information

Review
Natural Language Processing Techniques for Text Classification
of Biomedical Documents: A Systematic Review
Cyrille YetuYetu Kesiku * , Andrea Chaves-Villota and Begonya Garcia-Zapirain

eVida Research Group, University of Deusto, Avda/Universidades 24, 48007 Bilbao, Spain
* Correspondence: cyrille.kesiku@opendeusto.es

Abstract: The classification of biomedical literature is engaged in a number of critical issues that
physicians are expected to answer. In many cases, these issues are extremely difficult. This can be
conducted for jobs such as diagnosis and treatment, as well as efficient representations of ideas such
as medications, procedure codes, and patient visits, as well as in the quick search of a document or
disease classification. Pathologies are being sought from clinical notes, among other sources. The goal
of this systematic review is to analyze the literature on various problems of classification of medical
texts of patients based on criteria such as: the quality of the evaluation metrics used, the different
methods of machine learning applied, the different data sets, to highlight the best methods in this
type of problem, and to identify the different challenges associated. The study covers the period
from 1 January 2016 to 10 July 2022. We used multiple databases and archives of research articles,
including Web Of Science, Scopus, MDPI, arXiv, IEEE, and ACM, to find 894 articles dealing with
the subject of text classification, which we were able to filter using inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Following a thorough review, we selected 33 articles dealing with biological text categorization issues.
Following our investigation, we discovered two major issues linked to the methodology and data





 used for biomedical text classification. First, there is the data-centric challenge, followed by the data
Citation: Kesiku, C.Y.; quality challenge.
Chaves-Villotas, A.; Garcia-Zapirain,
B. Natural Language Processing Keywords: text classification; biomedical document; natural language processing; biomedical text
Techniques for Text Classification of classification challenges
Biomedical Documents: A Systematic
Review. Information 2022, 13, 499.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
info13100499 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Ralf Krestel The focus on text data is increasing day by day in different fields. Generally in the
healthcare field, patient information consists mostly of medical texts or notes taken by
Received: 15 September 2022
doctors and nurses. The classification of medical text in the process of extracting knowledge
Accepted: 11 October 2022
from medical data has gained momentum in recent times thanks to Natural Language
Published: 17 October 2022
Processing techniques. In this technique, the main approach is the recognition of a necessary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral pattern that explains a fact from the links between words and sentences in a text. These
with regard to jurisdictional claims in links give a semantic meaning and allow a good understanding of the information in the
published maps and institutional affil- text. In health, this helps in the rapid search for the causes of a disease and correlates all
iations. the causes extracted from the text to predict the disease. Many other problems are treated
by following this approach.
Since 2013 until today, NLP research has demonstrated its inescapable capabilities
with very relevant models emerging every year probably. Techniques based on neural
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
network architectures, very intuitive in classification and other important natural language
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
processing tasks [1,2]. Many other problems in health care use text classification such
distributed under the terms and
as in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), which is a medical classification
conditions of the Creative Commons list published by the World Health Organization, which defines the universe of diseases,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// disorders, injuries and other related health conditions as well as the standard of diagnosis
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ classification [3,4].
4.0/).

Information 2022, 13, 499. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13100499 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/information

Information 2022, 13, 499 2 of 19

In this systematic review, we examine the different articles on patient medical text
classification from 1 January 2016 to 10 July 2022, in order to identify the relevant challenges
in biomedical text classification. The knowledge gained in this study will clearly map out
the methodologies and techniques for future research work. In this study, we seek to
answer the questions in the Table 1.

Table 1. Research questions and purpose.

Question Purpose

To Describe the best methods used in the

What are the best NLP methods used in medical classification framework based on
Q1
medical text classification? the evaluation metrics. And identify the
challenges

How are medical text classification datasets To study the composition and description of
Q2
constructed? medical texts in the classification task.

In terms of data, what are the most common To understand and highlight the common
Q3 problems that medical text classification problems and challenges addressed in
can solve? medical text-based problem solving.

What are the mostly used evaluation To identify the different mostly metrics used
Q4
metrics of medical document classification? in medical document classification

2. Material and Methods

The major purpose of our systematic study is to highlight current issues that text
classification systems have to cope with in order to analyze biological text information. The
insights discovered in this study will be utilized as a starting point for future research in
this area. Table 1 outlines the main questions we hoped to address by the conclusion of
this research. To achieve this review system, we have merged the methodologies employed
by Sofia Zahia et al. in [5] and those by Urdaneta-Ponte et al. in [6]. On the basis of these
strategies, we shall produce our review article.

2.1. Data Collection

The articles in the databases were chosen using a variety of methodologies and el-
igibility criteria which are briefly presented in the following subsections. We initially
applied the filter of papers collected from various databases, followed by the filters based
on the qualifying criteria. Each metric was used to pick publications that were relevant to
our research.

2.1.1. Searched Databases

Several databases were used to conduct the literature search, including Web of Science,
Arxiv, IEEE, ACM, Scopus, and MDPI. The selection time of articles was limited from 1 Jan-
uary 2016 to 10 July 2022. Several factors influenced our choice of publications, including
the search terms, which covered studies published on biomedical text classification as well
as image-text classification.

2.1.2. Search Terms

Several terms were used to look for works on biomedical text classification task; some
of these terms were combined to enhance the search in multiple databases. The terms
chosen for the selections were: “text classification”, “medical text”, “medical document”,
“healthcare”, “patient records”, “text prediction”, “nursing notes”, “Natural Language
Processing”, “text-image”, “biomedical text classification”, “nursing text prediction”, “pre-
diction”, “classification”, “image”, “text”, “Machine learning”, “transformers”, “LSTM”,
“GRU”, “clinical” and “clinical text”.
Information 2022, 13, 499 3 of 19

2.1.3. Inclusion Criteria

The initial stage in the selection procedure was to look through titles and abstracts to
discover papers that fulfilled the needed criteria. Then duplicates were removed. Because
medical record classification encompasses numerous applications, such as the detection
and classification of text in nursing picture notes, relevant matching publications were
obtained and classified.

