CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Modern Technology in communication has turned the entire world into a global village.
But as it is, technology like two sides of a coin, bring with it both the negative and positive sides.
It helps people to be better informed, enlightened, and keeping abreast with world developments.
Technology exposes mankind to a better way of doing things.
With the nature of the cyber world around us today and how students are immersed in it,
there is growing concern on how it affects them. The Internet is more than just a means of
seeking information. People discovered that the Internet could be used to connect with other
people, whether for business or commercial purpose, make new friends, reawaken old friends
and long lost relatives. The emergence of social networking sites (SNSs) simplify the whole
process as they are easier to use and navigate. Their use does not require advanced knowledge
and experience of the internet and are made up of a wide array of different formats and
topics; this means that just about anyone can connect (David, Helou & Rahim, 2012).
Kuppuswamy & Narayan (2010) observed that the internet is more about blogs, podcasts,
Facebook, Myspace, and Orkut. These are some of the tools and technology associated with a
recent phenomenon called social networking and is present everywhere. In Boyd & Ellison
(2007), Social Networking Site (SNS) was defined as a web-based service that allows individuals
to:

A. Construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system.

B. Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection.

C. View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the
system.

The history of SNSs dates back to the late 1990s, suggesting that they are not as new as
they may appear in the first place. With the emergence of SNSs such as Facebook, Twitter,
Linkedin etc, overall SNS usage has accelerated in such a way that they are considered a global
consumer phenomenon. Today, studies suggest that between 55% and 82% of teenagers and
young adults use SNSs on a regular basis (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011).Relative to the general

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population, adolescents and young adults are the heaviest computer and Internet users, primarily
using it for completing school assignments (46%), e-mail and/or instant messaging (36%), and
playing computer games 38%; (DeBell & Chapman, 2006 as cited in Kirschner & Karpinski,
2010). Social networking sites are the latest online communication tool that allows users to
create a public or private profile to interact with people in their networks (Boyd & Ellison,
2007).

Social network sites deeply penetrate their users’ everyday life and, as pervasive
technology, tend to become invisible once they are widely adopted, ubiquitous, and taken for
granted (Luedtke, 2003 as cited in Debatin, Lovejoy, Horn & Hughes, 2009).Social networking
has become part of the daily life experiences for an increasing number of people. The rapid
adoption of social network sites by teenagers in the United States and in many other countries
round the world raises some important questions. Why do teenagers flock to these sites?

What are they expressing on them? How do these sites fit into their lives? What are they
learning from their participation? Are these online activities like face-to-face friendships, or are
they different, or complementary? (Boyd, 2007).Social network sites (SNSs) such as Friendster,
CyWorld, and MySpace allow individuals to present themselves, articulate their social networks,
and establish or maintain connections with others. These sites can be oriented towards work-
related contexts (e.g., LinkedIn.com), romantic relationship initiation (the original goal of
Friendster.com), connecting those with shared interests such as music or politics (e.g.,
MySpace.com), or the college student population (the original incarnation of Facebook.com).
Participants may use the sites to interact with people they already know offline or to meet new
people (Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe, 2007).

Social networking has become part of the daily life experiences for an increasing number
of people (Kuppuswamy & Narayan, 2010). Socializing via the Internet has become an
increasingly important part of young adult life (Gemmill & Peterson, 2006).The popular image
of young people is of them with their faces glued to screens while they are constantly texting,
checking email, or updating their Facebook pages. The stereotype is that we are becoming
increasingly disconnected from the world around us. The truth is that through the use of cell
phones, laptops, iPods, and online “social networks” such as MySpace, young people are not
only staying connected with their peers but are also becoming more adept at keeping up with

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world events and helping to shape them (Kacie, 2009).With so many social networking sites
displayed on the internet, students are tempted to abandon their homework and reading times in
preference for chatting online with friends. Many students are now addicted to the online rave of
the moment, with Facebook, Twitter etc. Today most youths and students possess Facebook
accounts. The reason your ward is performing badly in school might not be far- fetched. While
your mind might be quick to blame the poor quality of teachers, you might have to think even
harder, if you have not heard of the Facebook frenzy (Oche & Aminu, 2010). Olubiyi (2012)
noted that these days’ students are so engrossed in the social media that they are almost 24 hours
online. Even in classrooms and lecture theatres, it has been observed that some students are
always busy pinging, 2going or Facebooking, while lectures are on. Times that ought be
channeled towards learning, academic research and innovating have been crushed by the passion
for meeting new friends online, and most times busy discussing trivial issues. Hence most
students’ academics suffer setback as a result of distraction from the social media. In
(Obi, Bulus, Adamu & Sala’at, 2012), it was observed that the use of these sites also affects
students’ use of English and grammar. The students are used to short forms of writing words in
their chat rooms; they forget and use the same in the classrooms. They use things like 4 in place
of for, U in place of You, D in place of The etc. and this could affect their class assessment.

Research and views in the past have been that social networking was a means of
distraction and time wasting for school going people. Not only this, vices such as cyber bullying
were reported to have been acquired. Contrary to these views, recent research have shown that
69% of social media using teenagers and 85% adults said people are mostly altruist. In America,
the national school board association reports that almost 60% of the students who use social
network talk about educational topics online and more than 50% talk about school work. It was
also reported that social networking focused on supporting relationship (Baran, 2010).
In Nigeria as well the wrong notion about use of social media was the same. Social media
is also gaining interest among all users. It’s been used for news gathering instead of other mass
media that have no feedback. Sofela (2012) reported that the popularity of social media has
grown rapidly. The social networking site such as Facebook, MySpace, WhatsApp, Twitter and
Instagram allows social interaction among students. Reports by Sheyi (2012) and Sofela (2012)
are unidirectional. In the earlier times the students were making use of social media for academic
purposes and school work, connecting old friends and entertainment. Much was reported on the

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negative side of social media by both reporters. These include; gang-raping, unwholesome
connection for sinister, obsessive attitude of students towards social media, time wasting,
pinging, chatting during classes and distraction from academic work. They both shared that
social media has no positive impact on the academic work of the students.

