
ceremonial position and represents the unity and sovereignty of the nation. While the
President has constitutional powers and obligations, the Prime Minister is the functional
head of the government and holds executive authority.
● Decentralized Nature: Developmental administration is often characterized by
decentralization, which involves the transfer of authority, responsibilities, and resources
from central government institutions to local or regional levels of government.
 Decentralization aims to empower local communities, enhance participation in
decision-making, and promote more effective and responsive governance.
● Innovation-Oriented: Developmental administration encourages innovation in policy
design and implementation to address societal challenges and promote development
goals. For example, initiatives like the mid-day meal scheme in India were innovative
programs aimed at increasing school enrollment and improving child nutrition. Such
initiatives demonstrate the willingness of developmental administrations to adopt new
approaches to achieve their objectives.
● Self-Reliance and Independence: Developmental administration often seeks to promote
self-reliance and financial independence at both the individual and national levels. This
involves reducing dependence on external sources for essential resources and fostering
domestic capabilities for economic growth and development.
Before 1947, India was politically dependent on British colonial rule. Achieving
independence allowed India to pursue its own developmental path and assert its internal
sovereignty. However, challenges such as dependence on imported crude oil and coal
highlight the ongoing importance of striving for self-reliance in various sectors.
● Internal Sovereignty vs. External Sovereignty: Internal sovereignty refers to a nation's
authority and control over its own territory, institutions, and governance processes.
External sovereignty, on the other hand, pertains to a nation's recognition and
independence in the international community. Developmental administration aims to
strengthen both internal and external sovereignty by promoting socio-economic
development, enhancing governance capacities, and fostering diplomatic relations.
● Resource Independence and Industrialization: Achieving self-reliance in essential
resources such as food grains (rice, wheat, maize), energy (crude oil, coal), and
industrial inputs is crucial for promoting economic independence and sustainable
development. Countries like the USA, rich in natural resources and agriculture, have
utilized these assets to fuel industrialization and economic growth, demonstrating the
importance of resource independence in developmental strategies.
● Characteristics: Traditional administration refers to the governance structures and
practices that existed prior to the emergence of modern bureaucratic systems. These
systems often relied on customary laws, informal institutions, and hierarchical authority
structures to maintain social order and deliver basic services.
● Authority and Hierarchy: Traditional administrations were often characterized by
centralized authority and hierarchical structures, with power concentrated in the hands of
a ruling elite, monarch, or traditional leader. Decision-making was typically top-down,
with little input from the broader population.
● Customary Laws and Informal Institutions: Traditional administrations operated based on
customary laws and informal norms that governed social relationships and behavior
within communities. Disputes were often resolved through traditional justice systems,
such as tribal councils or village elders.
● Limited Scope of Services: Traditional administrations provided basic services such as
security, justice, and infrastructure maintenance but often lacked the capacity to address
complex social and economic challenges or provide comprehensive public services.
TRADITIONAL ADMINISTRATION
● Strict Hierarchy: Traditional administration featured rigid hierarchical structures where
authority flowed from the top down.
Power was centralized in the hands of a ruling elite or monarch, with little room for
dissent or input from lower levels.
● Colonial Structure: During the colonial era, traditional administrative systems were often
replaced or co-opted by colonial bureaucratic structures.
Colonial administrations served the interests of colonial powers, marginalizing
indigenous populations and reinforcing hierarchical governance.
● Characteristics: Developmental administration refers to administrative systems and
practices aimed at promoting socio-economic development and addressing the needs of
the population. It emphasizes efficiency, effectiveness, and responsiveness in delivering
public services and implementing development programs.
● Focus on Development Goals: Developmental administration prioritizes the achievement
of development goals, such as poverty reduction, education, healthcare, infrastructure
development, and economic growth. It seeks to mobilize resources and implement
policies and programs that promote sustainable development and improve the well-being
of citizens.
● Citizen-Centric Approach: Developmental administration adopts a citizen-centric
approach, focusing on meeting the needs and aspirations of the population. It
emphasizes transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in decision-making
processes to ensure that public services are responsive to the needs of the people.
● Institutional Capacity Building: Developmental administration seeks to strengthen
institutional capacity at all levels of government to effectively plan, implement, and
monitor development initiatives. This may involve investing in human resources,
improving administrative processes, and enhancing governance structures to ensure
efficient service delivery.
● Policy Innovation and Adaptation: Developmental administration encourages policy
innovation and adaptation to changing socio-economic contexts. It emphasizes flexibility
and experimentation in policy design and implementation to address emerging
challenges and capitalize on opportunities for development.

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