2.1.4. Exclusion Criteria

The following exclusion criteria were applied to select the papers: date of publication,
type of publication, ranking of the journal in case the paper was published in an interna-
tional journal, type of problem studied in the paper, and finally the number of citations of
the paper.
Figure 1 depicts the revised flowchart for PRISMA in [6]. This systematic review’s data
gathering approach followed a logical progression until only 33 publications were deemed
appropriate for analysis. Each database indicated in Section 2.1.1 as a source of publications
was recognized, along with a total of 894 papers for the selection process. Following the
identification stage, a screening was conducted to eliminate duplicate documents. Certainly,
a journal or conference-published work may be archived in at least one research database.
In this stage, 708 papers were retained after screening. The last step was to apply the
eligibility criteria to select the best articles according to the Sections 2.1.3 and 2.1.4 Table 2.
In the first screening, 97 articles were kept and 611 were rejected based on their titles; in
the subsequent screening, 48 papers were retained and 49 were rejected based on their
abstracts. After a thorough reading of each manuscript, 33 were ultimately chosen for
study, while 15 were discarded.

Table 2. Exclusion criterion description.

Criteria Description

The publications included for this research were screened between

1 January 2016 and 10 July 2022. The quantity of relevant articles to filter
Date
dictated the selection of this range. Given the fast advancement of deep
learning models and machine learning.

filtering was performed on two categories of publications, papers

Type of publications published at international conferences and articles published in
international journals.

To determine the finest articles, we used the ranking count of papers

published in journals systematically. This criteria was not applied to
Ranking
papers presented at conferences. We examined the rankings Q1, Q2, and
Q3 for the publications in the journals.

Only articles on biomedical text or image-text classification were

Type of problem
evaluated for this criteria.

This criteria was given less weight, particularly for articles published
Citations
recently, such as those from 2021 and 2022
Information 2022, 13, 499 4 of 19

Figure 1. Paper selection flow diagram for text classification in biomedical domain.

2.2. Quality Metrics

The quality metrics in Table 3 were used to evaluate the relevance of each paper
selected during the analysis see Table A2. The total score of 15 for the papers published in
the international journal and the total score of 11 for those published in an international
conference because the metric M11 for the ranking does not concern the conference papers.
The following ratings have been defined for both types of papers: For journal papers, the
paper is rating Excellent if the score is between 13–15; between 10–12 very good; between
7–9 good; between 3–6 sufficient and between 0–2 deficient. For the conference papers,
the paper is rating Excellent if the score is between 9–11; between 6–8 very good; between
4–5 good, if this 3, sufficient and between 0–2 deficient.
Information 2022, 13, 499 5 of 19

Table 3. Quality metrics of paper selection.

Category Metric Metric Description Value Weight

Provide a clear and balanced

M1 summary according to the context (No/Yes) [0,1] 1
of the problem solved in the paper
Provide details of the model’s
M2 performance metrics and the entire [0,1] 1
evaluation process
Metrics based on the text content Implement one or more medical
M3 [0,1] 1
of the paper (5 points) text classification models
compares the results with other
M4 similar work and presents the [0,1] 1
limitations of this work
Contains a deep and rich
M5 [0,1] 1
discussion on the result obtained

M6 Innovation [0,1] 1
The dataset used in the research is
M7 a benchmark or it has been made [No,Yes] (0–1) 1
publicly available
Regarding the performance, if the
percentage of quality of result is
Other quality metrics (10 points ) M8 Performance (Accuracy) between 60–70% (0.5), between 2
71–80% (1), between 81–90% (1.5)
and 91% + (2) otherwise (0)
If the paper is cited 0 times (0), 1–4
M9 Citation 1
times (0.5) and cited 6+ (1)
M10 Availability of source code [0,1] 1
If rank = Q1 then (4), rank = Q2
M11 Journal ranking then (3) rank = Q3 then (2) and if 4
rank = Q4 then 1

3. Results
All the papers selected following the steps of the flow diagram in Figure 1 were
included in the analysis. Table A1 summarizes the selections made in this review paper.
All the metrics of Table 3 were applied to evaluate the selected papers, and the result of
this evaluation is in Table 4. The whole evaluation process is presented in Table A2 in
the Appendix A. In addition, to answer the questions in Table 1, the evaluation of the
different text classification databases used in each selected paper was conducted in order
to discover new challenges in the data and their influence in building the models. Finally,
an evaluation of the frequency distribution of the selected papers by location, publication
database, and type (Journal/Conference) was done, followed by an evaluation of the
frequency distribution by ranking and year of publication.

3.1. Quality Metric Result

To make sure that the evaluations of each article’s quality parameters were correct,
the right measurements were taken using the defined indicators Table 3. Each article was
ranked on a scale from deficient to excellent based on how much it added to our systematic
review. They were judged based on the degree of innovation, the details of the proposal,
validation, results and analysis, ranking, and the number of citations. Table A2 shows how
each article did in terms of the score, and Table 4 gives a full summary of Table A2.
Information 2022, 13, 499 6 of 19

Table 4. Metric result.

Score No Journal No Conference Total

Excellence 3 6 9
Very good 14 7 21
Good 2 1 3
Sufficient 0 0 0
Deficient 0 0 0

Total 19 14 33

3.2. Text Classification Methods Performance According Datasets Used

The best approaches in relation to the database were identified in two ways, based on one
of the performance indicators such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. First, papers
that utilized the same datasets were grouped together, and then all publications were grouped
together. Two datasets that used more than one publication were identified such as: MIMIC
III with five papers and AIM had two papers. With MIMIC III, the BioBERT approach in [7]
has an Accuracy of 90.05% and is regarded the best method for this classification, whereas
the LSTM method in [8] gets a score of 91.00%. In the publication [9], the BIGRU technique
achieves 97.73% of accuracy on the AIM dataset. The synthesis is shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Performance of the most frequent text classification methods and database used.

Methods Dataset Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score

TAGS [10] MIMIC-III dataset 82.00% - - -

SWAM-text CNN [11] MIMIC-III dataset - - - 60.00%
BioBERT [7] MIMIC-III database 90.05% 77.37% 48.63%
BERT-base [12] MIMIC III dataset 82.30% - - 82.20%
LSTM [8] MIMIC-III dataset - - - 91.00%

QC-LSTM; BiGRU [13] AIM dataset 96.72% - - -

BIGRU [9] AIM dataset 97.73% - - -

Considering only the performance measurement values of the different classification

techniques in general [14], without basing them on the direct comparison with the data
used and their statistical distribution, the problem to be solved, we observe that, BERT-
based technique in [15–17], GRU [9,13], BiGRU [9,13] and LSTM [8,18] produced a good
performance on most of the problems studied in the different papers identified in our study.
In addition, the methods that present the good performance but represented only once
in the papers studied, are Random forest [19], CNN-MHA-BLSTM [20], Double-channel
(DC-LSTM) [21], MT-MI-BiLSTM-ATT [22] and QC-LSTM [13] Table 6.
Information 2022, 13, 499 7 of 19

Table 6. Performance obtained on different text classification methods used in each paper.