This study considers that interest is an essential variable that affects learning. Student’s
engagement in social networking of their own interest could equally be of assistant to develop
interest in their studies if the social media in use is properly mapped out towards academic work,
following the law of cause and effect.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Technology in this era has made it possible for students to relate warmly even at a far
distance. Social media is among the numerous means in which the people interact and
communicate. Millions of people are on one or more types of social media such as Facebook,
WhatsApp, Twitter and others exchanging views, ideas and other related matters with a good
number of them being young students. By the virtue of the fact that the social media platform
attracts youth interest, there is the possibility of using such medium for acquisition of academic
knowledge and skills either deliberately or not deliberately.
Since the advent of social media sites in the 1990s, it is assumed in some quarters that the
academic performance of students is facing a lot of neglect and challenges. There is a deviation,
distraction and divided attention between social networking activities and their academic work.
It is observed that students devote more attention to social media than they do to their studies.
Therefore, this study set out to examine how Social Media affects the academic
performance of students of the National Open University of Nigeria in Makurdi Study Center.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1) To find out the various social media sites the students of National Open University of
Nigeria, Makurdi Study Center have access to.
2) To examine how often students of National Open University of Nigeria, Makurdi Study
Center go online.
3) To determine how many hours the students spend in social networking activities daily.
4) To ascertain how the use of social media has affected the academic performance of the
students.

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1.4 Research Questions
1. What social media sites do the students of National Open University of Nigeria, Makurdi
Study Center have access to?
2. How often do the students of National Open University of Nigeria, Makurdi Study Center
go online?
3. How many hours do the students spend on social networking activities?
4. How has the use of social media affected the academic performance of the students of
National Open University of Nigeria, Makurdi Study Center?
1.5 Scope of the Study

This research work is restricted to National Open University Nigeria, Makurdi Study
Center. While this study generally seeks to know the relationship between the use of social
media sites and the academic performance of tertiary institutions in National Open University
Nigeria, it is limited geographically to Makurdi, Benue State. Social media sites in this study will
be limited to Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and WhatsApp which happens to be among the most
popular sites usually used by students in Nigerian tertiary institutions. The study also considers
only students of National Open University Nigeria, Makurdi Study Center within the 2021/2022
academic session.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Social media sites, as an important resource of a virtual community are becoming widely
spread than it has ever been before and it tends to be majorly accepted by the youths, with
students of tertiary institutions as key constituents. It is hoped that this study would be useful to
especially students and social networking sites developers.

The result of this study is expected to equip students with the necessary knowledge and
education capable of helping them to guide against harmful contents and practices on the Social
Networking Sites.

It will help the sites developers to further develop monitoring mechanism to guide against
the exchange of abusive contents among youths. Nonetheless, it will further enlighten and/or
expose the inherent dangers on these sites to parents/guardians. This perhaps, can provide a basis
for increased monitoring or enlightenment of their wards.

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 Above all, this study will provide additional knowledge and research materials on social
networking sites and its impact among tertiary students in the study area.

1.7 Definition of Terms

The following are key terms used in the Research Work:

Social Media means a group of internet based application that allows the creation and exchange
of user generated content.
Social Networking Sites means a website where people put information about them and can send
to others.
Social Networking – The use of internet to make information about yourself available to other
people especially people you share an interest with to send messages to them.
Media in this study means those media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience
by mass communication.
Academic – It is concerned with Studying from books as opposed to practical work.
Students – Someone who is Studying at a University or School. Someone who is very interested
in a particular subject
Computer – A computer is a machine that receives or stores or process data quickly according to
a stored program.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is a review of related studies on the topic: Impact of Social Media on
Student’s Academic Performance: A Study of Students of National Open University of Nigeria,
Makurdi Center. The chapter is organized under the following headings; Review of Concepts
(the following concepts were reviewed; Mass Media, Internet, Social Media, Social Networking
Sites), Review of Related Studies, Empirical Studies, Theoretical Framework and Chapter
Summary.

2.1 Review of Concepts

2.1.1 The Concept of Mass Media

Mass Media can also be defined as “messages communicated through a mass medium to
a large number of people” (Bittner, 1980, p.10). Thus, the study of Mass Communication is the
scientific study of the mass media (machines), the messages they carry (information, ideas,
attitudes), and the audiences (people) they transmit these messages to. A medium is called a
mass medium if it meets two basic requirements: It must reach many people simultaneously
(same time), and must use a technological device located between source and receiver
(Whetmore, 1985:p.6-7).

The popular maxim that the mass media is regarded as the fourth estate of the realm is an
ideal expression that re-echoes through ages. Nwosu in his opinion said; they are channels
through which communication is addressed to a large heterogeneous and a cross section of the
population (Nwosu, 1992). Facuconner quoting Fleur conceives mass media as a computer of
stable, repetitive and patterned action that is in part, a manifestation of the psychological
orientation of the actors (Facuconner, 2005). It is a powerful and respected phenomenon that
lubricates the engine of self-rule, human dignity and emancipated polity. Mass media are all
those media technology that are intended to reach a large audience by mass communication.
Broadcast media transmit information electronically and comprises of television, radio, and film.
Alternatively, print media uses a physical object as a means of sending information through

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newspapers, magazine and bill board. Internet media is able to achieve mass media status in its
own right, due to many services such as email, websites and blogging.

Classification of the Media

A simple way to classify the mass media is to group them under print and electronic
media. The print media are such mass media as books, newspaper and magazine, whose basis is
the printed word. Electronic media, on the other hand, comprise of all the mass media which rely
on the electronic power to get their messages to their audience which include radio and
television, recordings, movies, internet and the explosion of digital communication technology in
the 20th and 21st century Bittner (1980 p.10). In 2000, a classification by (McQuail, 1987) called
the (7) seven mass media became popular. They are:

1. Print - pamphlet, newspaper (established in the 15th c)

2. Recording – records, magnetic tapes, CD, DVD, gramophone (19th c)

3. Cinema – it started from about 1900

4. Radio – it started from about 1910

5. Television – it started in 1950

6. Internet – it started in 1990

7. Mobile phone – it started in 2000.

(Retrieved March 19th 2022).www.mit.edu/people/mkgray/net.

Each mass media has its own content type, its own creative artist and technicians.
Example, internet includes website, blogs and podcasts built on top of the general distribution
network. The 6th and 7th are often collectively called “digital media”, the 4th and 5th radio and
television are categorized as broadcast media.

However, modern cell phones are no longer a single used device, but are rather equipped
with internet access and capable of connecting to the web which itself is a mass medium.
According to McQuail, the media has a mediating role between objective social reality and

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personnel experience. Mass media helps in maintaining a form of totalitarianism which does not
rely on terror but works through the creation and manipulation of “false needs” for
entertainment, relaxation, information and new product for consumption. (Sina, 2003, p.62).