Methods Dataset Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score

TAGS [10] MIMIC-III 82.00% - - -

SWAM-text CNN [11] MIMIC-III full dataset; MIMIC-III 50 dataset - - 60.00%

BioBERT [7] MIMIC-III database 90.05% 77.37% 48.63%

BERT-base [12] PubMed abstract; MIMIC III 82.30% - - 82.20%

LSTM [8] MIMIC-III; CSU dataset - - - 91.00%

QC-LSTM; BiGRU [13] Hallmarks dataset; AIM dataset 96.72% - - -

TCM—Traditional Chinese medicine dataset;

CCKS dataset; Hall-marks—corpus dataset;
BIGRU [9] 97.73% - - -
AIM—Activating invasion and
metastasis dataset

Conv-LSTM [23] EMR text data (benchmark) 83.30% - - -

MT-MI-BiLSTM-ATT [22] EMR data set comes from a hospital (benchmark) 93.00% - - 87.00%

EMR data from outpatient visits during 2017 to

SVM (Sigmoid Kernel) [24] 2018 at a public hospital in Surabaya City, 88.40% 81.28% 76.46% 78.80%
Indonesia (benchmark)

BERT [15] THUCNews; iFLYTEK 96.63% 96.64% 96.63% 96.61%

COVID-19 fake news dataset” by Sumit Bank;

BERT-based [16] 99.71% 98.82% 97.84% 98.33%
extremist-non-extremist dataset

LSTM [18] SQuAD 98.00% 98.00% 98.00%

MedTS [25] MIMICSQL 88.00% - - -

DingXiangyisheng’s question and answer

CNN [26] 86.28% - - -
module (benchmark)

CRNN [27] iDASH dataset; MGH dataset - - - 84.50%

cMedQA medical diagnosis dataset;

Double-channel (DC-LSTM) [21] 97.20% 91,80% 91.80% 91.00%
Sentiment140 Twitter dataset

EMR Progress Notes from a medical center

CNN Based model [28] 58.00% 58.20% 57.90% 58.00%
(benchmark)

BidirLSTM [29] clinical nursing shift notes (benchmark) - - - -

Random forest [19] Text dataset from NHLS-CDW 95.25% 94.60% 95.69% 95.34%

Medical records from from digital health

SVM [30] 80.00% - - -
(benchmark)

CNN-MHA-BLSTM [20] EMR texte dataset (benchmark) 91.99% - - 92.03%

MLP [31] EMR dataset (benchmark) 82.00% - - 82.00%

MobileNetV2 [32] RVL-CDIP dataset - - - 82.00%

Med2Vec [33] CHOA dataset - - 91.00% -

biGRU [34] RCV1/RCV2 dataset - - - 84.00%

Capsule+LSTM [35] Chinese electronic medical record dataset - - - 73.51%

BioLinkBERT [36] MedQA-USMLE; MMLU-professional medicine 50.00% - - -

Bert-based [17] Harvard obesity 2008 challenge dataset 94.70% - - -

Information 2022, 13, 499 8 of 19

3.3. Frequency Result According Geographical Distribution and Type of Publication

As we can see in Table 7, several studies based on text classification were carried out in
Asia with a percentage of 51.5, which is half of all the papers analyzed in our research. With
6.1 percent, Africa has a low representation papers, whereas America and Europe both have
21.2 percent. It is also shown in this study that it has 57.6% of papers published in journals
and 42.4% published in conferences. In Figure 2, we present the different frequencies of the
selected papers according to regions, continents, search database and type of publications.
The most frequented region with published studies on medical text classification was the
Eastern Asia region. In addition, among the search databases Web Of Science was the most
frequented database after filtering.

Table 7. Number and frequency of research database, conference or journal and by geographical
distribution of publication.

Frequency
Parameters Category
No. Papers Percentage

Southern Africa 1 3.0%

Africa 1 3.0%
Eastern Asia 13 39.4%
Southern Asia 2 6.1%
Western Asia 1 3.0%
South-Eastern Asia 1 3.0%

Location Asia 17 51.5%

Northern Europe 3 9.1%
Eastern Europe 1 3.0%
Southern Europe 2 6.1%
Western Europe 2 6.1%
Europe 8 24.3%
Northern America 7 21.2%
America 7 21.2%

Arxiv 7 21.2%
ACM 2 6.1%
MDPI 2 6.1%
Database WoSc 10 30.3%
Scopus 4 12.1%
24.2%
IEEE 8

Conference 14 42.4%
Type of publication
Journal 19 57.6%
Information 2022, 13, 499 9 of 19

Figure 2. Frequency of research database, conference or journal and by geographical distribution

of publication. (a) is the distribution of the different databases from which we collected papers in
this study. (b1,b2) represent respectively the distribution of the selected papers by region and by
continent. (c) the distribution of papers by conference and journal.

3.4. Paper Publication Map by Country

The map in Figure 3 describes the degree of contribution of countries in Artificial
Intelligence (NLP) in biomedical text classification from 1 January 2016 to 10 July 2022.
China largely dominates in this study, followed by the USA, this result coincides with the
result published in Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2022 [37].

Figure 3. Degree of contribution of countries in Artificial Intelligence (NLP) in biomedical text

classification.

3.5. Frequency Result According Year and Journal Ranking

Table 8 shows the frequency and number of papers per year and per ranking. As
mentioned above, the time range considered for the selection of articles for analysis in this
systematic review was from 1 January 2016 to 10 July 2022. The year 2020 counted 11 papers
and represents 33.3% of the papers compared to other years with low representatives in
the classification of biomedical texts. In addition, the ranking was considered as one
of the major eligibility criteria of papers for analysis in the case of papers published in
journals. All the papers whose category is none are published in an international conference.
Information 2022, 13, 499 10 of 19

Considering the ranking, more of the selected papers, i.e., 12 out of 19 papers published in
journals, were of Q1. Figure 4 presents the different frequencies in the analysis for the year
and the ranking distribution.

Table 8. Number and frequency of year and paper ranking.

Frequency
Parameters Category
No. Papers Percentage

2016 1 3.0%
2017 3 9.1%
2018 1 3.0%
Year 2019 5 15.1%
2020 11 33.3%
2021 8 24.3%
2022 4 12.1%

Q1 12 36,4%
Q2 3 9.1%
Paper ranking
Q3 3 9.1%
Conference 15 45.5%

Figure 4. (a) Represent the frequency by year and (b) the distribution by conference and paper
ranking.

4. Discussion
Text classification in biomedical field plays an important role in the rapid search
(diagnosis) of a disease from the patient record, hospital administration, and even the
treatment appropriate for a specific case, as the volume of patient medical records continues
to increase significantly. Each year, new classification methods with high classification
accuracy are proposed, while the performance of older [38–40] NLP methods is enhanced
through the use of alternative approaches such as optimization and other type of algorithm
based on transformers architecture [12,40–42] and XLNet [43], data-centric technique and
many others. The data-centric technique presents a challenge in enhancing the performance
of biomedical text classification methods [44]. The observation is that the majority of
methods have been pre-trained with text databases in a generic context without any prior
specificity. In other words, a model that has been pre-trained with biomedical data will
adapt better when re-trained with new data for a biomedical domain. In this context, we
discuss the data-centric problem, which must be a key consideration when developing
models tailored to specific case. Another challenge in the classification of biomedical texts
is the data quality. We found two kinds of datasets in the articles we looked at: those
made public by research institutes and labs [7,9,13,15–17,21], and those that any reference
Information 2022, 13, 499 11 of 19

(benchmark) could use without more information. When training the models to give good
results, it is important to think about how good the data [45] are. This quality can be made
sure of by thinking about the whole process of collecting and preprocessing the data until
it is ready to be used for classification tasks.
Before performing the classification task, biomedical texts can be derived from a
variety of sources [46,47]. We find data in medical reports that are already in text form,
as well as notes taken by doctors or nurses during consultations that are scanned images.
Depending on the context of the problem and the goal to be achieved, several approaches
can be used with these types of data. Alternatively, the data can be represented in both
formats, or a radio image is accompanied by text that explains the image. Depending on
the expected result, several methods can be combined in the text classification process in
image-text data [13]. To complete these tasks, methods based on CNN architectures [48,49]
are frequently used [13,50].
The classification of biomedical texts is involved in several important problems that
physicians are expected to solve. These issues can sometimes be large challenges in multiple
steps. This can be conducted in diagnosis [11,28], patient treatment [11], or even effective
representations of concepts such as diagnoses, drugs, procedure codes, and patient visits [33],
as well as in the quick search of a document or disease classification [23]. Pathologies
from clinical notes [23] and much more In all of these ways, it is harder to classify texts
in the biomedical field than in other fields in general. This is because biomedical texts
include both medical records and medical literature, which are both important sources of
clinical information. However, medical texts have hard-to-understand medical terms and
measurements that cause problems with high dimensionality and a lack of data [9]. All of
these problems are very important when it comes to the task of classifying biomedical text.
In the biomedical text classification task, as in most classification problems in gen-
eral [51], the model evaluation metrics are the same. In all the papers studied in our
systematic review, the metrics identified are Accuracy, Recall, F1-score, Precision, Average
precision, Average recall, and Average F1-score. These metrics are the most commonly
used to evaluate text classification models. As in this study, the different methods used
in each paper analyzed, used at least one of these metrics except for one paper [52] which
used Spearman.C.C. metric [53].

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

This study discusses the various challenges in the task of biomedical text classification
by focusing on several aspects such as the challenge in method performance, discovering
the structure of biomedical data for the classification task, listing the various problems and
challenges that text classification can solve in the biomedical domain, and finally reviewing
the most commonly used metrics to evaluate biomedical text classification methods. We
discovered two significant issues linked to the approaches utilized for biomedical text
classification by reviewing the various literature chosen for examination in this research.
First, there is the data-centric, which is explained by the fact that most transfer learning using
pre-trained techniques employ a dataset of broad text classification settings. However, the
biomedical issue includes various medical words that may be classified as process, therapy,
medicine, and diagnosis. Because the contextual representation of medical language is
quite poor in the general context, this already creates a contextual challenge when training
to generate the best outcomes. This necessitates only training models on a huge number
of biological data in order to execute transfer learning more correctly. There are certain
approaches that are exclusively trained with biomedical databases, such as BioBERT [7]
and BioLinkBERT [17], but the task remains to study as many ways as possible with just
biomedical databases to enhance biomedical text classification outcomes. This is the first
problem that affects how well the text classification methods work in biomedical domain.
Another issue to consider is data quality. We found two types of datasets in the articles
we looked at: those made public by research institutes and labs, and those accessed by any
reference (benchmark) without more information. The quality of the data is a key factor to
Information 2022, 13, 499 12 of 19

consider while training the models to deliver good outcomes. This quality may be assured
by considering the whole collecting and pre-processing process until the data set is ready
as an usable source for classification tasks. Several other challenges can be described by
taking into account several aspects that we have not addressed in this work. Some of the
challenges we have discussed are the most common ones in our overall study.
In the perspective, to significantly advance research in the biomedical field, it is
preferable to make well-preserved and verified data more widely available in order to
assist research and overcome data quality [54–56] in biomedical classification challenges.
Because of domain drifts among different institutes, the cooperation between research
laboratories, universities and other research entities, would be an action to be strengthened
in order to create a great network of scientific sharing of scarce resources such as data to
advance research. Joint work sessions between domain experts should be a good procedure
to validate the dataset as a common resource for scientific research of text classification.
Finally, a policy of simplification of data sharing, which is often confidential, would be an
essential point among many others to be defined to answer the problem of data deficiency.
Most of the models used in the papers selected in this study are based on Deep learning. The
interpretability of robust models is an important aspect in clinical research. Accuracy and
reliability are also important aspects in biomedical research field. Whether one uses simple
models based on statistical learning or robust models based on Deep learning, whatever
their performance, the interpretability and reliability aspect would be very important to
take into account, to validate the results for a clinical research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.Y.K., A.C.-V. and B.G.-Z.; methodology, C.Y.K. and
A.C.-V.; formal analysis, C.Y.K.; investigation, C.Y.K.; writing—original draft preparation, C.Y.K.;
writing—review and editing, C.Y.K., A.C.-V. and B.G.-Z.; supervision, B.G.-Z.; All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank and acknowledge the eVida research group of the University
of Deusto, recognized by the Basque Government with the code IT1536-22, and the ICCRF Colon
Cancer Challenge for its untiring support and commitment to providing us with the resources
necessary to carry out the study, until its finalization.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Information 2022, 13, 499 13 of 19

Appendix A

Table A1. Summary of papers filtering aspects.