Characteristics of Mass Communication

The general characteristics of Mass Communication include the following;

I. There must be the presence of Gatekeepers.

II. There must be the presence of a machine.
III. It has limited sensory organ.
IV. Feedbacks are delayed.
V. It involves the sender and the receiver.

It is the exchange of opinion, ideas, feelings and thoughts to scattered medium of people
using technological devices. Characteristics of mass communication according to Thompson
2003: they include;

1. Both technical and instrumental method of production and distribution; this is evident
throughout the history of the media from print to internet.

2. Co-modification of symbolic forms as the production of materials relies on its ability to

manufacture and sell in large qualities.

3. Separate context between the production and reception of information.

4. It reaches to those far removed in time and space in comparison to producers.

5. Information distribution; “a one too many” form of communication whereby products are
mass produced and disseminated to a great quantities of audiences.

Communication

Communication is the transmission of a message from the source to a receiver. Lasswell

(1948) describe communication as an answer to these questions.

a) Who?

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 b) Says what?

c) Through which channel?

d) To whom?

e) With what effect?

The process of communication includes the following;

1. Sender – the person who sends the information from one person to another.

2. Receiver – it involves the person who decodes the message.

3. Channel – they are mediums through which information is sent to the decoder from the
encoder.

4. Feedback – promotes understanding between parties. It facilitates self-assessment and

helps us in coping with communication breakdown.

5. Noise – it is anything that interrupts and disturbs communication. It includes;

a) Psychological noise: when one is bodily present but absent minded

b) External noise: when something happens outside and draws the attention of those
inside a place.

c) Semantic noise: communicating with someone in a language he does not understands.

Functions of Mass Media

The following are the functions of the mass media. They include;

1. Inform – they inform us of what is happening within and outside our immediate
environment.

2. Educate – they educate us on how to live in our environment and the epidermis that
surrounds us.

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 3. Entertain – they entertain us by bringing to our reach different activities such as music,
games and movies through television, radio and internet.

4. Surveillance – they serve as watch dog of the society.

5. They keep us connected to the outside world. (Retrieved March 19th 2022)www.wiki-
pedia free cyclopedia.com

2.1.2 The Concept of Internet

Historically, there are two conflicting versions about the origin of the internet
opinionated by two schools of thought:

The first school of thought is of the opinion that, the internet is a product of the cold
war. The air force in 1962, wanting to maintain the military’s ability to transfer
information around the country even if a given area was destroyed in an enemy’s
attack, commissioned leading computer scientist to develop the means to do so. But
many researchers and scientist dispute this myth’ that has gone unchallenged long
enough to become widely accepted as a fact that the internet was initially built to
protect national security in the face of nuclear attack (Hafner and Lyon, 1996, p.10).

In the second version, as early as 1956, psychologist Licklider a devotee of Marshall

Mcluhan, thinking on the power of citizens;

However, computer consoles a television set connected in the nationwide network.

The political process would essentially be giant teleconference, he wrote and a
campaign whole month series of communication among candidates, propagandist,
commentators, political group and voters. The key he added, is the self-motivating
exhilaration that accommodate truly effective inter – action with information through
a good network computer. (Baron, 2012, p.34).

Okoye (2000, p.192), by 1999, said the internet was used by an estimated number of
50 million people worldwide. Gutenbery made us all readers, radio and television made us all
firsthand observers, Aerox made us all publishers and the internet made us all journalists,
broadcasters, columnists, commentators and critics. In 1997, Finnegan jr and Viswanath
identified three main effects or functions of mass media in the internet.

1) Knowledge gap theory The media influences knowledge gap due to factors including the
extent to which the content is appealing, the degree to which information channels are

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 accessible and desirable, the amount of social conflict and diversity there is in
communication.

2) Agenda setting theory People are influenced based on how they think about issues due to
the selective nature of what the media places on the internet for public consumption.

3) Cultivation theory The extent to which media exposure shapes audience perception over
time is known as cultivation. (Little John) www.whitepages.com

Features of the Internet

The internet is a global network of computer networks. In more technical terms, this
means that a group of two or more networks are electronically connected and able to
communicate with one another. Together, they act as a single network. For this to work,
however, the computers have to speak a common language. The common language, called a
protocol by computer programmers, that was developed for the internet is called the TCP/IP
protocol. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is actually a
set of protocols that govern how data travels from one machine to another over networks. IP
is sort of like the address on an envelope. It tells a computer where to send a particular
message. TCP breaks up the information into packets that can be transmitted efficiently and
reassembles them at their destination.

Access to the internet is gotten from one of these two ways;

 Through an Internet Service Provider (ISP), a company that connects a subscriber to

the net and usually charges a fee.
 Through a commercial online service, such as American Online or MSN.

Once connected to the net, an individual can make use of a variety of services and tools for
communication and information exchange. (Retrieved March 19th, 2022)www.whitepages.com

Social Effect of the Internet

Obviously, research concerning the effect of spending time on the internet is still on a
formative stage. The internet seems to have had the most impact on television usage. This is not
surprising since much internet use take place during the evening, the same time that most

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television viewing takes place generally. Magazine and Newspaper reading, radio listening and
movie going seem not to have been significantly affected.

The internet is becoming more important as a source of news. At the same time, there has
been a decline in the number of people who rely on broadcast television and newspaper as their
main source of news. Research has been conducted to prove that the internet and the social
networking involvement have been contradictory. A 1998 survey of online users revealed that as
people used the internet more, they spent less time talking to family members, experienced more
loneliness and depression, and reported fewer friendship. Heavy net users seemed to be more
socially isolated than those who are light users. (Retrieved March 19 th, 2022).
www.stanford.edu/group/siqss

Another survey released in 2000 by the Pew Internet and American Life Project found the
opposite. This study reported that the use of internet is an important factor in sustaining and
strengthening social and family ties. It was proved that some net users make use of email as well
to connect to family members and friends they have not seen for a while. (Retrieved March 19 th,
2022).www.pewinternet.org

Research has demonstrated that some individuals spend a great deal of time on the
internet. This has led to some suggestions by some social scientist that people can be addicted to
the internet in the same way they might be addicted to drugs, gambling, or alcohol. Psychologists
have identified three characteristic of an addiction: increased tolerance, loss of control, and
withdrawal. People who find themselves spending more time online, who can’t control their
internet use, and who neglect their family, friends, and other social obligations to spend time
online will fit these criteria.