P. Year J/C Loc Database Methods Dataset Best Method Metric (Best) Rank Cite

Fuzzy similarity-based data cleansing approach,

supervised multi-label classification models, MLP,
[10] 2020 J India Scopus MIMIC-III TAGS Ac: 82.0 Q1 18
KNN, KNN as OvR, AGgregated using fuzzy
Similarity (TAGS)

MLP, ConvNet, LSTM, Bi-LSTM, Conv-LSTM,

[23] 2020 J India IEEE EMR text data (benchmark) Conv-LSTM Ac: 83.3 Q1 7
Seg-GRU

BiLSTM, CNN, CRF layer. In particular, they used

EMR data set comes from a hospital Ac: 93.0
[22] 2020 J China IEEE BiLSTM and CNN to learn text features and CRF as MT-MI-BiLSTM-ATT Q1 3
(benchmark) F1: 87.0
the last layer of the model; MT-MI-BiLSTM-ATT

Mavg.P: 98.0
[57] 2021 C China IEEE ResNet; BERT-BiGRU; ResNet-BERTBiGRU Text-image data (benchmark) ResNet-BERTBiGRU Mavg.R: 98.0 None 0
Mavg.F1: 98.0

R: 76.46;
EMR data from outpatient visits during 2017
SVM (Linear Kernel); SVM (Polynomial Kernel); SVM (Sigmoid P: 81.28;
[58] 2021 C Indonesia IEEE to 2018 at a public hospital in Surabaya City, None 0
SVM (RBF Kernel); SVM (Sigmoid Kernel) Kernel) F1: 78.80;
Indonesia (benchmark)
Ac: 91.0

Micro-P: 90.6;
GM; Seq2Seq; CNN; LP; HBLA-A (This model can be ARXIV Academic Paper Dataset (AAPD);
[24] 2020 C China IEEE BLA-A Micro-R: 89.2; None 1
seen as a combination of BERT and BiLSTM.) Reuters Corpus Volume I (RCV1-V2)
Micro-F1: 89.9

Ac: 96.63;
P: 96.64;
[15] 2021 C China IEEE Text CNN; BERT; ALBERT THUCNews; iFLYTEK BERT None 0
R: 96.63;
F1: 96.61

Ac: 99.71;
BERT-base; BERT-large; RoBERTa-base;
COVID-19 fake news dataset” by Sumit P: 98.82;
[16] 2022 J Saudi Arabia Scopus RoBERTa-large; DistilBERT; ALBERT-base-v2; BERT-base Q3 3
Bank; extremist-non-extremist dataset R: 97.84;
XLM-RoBERTa-base; Electra-small; and BART-large
F1: 98.33

P: 98.0;
LSTM; Multilingual; BERT-base; SCIBERT;
[18] 2020 C UK WoSc SQuAD LSTM R: 98.0; None 10
SCIBERT 2.0
F1: 98.0
Information 2022, 13, 499 14 of 19

Table A1. Cont.

P. Year J/C Loc Database Methods Dataset Best Method Metric(best) Rank Cite

CNN, LSTM, BiLSTM, CNN-LSTM, CNN-BiLSTM,

[13] 2021 J China WoSc logistic regression, naïve Bayesian classifier (NBC), Hallmarks dataset; AIM dataset QC-LSTM AC: 96.72 Q3 1
SVM, and BiGRU. QC-LSTM; BiGRU

Seq2Seq; SQLNet; PtrGen; Coarse2Fine; TREQS;

[25] 2021 J China WoSc MIMICSQL MedTS AC: 88.0 Q2 0
MedTS

DingXiangyisheng’s question and answer

[26] 2029 J China WoSc CNN; LSTM CNN AC: 86.28 Q1 1
module (benchmark)

AUC: 99.1;
[27] 2027 J USA WoSc Tf-Idf CRNN iDASH dataset; MGH dataset CRNN Q1 59
F1: 84.5

Ac: 97.2;
cMedQA medical diagnosis dataset; P: 91.8;
[21] 2027 J China WoSc CNN; LSTM; CNN-LSTM; GRU; DC-LSTM DC-LSTM Q3 1
Sentiment140 Twitter dataset R: 91.8;
F1: 91.0

Ac: 58.0;
EMR Progress Notes from a medical center P: 58.2;
[28] 2020 J Taiwan WoSc CNN; CNN Based model CNN Based model Q1 2
(benchmark) R: 57.9;
F1: 58.0

TCM—Traditional Chinese medicine Hallmarks, Ac: 75.72;

CNN; RCNN; LSTM; AC-BiLSTM; SVM; dataset; CCKS dataset; Hallmarks—corpus TCM, Ac: 89.09;
[9] 2019 J China Scopus BIGRU Q2 15
Logistic-Regression dataset; AIM—Activating invasion and CCKS, Ac: 93.75;
metastasis dataset AIM, Ac: 97.73

TrialClassifcation, BC5CDR, DiabetesNER, transformers-sklearn

[59] 2021 J China WoSc RoBERTa; ALBERT; transformers-sklearn based Mavg-F1: 89.03 Q1 2
and BIOSSES based

Ac: 90.05;
[7] 2020 C UK WoSc BioBERT; Bert MIMIC-III database BioBERT Precision: 77.37; None 0
F1: 48.63

BidirLSTM, LSTM, CNN, fastText, BoWLinearSVC,

[29] 2019 C Finland IEEE RandomForest, Word Heading Embeddings, Most clinical nursing shift notes (benchmark) BidirLSTM Avg-R: 54.35 None 3
Common, Random
Information 2022, 13, 499 15 of 19

Table A1. Cont.