2.1.3 The Concept of Social Media

Social media is that means that employs mobile and web based technology to create
highly interactive platforms via which individuals and community share, co-create, discuss and
modify user generated content (Kietzmannn, 2012). Social media is a phrase being tossed around
a lot. It is a website that does not just give you information but interacts with you while giving
you information. It is a group of internet based applications that allows the creation and
exchange of user generated content. It is easy to confuse social media with social news because

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we often refer to members of the news as the media. Adding to it, that social news site is also a
social media site. Some media websites include;

1) Social book Marking – interact by tagging websites and searching through websites book
marked by others (Blink list, simple).

2) Social News – interact by voting for articles and commenting on them (Digg, propello).

3) Social Networking – interact by adding friends, commenting on photo and profiles, sharing
groups for discussions (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram,)

4) Social Photo and Video Sharing – interact by sharing photos or videos and commenting on
the user submission. (Youtube and fliki).

5) Wikis – interact by adding articles and editing existing articles. (Wikipedia, wikia). (Retrieved
March 19th, 2022) (www.wikepediafreeencyclopedia.com).

Social media refers to the means of interaction among people in which they create, share,
exchange and comment among themselves in different networks. Andreas and Michael (2000)
are of the opinion that social media is a group of internet based applications that builds on the
ideological foundation and allows the creation and exchange of users – generated content. Social
media has become one of the major channels of chatting, through platforms such as Facebook,
WhatsApp, blogger and wiki. There has been an increase in the mobile social media which has
created new opportunity for browsing. (Retrieved March 19th, 2022). (www.census.gov).

The internet usage effect of social media, in views of Nielson, (2012) is that, internet
users continue to spend more time on the social media than any site. The total time spent on
social media across mobile devices increased by 37%, 121 billion minutes in July 2012
compared to 88 billion minutes in July 2011. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) classified social media
into six different classes as follows;

1) Collaborative Project (Wikipedia)

2) Blogs and Micro blogs (Twitter)

3) Content Communities (Youtube)

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4) Social Networking Site (Face book. WhatsApp, Instagram)

5) Virtual Game World (World of war craft)

6) Virtual Second World (Second life)

Technology includes the blogs, picture sharing, music sharing, crowd sourcing, e-mail, instant
messaging and voice over. These services could be integrated via social network aggregation
platforms.

Mobile Social Media

When social media is used in combination with mobile devices, it is called mobile social
media. Social media is a group of mobile marketing applications that allow the creation and
exchange of user generated content. Due to the fact that mobile social media runs on mobile
devices, it differs from traditional social media as it incorporates new factors such as the current
location of the user, time delay between sending and receiving. According to Kaplan 2002, social
media can be divided into four types

 Space – timers [location and time sensitive] – exchange of message with relevance
for specific location and time (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram)
 Quick – time [time sensitive] – transfer of traditional social media application to
mobile services to increase immediacy (posting twitter messages, status update
[WhatsApp], and updating display picture(dp) [Facebook].
 Space – locators [location sensitive] – exchange message with relevance for one
specific location which are tagged to certain place (yelp, oype).
 Slow – timers [neither location nor time sensitive] – transfer traditional social
media applications to mobile devices (reading a wiki-pedia entry).

2.1.4 The Concept of Social Networking Site or Services

It is used to describe any website that enables users to create public profiles within that
website and form relationship with other users of the same website who access their profile. It is
used to describe community base website, online discussion forum, chat rooms and other social
space online (Retrieved March 19th, 2022). (www.wepodia.com). A social media is an online

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service or platforms that focuses on facilitating the building of social network among people who
share interest, activities and background on real life connections. It is a website that allows users
to share information within a selected group. It is a great way to stay connected and a convenient
way to share photos from trips. (Awake, 2012, p.4). It consists of a representation of each user
(profiles), social links and a variety of additional services. For detailed analysis of social
networking, the following terms will be discussed;

 Impact of Social Networking Site

 Features
 Social Networking and Education
 Constraints in Education

Social Impact

Through email and instant messaging, online communities are created where a gift
economy and reciprocal altruism are encouraged through co-operation. Facebook and other
social networking tools are increasingly the objective of scholarly research. Scholars in many
fields have begun to investigate the impact of social networking site, investigating how such site
may play into issues of identity, privacy, social, youth culture and education.

Several website are beginning to tap into the power of the social networking model for
philanthropy. In 2011 HCL technologies conducted research that showed that 50% of British
workers are banned from the use of social media during office hours.

In this view, when one is chit-chatting, the content of the message reveals a lot about an
individual. In chatting, comments, photos, and status should speak less of an individual. Kim in
summary says;” if you are mindful of what you are doing, you can maintain a measure of privacy
on a social network”. (Awake, 2012, p.12). And in reference to this, proverbs 10:19, states that

‘In the abundance of words, there does not fail to be transgression, but the one keeping
his speaking in check is acting discreetly.’

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It’s a vortex that sucks one in and one has no idea you’ve been trapped. Tim is a commodity that
cannot afford to be wasted which Philippians says; make sure of the more important things……
Dan Tap Scott in his book Grown up Digital says;

‘One of the ironies of the internet is that it keeps you apart from the most important
things’. It is a great way to stay connected with people but you just have to know when to
shut it down. Raquel concluded that it seems that when people go on a social network
they lose their mind (Awake, 2012, p.7).

Features

According to the Boyd and Ellison 2007 article entitled “Why Youth Heart, social
networking site? The role of networked publics in teenage life”. It shares a variety of technical
features that allows individuals to construct a public or semi-public office, articulate list of their
users that they share a connection with and view their list of connection`s within the system. In
an article titled ‘social networking sites’ definition and scholarship, Boyd and Ellison adopt Sun
dens (2003) description of profiles as unique pages where one can type one’s self into being. A
profile is generated from answer to question, such as age, location and interest.

Some sites allow users upload pictures’, add multimedia content or modify the look of
their profile. For instance, WhatsApp allows the user to update their status and change profile
pictures and Facebook that allows them change display picture, name and status. They allow
them search for users and share a list of contact and there are sections dedicated to comments
from friends and other users. To protect their privacy, they have a control that allows users to
choose who can view their profile, contact and add them to their list of contacts. (Retrieved
March 19th, 2022). www.freeencyclopedia.com

Social Network and Education

The advent of social network platforms may also be impacting the way in which learners
engage with technology in general. For a number of years, Prensky (2001) dichotomy between
digital natives and digital immigrants has been considered a relatively accurate representative of
the ease with which people of a certain age rate, in particular, those born before and after 1980,
use technology.

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Constraints of Social Networking in Education

In the past, social networking were viewed as a distraction and offered no educational
benefit. Blocking this social network was a form of protection for students against wasting time,
bullying and privacy protection. In an educational setting, Facebook Messenger and WhatsApp is
seen by instructors and educators as frivolous time wasting and distraction from school work.

Cyber bullying has been an issue of concern with social networking site. An online
survey based on 9-19 year olds and above discovered that students received bulling comments
online. Social networking often includes a lot of personal information posted publicly and many
believe that sharing personal information opens the door to sexual predators.

However, there is evidence of contradiction to this; 69% of social media using teens and
85% adults said people are mostly kind to one another. The national school board association
reports that almost 60% of the students who use social network talk about educational topics
online and more than 50% talk about school work. Yet the vast majority of school district has
stringent rules against nearly all forms of social media during school hours. Social networking
focused on supporting relationship between teachers and students which are now used for
learning. Some sites were created to support this; Ning-for teachers and Term wiki-learning
Centre.

Social media are also emerging as online year book for private and public use. It allows
anyone from the general public to register and connect to others. It allows participants the
opportunity for just in time learning and engagement and prescribed curriculum. Jerkins (2006)
described it as participatory culture. It creates space for learners which James (2004) suggest
affinity space and dispersion of expertise and relatedness for learning.

In 1994, it was reported that the number of users with access to the internet was growing
at the rate of 101% per month. Forecast was that by the turn of the century, there may be one
million networks, hundred million computers and one billion users of the internet. (Smith and
Gibbs 1994). Gibbs and Smith in 1998 reported that the number of internet users in the United
States was growing at an average annual rate of 70% and would surpass users in the United
States by 2002.

18
 As of July 1999, 205 countries had at least one connection to internet. Estimate of the
number of people on the internet seem to range between 50 and 80 million worldwide. It was
originally designed by the United States military in 1969 under the name; Advanced research
project agency (ARPA). The first ARPA configuration involved four computers dispersed over a
wide area. (Oludayo and Levi, 2008 p. 101-102).

2.2 Review of Related Studies

Social networks play a crucial role in learning environments as a key communicational

channel and a source of social support (Cadima, Ojeda & Monguet, 2012). Many social
networking websites, such as Edmodo, are specifically designed for learning (Manca & Ranieri,
2017). Social networks have many advantages in learning as they provide wide access to
information and information resources, reduce barriers to group interaction and
telecommunications (Madaiah, Seshaiyengar, Suresh, Munipapanna & Sonnappa, 2017), support
collaborative learning activities (Al-Dhanhani, Mizouni, Otrok & Al-Rubaie, 2015), encourage
learners to learn more about self-learning (Keleş & Demirel, 2011), increase engagement and
learner’s motivation (Hamid, Waycott, Chang & Kurnia, 2011), enhance engagement of learners
with each other and their teachers (Hamid, Waycott, Kurnia & Chang, 2015) and support active
and social learning (Keleş & Demirel, 2011). In general, the emergence of new technologies
such as internet and social networks, in addition to providing opportunities in facilitating and
improving the quality of global communications, has created some threats (Avcı, Çelikden, Eren
& Aydenizöz, 2015). When the use of social networks is managed poorly, they can have negative
consequences at the individual and social levels. Social networking addiction, cyber bullying and
distractions from academic work are some of the consequences that many social network users
may experience (Schou & Pallesen, 2014).

Social networking has a negative impact on physical and psychological health and causes
behavioral disorders, depression, anxiety and mania. In this regard, results of a study on German
students (2017) showed a positive relationship between addiction to facebook, with narcissism
character, depression, anxiety and stress (Brailovskaia & Margraf, 2017). It is believed that
addiction to social networking is higher in people with anxiety, stress, depression and low self-
esteem. Grifith (2005) suggests that addictive behavior is a behavior that has certain
characteristics such as salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, conflict,

19
and relapse (Griffiths, 2015). Addictive behavior refers to repeated habits that increase the risk of
a disease or social problems in a person. Over the past decade, addictive behaviors, such as
overuse of internet or social networks, have become a part of everyday life of students. Social
networking addiction includes the characteristics such as ignoring the real problems of life,
neglecting oneself, mood swing, concealing addictive behaviors, and having mental concerns
(Guedes et al., 2016).

Students are one of the most important users of the virtual world and social networks.
The overuse of social networks has positive and negative academic, social, and health
consequences for the students (Jha, Shah, Basnet, Paudel, Sah, Sah, et al., 2016). Reduced
academic performance is one of the most important consequences of social networking overuse
for students. The results of a study on medical students showed that students who used social
networks and internet more than average had a poor academic achievement and low level of
concentration in the classroom (Upadhayay & Guragain, 2017). The results of another study on
Qatari students showed that Grade Point Average (GPA) was lower among students who were
addicted to social networking compared to other students (Al-Yafi, El-Masri & Tsai, 2018). The
results of a study in India showed that internet and social networking addiction had a negative
effect on academic performance and mental health of students (Kumar, Kumar, Badiyani, Singh,
Gupta & Ismail, 2018). The results of a Korean study revealed a negative correlation between the
use of internet for non-academic purposes and academic performance of students (Kim, Kim,
Park, Kim & Choi, 2017). Findings of a study in Iran (2018) also showed a significant
correlation between addiction to the internet and educational burnout (Masters, 2015). Recent
trends indicate that 47% of American adults use social network. A national survey in 2009 found
that 37% of online teenagers use social networking site which increased to 555% three years
later. (Lenhart, Purcell, Smith and Zickuhr, 2010). It has also, shown that it provides opportunity
within professional education but however, there are constraints in such areas.

To shed light on the positive and negative sides of using social media in general, as well
as discover its effects on students’ academic performance, existing studies were reviewed.
Studies found out that academic outcome of students who spent most of their time interacting
using social media are positive because they were able to share and generate ideas and concepts

20
related to their studies. They also use these sites for having fun as these social media sites are
helpful in their academic work (Amin & Mansoor, 2016).

A similar study revealed that online social media had improved the communication
between the faculty member and students which facilitate the communication of the correct
information and improve understanding and the development of the ideas and the courses. Based
on the information collected, it is noticeable to say that the use of the social media during the
lecture time is not recommended (Abousaber & Oueder, 2018).