P. Year J/C Loc Database Methods Dataset Best Method Metric(best) Rank Cite

F1: 95.34;
R: 95.69
[19] 2021 J South Africa MDPI Random forest, SVMLinear, SVMRadial text dataset from NHLS-CDW Random forest Q2 2
P: 94.60
Ac: 95.25

Medical records from from digital health Mavg-P: 88.6;

[30] 2020 J Italy Scopus SVM SVM Q1 27
(benchmark) Mavg-Ac: 80.0

[8] 2020 J UK WoSc LSTM; LSTM-RNNs; SVM, Decision Tree; RF MIMIC-III; CSU dataset LSTM F1: 91.0 Q1 13

Ac: 91.99;
[20] 2020 C USA ACM CNN-MHA-BLSTM; CNN, LSTM EMR texte dataset (benchmark) CNN-MHA-BLSTM None 22
F1: 92.03

Ac: 82.0;
[31] 2019 C USA IEEE MLP EMR dataset (benchmark) MLP None 1
F1: 82.0

[12] 2019 C USA Arxiv BERT-base, ELMo, BioBERT PubMed abstract; MIMIC III BERT-base Ac: 82.3 None 0

MLP, CNN CNN 1D, MobileNetV2, MobileNetV2

[32] 2020 J France Arxiv RVL-CDIP dataset MobileNetV2 F1: 82:0 Q1 55
(w/ DA)

[33] 2016 C USA ACM Med2Vec CHOA dataset Med2Vec R: 91.0 None 378

[52] 2018 C Canada Arxiv word2vec, Hill, dict2vec MENd dataset; SV-d dataset word2vec Spearman.C.C: 65.3 None 37

[34] 2017 C Switzerland Arxiv biGRU, GRU, DENSE RCV1/RCV2 dataset biGRU F1: 84.0 None 34

[11] 2021 J China Arxiv Logistic regression; SWAM-CAML; SWAM-text CNN MIMIC-III full dataset; MIMIC-III 50 dataset SWAM-text CNN F1: 60.0 Q1 6

[35] 2022 J China MDPI LSTM, CNN, GRU, Capsule+GRU, Capsule+LSTM Chinese electronic medical record dataset Capsule+LSTM F1: 73.51 Q2 2

BERTtiny; LinkBERTtiny, GPT-3, BioLinkBERT, MedQA-USMLE; MMLU-professional

[36] 2022 C USA Arxiv BioLinkBERT Ac: 50.0 None 4
UnifiedQA medicine

CNN, LSTM, RNN, GRU, Bi-LSTM, Transformers,

[17] 2022 J USA Arxiv Harvard obesity 2008 challenge dataset Bert-based Ac: 94.7 Q1 0
Bert-based
Information 2022, 13, 499 16 of 19

Table A2. Results of the application of the eligibility criteria to the filtered papers.

P. M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 Result

[10] 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 4 12/15
[23] 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 4 12/15
[22] 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 4 12/15
[57] 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 Conf. 6/11
[58] 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 Conf. 5/11
[24] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 Conf. 9/11
[15] 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 Conf. 6/11
[16] 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 0.5 0 2 8.5/15
[18] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 Conf. 9/11
[13] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 0.5 1 2 11.5/15
[25] 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 11/15
[26] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1.5 0.5 0 4 12/15
[27] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 4 14/15
[21] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 0.5 0 3 11/15
[28] 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0.5 0.5 0 4 9/15
[9] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 12/15
[59] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1.5 0.5 0 4 12/15
[7] 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1.5 0 0 Conf. 6.5/11
[29] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0.5 0 Conf. 6.5/11
[19] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 0.5 0 3 11.5/15
[30] 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1.5 1 0 4 11.5/15
[8] 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 4 12/15
[20] 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 1 0 Conf. 9/11
[31] 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1.5 0.5 0 Conf. 7/11
[12] 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Conf. 6/11
[32] 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 1.5 1 1 4 14.5/15
[33] 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 Conf. 10/11
[52] 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 Conf. 9.5/11
[34] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 Conf. 10.5/11
[11] 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 4 12/15
[35] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0.5 1 3 11/15
[36] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 Conf. 8/11
[17] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 4 13/15

References
1. Mikolov, T.; Chen, K.; Corrado, G.; Dean, J. Efficient estimation of word representations in vector space. arXiv 2013,
arXiv:1301.3781.
2. Vaswani, A.; Shazeer, N.; Parmar, N.; Uszkoreit, J.; Jones, L.; Gomez, A.N.; Kaiser, Ł.; Polosukhin, I. Attention is all you need. In
Proceedings of the 31st Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2017), Long Beach, CA, USA, 4–9 December
2017; Volume 30.
3. World Health Organization. The International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision. 2015. Available online: https://icd.who.
int/browse10/2015/en (accessed on 4 August 2021).
4. Chen, P.; Wang, S.; Liao, W.; Kuo, L.; Chen, K.; Lin, Y.; Yang, C.; Chiu, C.; Chang, S.; Lai, F. Automatic ICD-10 Coding and Training
System: Deep Neural Network Based on Supervised Learning. JMIR Med. Inform. 2021, 9, e23230. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Zahia, S.; Zapirain, M.B.; Sevillano, X.; González, A.; Kim, P.J.; Elmaghraby, A. Pressure injury image analysis with machine
learning techniques: A systematic review on previous and possible future methods. Artif. Intell. Med. 2020, 102, 101742. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
Information 2022, 13, 499 17 of 19

6. Urdaneta-Ponte, M.C.; Mendez-Zorrilla, A.; Oleagordia-Ruiz, I. Recommendation Systems for Education: Systematic Review.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1611. [CrossRef]
7. Amin-Nejad, A.; Ive, J.; Velupillai, S. LREC Exploring Transformer Text Generation for Medical Dataset Augmentation. In
Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference, Palais du Pharo, Marseille, France, 11–16 May 2020;
Available online: https://aclanthology.org/2020.lrec-1.578 (accessed on 4 August 2021).
8. Venkataraman, G.R.; Pineda, A.L.; Bear Don’t Walk, O.J., IV.; Zehnder, A.M.; Ayyar, S.; Page, R.L.; Bustamante, C.D.; Rivas, M.A.
FasTag: Automatic text classification of unstructured medical narratives. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0234647. [CrossRef]
9. Qing, L.; Linhong, W.; Xuehai, D. A Novel Neural Network-Based Method for Medical Text Classification. Future Internet 2019,
11, 255. [CrossRef]
10. Gangavarapu, T.; Jayasimha, A.; Krishnan, G.S.; Kamath, S. Predicting ICD-9 code groups with fuzzy similarity based supervised
multi-label classification of unstructured clinical nursing notes. Knowl.-Based Syst. 2020, 190, 105321. [CrossRef]
11. Hu, S.; Teng, F.; Huang, L.; Yan, J.; Zhang, H. An explainable CNN approach for medical codes prediction from clinical text. BMC
Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 2021, 21, 256. [CrossRef]
12. Peng, Y.; Yan, S.; Lu, Z. Transfer Learning in Biomedical Natural Language Processing: An Evaluation of BERT and ELMo on Ten
Benchmarking Datasets. arXiv 2019, arXiv:1906.05474.
13. Prabhakar, S.K.; Won, D.O. Medical Text Classification Using Hybrid Deep Learning Models with Multihead Attention. Comput.
Intell. Neurosci. 2021, 2021, 9425655. [CrossRef]
14. Pappagari, R.; Zelasko, P.; Villalba, J.; Carmiel, Y.; Dehak, N. Hierarchical Transformers for Long Document Classification. In
Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Automatic Speech Recognition and Understanding Workshop (ASRU), Sentosa, Singapore, 14–18
December 2019; pp. 838–844. [CrossRef]
15. Fang, F.; Hu, X.; Shu, J.; Wang, P.; Shen, T.; Li, F. Text Classification Model Based on Multi-head self-attention mechanism and
BiGRU. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Conference on Telecommunications, Optics and Computer Science (TOCS), Shenyang,
China, 11–13 December 2021; pp. 357–361. [CrossRef]
16. Qasim, R.; Bangyal, W.H.; Alqarni, M.A.; Ali, Almazroi, A. A Fine-Tuned BERT-Based Transfer Learning Approach for Text
Classification. J. Healthc. Eng. 2022, 2022, 3498123. [CrossRef]
17. Lu, H.; Ehwerhemuepha, L.; Rakovski, C. A comparative study on deep learning models for text classification of unstructured
medical notes with various levels of class imbalance. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2022, 22, 181. [CrossRef]
18. Schmidt, L.; Weeds, J.; Higgins, J. Data Mining in Clinical Trial Text: Transformers for Classification and Question Answering
Tasks. arXiv 2020, arXiv:2001.11268.
19. Achilonu, O.J.; Olago, V.; Singh, E.; Eijkemans, R.M.J.C.; Nimako, G.; Musenge, E. A Text Mining Approach in the Classification
of Free-Text Cancer Pathology Reports from the South African National Health Laboratory Services. Information 2021, 12, 451.
[CrossRef]
20. Shen, Z.; Zhang, S. A Novel Deep-Learning-Based Model for Medical Text Classification. In Proceedings of the 2020 9th
International Conference on Computing and Pattern Recognition (ICCPR 2020), Xiamen, China, 30 October–1 November 2020;
Association for Computing Machinery: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 267–273. [CrossRef]
21. Liang, S.; Chen, X.; Ma, J.; Du, W.; Ma, H. An Improved Double Channel Long Short-Term Memory Model for Medical Text
Classification. J. Healthc. Eng. 2021, 2021, 6664893. [CrossRef]
22. Wang, S.; Pang, M.; Pan, C.; Yuan, J.; Xu, B.; Du, M.; Zhang, H. Information Extraction for Intestinal Cancer Electronic Medical
Records. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 125923–125934. [CrossRef]
23. Gangavarapu, T.; Krishnan, G.S.; Kamath, S.; Jeganathan, J. FarSight: Long-Term Disease Prediction Using Unstructured Clinical
Nursing Notes. IEEE Trans. Emerg. Top. Comput. 2021, 9, 1151–1169. [CrossRef]
24. Cai, L.; Song, Y.; Liu, T.; Zhang, K. A Hybrid BERT Model That Incorporates Label Semantics via Adjustive Attention for
Multi-Label Text Classification. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 152183–152192. [CrossRef]
25. Pan, Y.; Wang, C.; Hu, B.; Xiang, Y.; Wang, X.; Chen, Q.; Chen, J.; Du, J. A BERT-Based Generation Model to Transform Medical
Texts to SQL Queries for Electronic Medical Records: Model Development and Validation. JMIR Med. Inform. 2021, 9, e32698.
[CrossRef]
26. Liu, K.; Chen, L. Medical Social Media Text Classification Integrating Consumer Health Terminology. IEEE Access 2019, 7,
78185–78193. [CrossRef]
27. Weng, W.H.; Wagholikar, K.B.; McCray, A.T.; Szolovits, P.; Chueh, H.C. Medical subdomain classification of clinical notes using a
machine learning-based natural language processing approach. BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 2017, 17, 155. [CrossRef]
28. Hsu, J.-L.; Hsu, T.-J.; Hsieh, C.-H.; Singaravelan, A. Applying Convolutional Neural Networks to Predict the ICD-9 Codes of
Medical Records. Sensors 2020, 20, 7116. [CrossRef]
29. Moen, H.; Hakala, K.; Peltonen, L.M.; Suhonen, H.; Ginter, F.; Salakoski, T.; Salanterä, S. Supporting the use of standardized
nursing terminologies with automatic subject heading prediction: A comparison of sentence-level text classification methods. J.
Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2020, 27, 81–88. [CrossRef]
30. Chintalapudi, N.; Battineni, G.; Canio, M.D.; Sagaro, G.G.; Amenta, F. Text mining with sentiment analysis on seafarers’ medical
documents. Int. J. Inf. Manag. Data Insights 2021, 1, 100005. ISSN 2667-0968. [CrossRef]
Information 2022, 13, 499 18 of 19