Mensah & Nizam (2016) concluded in their study that social media platforms has a
significant impact on students’ academic performance in Malaysia tertiary institutions.
Nevertheless, among the six variables used in their study, time appropriateness and health
addiction has a stronger significant influence on students’ academic performance. This is
because time management plays an essential role in determining the success and failure of an
individual. Thus students who lack time management can easily fall prey to the negative impact
of social media. Likewise, health and addiction, students who are engrossed with social media
platforms ends up skipping meals which has health impact.

According to the study of Owusu-Acheaw & Larson (2015), it was revealed that the use
of social media had affected the academic performance of their respondents negatively and
further International Journal of Advanced Information Technology (IJAIT) Vol. 8, No.4/5,
October 2018 29 confirmed that there was a strong positive relationship between the use of
social media and academic performance. Their study further revealed that most of their
respondents use social media sites to chat rather than for academic purpose.

Based on the study of Alwagait, Shazad and Alim (2015), it was found that social media
usage on weekly basis displayed a positive skew where most students do not use social media
excessively. Respondents in their study felt that time management and football were factors that
contributed towards negative academic performance besides excessive social media use.

A study in Kogi State University found out that the exposure of the students to social
media has a negative influence on the academic performance of students. Students who spend
more time on social media are likely to perform poorly in their academics this is because instead

21
of reading books, they spend time chatting and making friends via social media and this will
definitely have a negative effect on their academic performance (Asemah & Okpanachi, 2013).

Another study shows that students are not only affected by social media, employees and
employers too. A U.K. firm released a study showing that people who use Facebook , Twitter
and other social networks while at work extracts a heavy cost on their employers (Reuters,
2009).

According to Kolan and Dzadza (2018), the nature of social media as a useful servant but
a dangerous master and a two-edge sword has been revealed in the findings of the study. Despite
the benefits that students can harness from social media networks such as sharing of information,
building relationship, partaking in group discussions, there is to some extent addiction and
distraction of attention caused by the use of social media which could have serious consequences
on the academic life of students. One of the negative effects of social media is piracy. The
primary motivator for Australians of all ages illegally downloading movies and TV shows is that
it is free.

According to Landry (2014), social media is a tool that could be used for good or bad, it
all depends on the person. Social media has its layers of good and bad. Yes, it is easier to
remember the bad rather than the good but, social media sites have created opportunities for
people all over the world.

Ghanaian education has felt its own taste of social media since its introduction. Social
media in Ghana started as a slow process like other African countries but has grown steadily over
the past years. According to the Ghana National Communication Authority (2016), report; the
total mobile subscription increased by 1.3% from 36,138,706 in the first quarter of 2016 to
36,613,987 at the end of the second quarter. Also the number of mobile data subscribers in the
country has increased dramatically. Mobile data subscription for the second quarter of 2016 was
18.8 million with a penetration rate of 67.6%. This indirectly means there will be more access to
the internet which of course includes social networking sites. The study conducted by Owusu
and Agatha (2015), titled “use of social media and its impacts on academic performance of
tertiary students” revealed that majority of students in Ghana were engrossed in social
networking sites. It also brought to light that most users utilized these sites for chatting and

22
downloading purposes only which affected their academic performance negatively. This finding
corroborates the revelation of Mingle and Musah (2015), that most respondents in their study
experienced negative effects such as poor grammar spelling, late submission of assignments, less
study time and poor academic performance. Though part of these studies affirmed some benefits
of social media usage in the academic life of students, it is necessary as educators to be
concerned about its negative effects which seem to be outweighing the advantages as far as
education is concerned in Ghana.

2.3 Empirical Studies

This section reviews current research findings in the field within and outside Nigeria. For
a research of this nature, it is important to review previous empirical research conducted by other
scholars relating to the study with the aim of finding out their relatedness to the study under
review.
In a study titled Social Networking Sites As Tools For Sexual Perversion Among Students
Of University Of Nigeria, Nsukka, Asogwa and Ojih (2013) sought to know the relationship
between the use of SNSs and sexual perversion among students of university of Nigeria, Nsukka.
They aimed specifically at ascertaining why UNN students visit and use social networking sites;
the contribution of social networking sites to sexual perversion among students of UNN; the
aspect of sexuality always portrayed on social networking sites; and the perception of UNN
students of contents on social networking sites. The study which was anchored on the
technological determinism and uses and gratifications theories employed the survey research
design method using questionnaire and personal interview as instruments for data collection. The
researcher collected data for the study from a sample size of 400 which was statistically
determined from a population of 24,904 undergraduate students of the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. The study employed random and quota sampling techniques to select the individual
respondents from whom the data were gotten. The study revealed among others, that social
networking tools actually contribute to UNN students sexual perversion and that there is an
increasing adoption of the use of these tools, especially black berry messenger, 2go and facebook
in that order. The study also discovered that majority of the students do not consider contents on
these sites as being offensive. The study concludes that although, social networks may encourage
positive relationships and the sharing of content, the technology revolution has opened up a

23
seemingly limitless world of unmediated information that can be a powerful tool for the
commission of crime. Therefore, the study recommended among other things that the use of
SNSs should be regulated and regulators should device ways of detecting, exposing and
punishing anybody found exchanging sexually explicit or implicit content or engaging in online
sex.
In another study titled ‘Online Social Networking Patterns among Adolescents, Young
Adults, and Sexual Offenders’, Dowdell, Burgess & Flores (2011) examined the trend in the use
of Social Networking Sites among normal population and internet offenders. Specifically, their
study sought to find answers to questions pertaining to Internet patterns and behaviors in
"normal" populations as well as among Internet offenders who had been convicted of crimes
related to their online behaviours. Their goal was to report basic social networking patterns
among students and adult offenders as background information for health care professionals,
especially school nurses, paediatric nurses, psychiatric nurses, forensic nurses, and massny
others who come in contact with young people. The study surveyed middle school, high school,
and college-age students, as well as sexual offenders, regarding their use of social networking
sites in order to provide information to better focus education and prevention efforts from nurses
and other health care providers. Hence, written questionnaires asking about various
characteristics of participants' use of social networking sites were distributed to each group and
filled out by 404 middle school students, 2,077 high school students, 1,284 students drawn from
five traditional four-year colleges, and 466 adults who had committed either an Internet sexual
offences or a hands-on sexual offences (in some cases both) in the North Eastern states of
America. Findings show that sexual offenders and students frequent similar social network sites,

with offenders preferring Myspace and students preferring Facebook; nearly two-thirds of
Internet offenders say that they initiate the topic of sex in their first chat session; more than half
of the Internet offenders say that they disguise their identity when online; the majority of Internet
offenders prefer communicating with teenage girls rather than boys; high school students'
experience with sexting differs significantly by sex and according to type and location of school;
a small percentage of students have been threatened or assaulted by people they met online; and
avatars are used by both students and Internet offenders; however, during the time of data
collection, students were using them more often than were offenders. Dowdell, et al (2011)
conclude that the Internet is a proverbial open window, allowing adults relatively easy access to

24
children and adolescents; and recommended that primary prevention efforts were critical for
educating students and their parents regarding online dangers from both pornography and
predation. According to the researchers, school curriculums should include such information, and
nurses are in a position to adapt the content to successful evidence-based models similar to those
applied to other risky health behaviours such as adolescent tobacco and alcohol use.

Idakwo, (2011) carried out a similar study on ‘The Use of Social Media among Nigerian
Youths’ to provide evidence-based insights into the social media phenomenon which can be used
to inform current understanding of usage and behaviour in Nigeria, and to help identify some of
the current and potential future issues around people’s use of social media. Specifically, Idakwo
(2011) seeks to understand the use of social media by young people in Nigeria; their attitudes
towards social networking sites and the wider issues that may arise from this; and to explore any
effect of this form of media on the social skills of the Nigerian youth. This thesis combined the
case study and survey approach. A purposive sampling method was used to collect the primary
data. Idakwo’s study was designed to use observation and questionnaire which are under
demographic differences such as age, gender, occupation. All these were given strong
considerations. Findings of the study reveal that: youths in Nigeria use social media to maintain
existing relationships and make new friends; most youths in Nigeria spend an average of
between 0 and 2 hours per day on Facebook and joined Facebook to connect with old friends,
existing friends or because they were invited by friends; have little or no privacy concerns
associated with Facebook; Facebook is seen by Nigerian youths as a beneficial tool for
socialization and spend more time chatting and posting messages than they do other activities.;
Social media tends to take time and keeps young people from doing other activities such as
studying or socializing offline; and that young people have also come to depend on electronic
media more than before to meet their communication needs. Idakwo (2011) concludes that there
is an existing positive relationship between the social networking services and the youths who
use it. The habitats and attitudes formed according to their aspirations were evidences that they
have gratifications from using the social networking sites. The researcher further recommends
that there is a need for Facebook users to ensure they understand why they are joining the social
media site in the first place so that they would not be overcome by any negative impact but
rather, they can use these sites for maximum benefit; young Nigerian users need to also make
efficient use of such social media sites for other benefits such as education or business and also

25
to create applications so that they can participate as full producers rather than consumers who
only create content from a limited point of view and young Nigerians on Facebook should also
use these media to promote their talents, interests and causes since they are available at little or
no cost, among others.

Neelamalar and Chitra (2009) in another study titled New Media and Society: A study on
the impact of Social Networking Sites on Indian Youths, identified and assessed issues regarding
youth social networking usage and the resultant impact on their social interactions and social
behavior on the whole. Survey was conducted among randomly selected social networking sites
users in India with a sample size of 100 within the age group of 17 to 22 years who were school
students and college students. The age group youth (17-22yrs) was chosen since they are the
heavy users of social networking sites and also early adopters of advanced technological
applications. The study made use of Qualitative research through quantitative analysis to gather
an in-depth understanding of the behavioral changes caused by the social networking sites like
Orkut on youth and the reasons that govern such behavior. The surveys were done using web
where the questionnaire were circulated through e-mail and also some of the data were collected
through interview on telephone, where the respondents were called over telephone to get a
deeper insight and more information regarding the research. Also, data were collected through
direct conversation in which the questionnaire were distributed directly to the respondents and
had face-to-face conversations questioning them to know the impact, behavioral changes caused
on them by the networking sites. Findings reveal that majority of the Indian youths are members
in one or more social networking sites but also are low users of such sites and used Internet more
for mailing and surfing the net (downloads). Adoption of the Internet especially for its social
uses has seen its highest levels of usage among younger users. The majority of current college
students have had access to the Internet and computers for a large part of their lives. These
digital natives see these technologies as a logical extension of traditional communication
methods, and perceive social networking sites as often a much quicker and more convenient way
to interact. That they are aware of the danger and risk involved in these sites is a positive
indicator that Indian youths are not only techno-savvy and socially active through social
networking sites but they also possess social consciousness.

26
 Similarly, Raj Jain, Gupta and Anand (2012) in a study- Impact of Social Networking
Sites in the changing mindset of youth on Social Issues: A study of Delhi-NCR Youth; the authors
particularly sought to study the awareness level of usage of different social networking sites, find
out the level of trust over the information received from social networking sites, map the level of
success of movement and study the type of social issues discussed over social networking sites.
A total sample size of 100 respondents was used. The study which was exploratory made use of
tables, graphs, pie charts, ANOVA, cross tables using IBM SPSS 19.0 with only Structured
Questions mostly in Likert scale were used. The study found that social networking sites are
acting as great medium for view mobilization. People are feeling free in sharing their thoughts on
any issue and even youth is raising their voice against social acts like violation of Human Rights,
corruption etc. These social networking sites are proving themselves a boon at least in bringing
thoughts of people on these social issues. It is also being generated from the information so
obtained that people are getting more aware about the social issues mainly from Facebook. But
instead of getting this knowledge the people generally don’t discuss them and if they do, they
just sign off the sites after discussion and the issue just remains focused on web only. It was
found that women are spending less time on these sites mainly for 10-30 minutes yet they are
more sensitive towards these social issues. Most of the people think that youth can play a
positive role in changing our society which is present in most of the responses to different
queries.