31. Al-Doulat, A.; Obaidat, I.; Lee, M. Unstructured Medical Text Classification using Linguistic Analysis: A Supervised Deep
Learning Approach. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE/ACS 16th International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications
(AICCSA), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 3–7 November 2019; pp. 1–7. [CrossRef]
32. Audebert, N.; Herold, C.; Slimani, K.; Vidal, C. Multimodal Deep Networks for Text and Image-Based Document Classification.
In Proceedings of the Joint European Conference on Machine Learning and Knowledge Discovery in Databases, Würzburg,
Germany, 16–20 September 2020. [CrossRef]
33. Choi, E.; Bahadori, M.T.; Searles, E.; Coffey, C.; Thompson, M.; Bost, J.; Tejedor-Sojo, J.; Sun, J. Multi-layer Representation Learning
for Medical Concepts. In Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data
Mining (KDD ’16), San Francisco, CA, USA, 13–17 August 2016; Association for Computing Machinery: New York, NY, USA,
2016; pp. 1495–1504. [CrossRef]
34. Pappas, N.; Popescu-Belis, A. Multilingual hierarchical attention networks for document classification. arXiv 2017, arXiv:1707.00896.
35. Zhang, Q.; Yuan, Q.; Lv, P.; Zhang, M.; Lv, L. Research on Medical Text Classification Based on Improved Capsule Network.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2229. [CrossRef]
36. Yasunaga, I.; Leskovec, J.; Liang, P. LinkBERT: Pretraining Language Models with Document Links. In Proceedings of the 60th
Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), Dublin, Ireland, 22–27 May 2022;
Association for Computational Linguistics: Dublin, Ireland, 2022; pp. 8003–8016.
37. Zhang, D.; Mishra, S.; Brynjolfsson, E.; Etchemendy, J.; Ganguli, D.; Grosz, B.; Lyons, T.; Manyika, J.; Niebles, J.C.; Sellitto, M.; et al.
“The AI Index 2022 Annual Report,” AI Index Steering Committee; Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI, Stanford University:
Stanford, CA, USA, 2022.
38. Le, Q.; Mikolov, T. Distributed representations of sentences and documents. In Proceedings of the International Conference on
Machine Learning (PMLR), Bejing, China, 22–24 June 2014; pp. 1188–1196.
39. Joulin, A.; Grave, E.; Bojanowski, P.; Mikolov, T. Bag of Tricks for Efficient Text Classification. arXiv 2016, arXiv:1607.01759.
40. Radford, A.; Narasimhan, K.; Salimans, T.; Sutskever, I. Improving Language Understanding by Generative Pre-Training. 2018.
Available online: https://www.cs.ubc.ca/~amuham01/LING530/papers/radford2018improving.pdf (accessed on 10 October
2022).
41. Liu, Y.; Ott, M.; Goyal, N.; Du, J.; Joshi, M.; Chen, D.; Levy, O.; Lewis, M.; Zettlemoyer, L.; Stoyanov, V. RoBERTa: A Robustly
Optimized BERT Pretraining Approach. arXiv 2019, arxiv:1907.11692.
42. Abreu, J.; Fred, L.; Macêdo, D.; Zanchettin, C. Hierarchical Attentional Hybrid Neural Networks for Document Classification. In
Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, Munich, Germany, 17–19 September 2019. [CrossRef]
43. Yang, Z.; Dai, Z.; Yang, Y.; Carbonell, J.; Salakhutdinov, R.R.; Le, Q.V. XLNet: Generalized Autoregressive Pretraining for
Language Understanding. arXiv 2019, arxiv:1906.08237.
44. Fries, J.A.; Weber, L.; Seelam, N.; Altay, G.; Datta, D.; Garda, S.; Kang, M.; Su, R.; Kusa, W.; Cahyawijaya, S.; et al. BigBIO: A
Framework for Data-Centric Biomedical Natural Language Processing. arXiv 2022, arXiv:2206.15076.
45. Zunic, A.; Corcoran, P. Spasic ISentiment Analysis in Health and Well-Being: Systematic Review. JMIR Med. Inform. 2020, 8,
e16023. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Aattouchi, I.; Elmendili, S.; Elmendili, F. Sentiment Analysis of Health Care: Review. E3s Web Conf. 2021, 319, 01064. [CrossRef]
47. Tai, K.S.; Socher, R.; Manning, C.D. Improved Semantic Representations From Tree-Structured Long Short-Term Memory
Networks. arXiv 2015, arxiv:1503.00075.
48. Nii, M.; Tsuchida, Y.; Kato, Y.; Uchinuno, A.; Sakashita, R. Nursing-care text classification using word vector representation and
convolutional neural networks. In Proceedings of the 2017 Joint 17th World Congress of International Fuzzy Systems Association
and 9th International Conference on Soft Computing and Intelligent Systems (IFSA-SCIS), Otsu, Japan, 27–30 June 2017; pp. 1–5.
49. Qian, Y.; Woodland, P.C. Very Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Robust Speech Recognition. arXiv 2016, arXiv:1607.01759.
50. Zhang, Y.; Wallace, B. A sensitivity analysis of (and practitioners’ guide to) convolutional neural networks for sentence classifica-
tion. arXiv 2015, arXiv:1510.03820.
51. Hossin, M.; Sulaiman, M.N. A Review on Evaluation Metrics for Data Classification Evaluations. Int. J. Data Min. Knowl. Manag.
Process 2015, 5, 1–11. [CrossRef]
52. Bosc, T.; Vincent, P. Auto-Encoding Dictionary Definitions into Consistent Word Embeddings. In Proceedings of the 2018 Conference
on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Brussels, Belgium, 31 October–4 November 2018; pp. 1522–1532. [CrossRef]
53. Spearman, C. ‘General Intelligence,’ Objectively Determined and Measured. Am. J. Psychol. 1904, 15, 201–292. [CrossRef]
54. Zhan, X.; Wang, F.; Gevaert, O. Reliably Filter Drug-Induced Liver Injury Literature With Natural Language Processing and
Conformal Prediction. IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform. 2022, 26, 5033–5041. [CrossRef]
55. Rathee, S.; MacMahon, M.; Liu, A.; Katritsis, N.; Youssef, G.; Hwang, W.; Wollman, L.; Han, N. DILIc: An AI-based classifier to
search for Drug-Induced Liver Injury literature. bioRxiv 2022. [CrossRef]
56. Oh, J.H.; Tannenbaum, A.R.; Deasy, J.O. Automatic identification of drug-induced liver injury literature using natural language
processing and machine learning methods. bioRxiv 2022. [CrossRef]
57. Chen, Y.; Zhang, X.; Li, T. Medical Records Classification Model Based on Text-Image Dual-Mode Fusion. In Proceedings of the
2021 4th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Big Data (ICAIBD), Chengdu, China, 28–31 May 2021; pp. 432–436.
[CrossRef]
Information 2022, 13, 499 19 of 19

58. Jamaluddin, M.; Wibawa, A.D. Patient Diagnosis Classification based on Electronic Medical Record using Text Mining and
Support Vector Machine. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and
Communication (iSemantic), Semarangin, Indonesia, 18–19 September 2021; pp. 243–248. [CrossRef]
59. Yang, F.; Wang, X.; Ma, H.; Li, J. Transformers-sklearn: A toolkit for medical language understanding with transformer-based
models. BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 2021, 21, 90. [CrossRef]