Baghel, Kumar and Singh (2012) did a related study titled: Social Networking Sites: An
Empirical study in the perspective of Omani students to understand how Omani students use of
social networking sites and identify the motivating factors which influences the users for social
networking sites. Using the survey and two focus groups to learn about college students’
communication habits, including social networking sites and their replications, sample Data was
collected from both government and private colleges in the sultanate of Oman. The total number
of respondents was 125 students. The respondents age group were different and were selected
through Random sampling method. The main instrument of data collection in this study was the
questionnaire. The survey instrument included both open ended and closed ended questions,
intended to find out the amount of time and effort put into social networking as well as to
analyze user’s behaviors and attitudes. Findings from the study show that social networking
websites play a very significant role in the social, psychological and educational development of

27
youngsters. More than 2 million people live in Oman, but only a few percentage of people use
internet and SNSs. The Internet, new media tools and social networking sites like Google,
Facebook, Tweeter, Online media, Mobile Phones, I-pads etc are very useful for both genders of
students. They use these sites and tools for the personal, professional, social, psychological and
academic development and shaping opinion in this present world of modernization. Social
networking sites are very important for the social development of students as they can share and
develop their opinion on the information provided by social capitals, certainly it is used to frame
people’s comment. The study further reveals that for many users, online social networking had
become a hobby, and for a few, it has become a bit of a confidence building instruments. Several
users simply said that no life without SNS’s. On average, users checked their sites at least a few
times a week, and often once, or more than once, a day. Users said that keeping contact with
distant friends and reaching many social contacts at the same time were the key aspects of social
networking websites appeals. Some of the student users confirm spending hours looking on
profiles, posting comments, managing their own profile and learning by interaction with valuable
information defiantly increasing their confidence. Internet social networking, if used
intelligently, has incredible potential to provide information, knowledge and contribute to the
development of Omani students in different way. The study concludes that use of SNS’s
strongly act as Resort for Socialization as the SNSs is a very famous and user friendly tool for
efficient and convenient communication, Socialization, Information, Infotainment, Entertainment
belongingness and most importantly, users can make new friends and keep in touch with the
existing ones.

To examine the usage and implications of social networking sites among college
students, Tham and Ahmed (2011) did a study titled The Usage and Implications of Social
Networking Sites: A Survey of college students. The study was carried out to ascertain the
students’ use of SNSs, perceptions of SNS communications, and awareness of the impacts of
SNS on their academic performance and personal development. Using survey research method,
Tham et al collected the data for the study from a non-random sample of 445 college students at
St. Cloud State University in Minnesota during the spring semester of 2011. Results revealed that
female college students spent more time on SNSs than male students. In general, for both male
and female, the time spent on SNS decreased as the age of the respondent increased. As for
respondents’ perception of the influence of SNS usage on their academic performance,

28
significant differences were found in terms of age. A greater number of younger students
reported negative perception of the effect of SNSs on their academic performance. Significant
correlations were found between age and gender, and the influence of SNS on users’ personal
development. Results also revealed that there were significant relationships between users’ class
rank and field of study, and the influence of SNS. Positive correlations were found in SNS usage
rate and students’ networking with friends, family members, and professionals, while negative
correlations were observed between SNS usage rate and students’ search for volunteer
opportunities, and awareness of others' improved search for a date. Positive correlations were
also found between age and students’ networking with friends, family, and professionals as well
as between age and awareness of others' experience of cyberbullying. On the other hand, a
negative correlation was found between age and users’ awareness of others’ improved search for
a date via SNS. Data also revealed that students’ perceptions of the influence of SNS were
consistent with the actual effects as revealed by the findings.
According to the study by Sofela, T. (2012): The Effect of Social Media on Students. (A
paper presented in Craft Magazine October 23 2012), the popularity of social media has grown
expediently. The social networking site such as Facebook, MySpace, 2go and BB chat allows
social interaction among students. The study examined the positive effect of such site on youths.
It said, gone are those days when events happen and it stays a while before people begin to hear
about it. But now, through social media, events and news are now known within splits second
after they are shared. It offers youths a channel for entertainment, communication, and meeting
friends and those you’ve not seen for a long time. The study also analyzed the negative
consequences of such site. Despite the positive gain, it comes with the negative impact of it. It
was before now used by students for research but most students abandoned their home work to
chat with friends. However, the study reviewed and the present study emphasized on the impact
of social media on students, stressing on the positive impact in the student’s academic
performance as well as the negative influence. The study emphasized the need for students to
create a balance between social media and their academics to prevent setbacks. But the reviewed
study failed to throw more light on the negative influence of social media on the academic
performance of students. The present study therefore analyzed both sides of the coin giving the
students the opportunity to choose what impact they want the social media to play in their
academics.

29
 Seyi, O. (2012), Social Media and Nigeria Youth Burden.(A paper presented in Blue
Print Newspaper December 17 2012) in this study stressed on the negative effect of giving too
much time and undue attention to online socialization to the detriment of academics. According
to the researcher, the 21st century brought with it the advent of the new media with its fast
tracking means of sending and receiving information via internet in our contemporary society,
the new media has gained popularity as its been used for entertainment, networking and
academics. The study noted that, the social media was given a boost as a result of ideas from
youths. The study criticized seriously the obsessive attitude of Nigeria youths towards social
media. It pointed out that the rate at which youths devote their quality time in chit chatting, calls
for urgent attention. Some guys now find social media soothing to propagate harmful schemes.
The study however, traced the incessant incidents of murders and gang-rapping of girls by guys
whom they interacted with through social media. It gave an instance with the case of a girl;
Cynthia was gang-raped when she went visiting a friend she met through social networking site
(2go), and whose nude pictures were displayed on the net by the perpetrators. Another case in
question is that of a girl who paid a visit to her face book friend in Lagos and base on their
arrangement; she logged and waited for his arrival. On his arrival, he asked her for sex and she
refused and out of annoyance, he plugged off one of her eyes and sliced her nipple and he
escaped. Every effort made to get him proved abortive because he had a fake identity. The study
also observed that some students are always busy pinging and 2going while lectures are on. Time
ought to be channeled towards learning, academic research and innovations have been wasted by
the passion of meeting friends and discussing trivial issues, hence, most students’ academic
suffer setbacks as a result of distraction. The reviewed study and present study were both
centered on the use of social media by students. They both emphasized on the statement of the
problem suggesting the need for more time to be channeled to academics to prevent setback that
might be caused by the use of social media. The reviewed study was not based on any theory. It
also failed to provide possible solutions for the way forward in solving issues relating to
student’s academic performance and social media. The present study was based on diffusion of
innovation theory and uses and gratification theory, thereby giving it a firm foundation.

Generally, from the various studies reviewed, it was discovered that much still need s to
be done in the area of Social Networking Sites and their attendant influence on students/youth
academic performance especially in Nigerian tertiary institutions. All the efforts of the researchers

30
of the studies are though commendable but a cursory look at the studies reveals that issues
relating to the resultant effect of SNS’s on students in tertiary institutions were de-emphasized.
This research gap is the bottom line of a study of this nature to improve on the above
shortcomings.

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2.4 Theoretical Framework

Two key theories formed the foundation for this study. They were:

1. Diffusion of innovation theory

2. Uses and gratification theory
3. Media-morphosis theory

2.4.1 Diffusion of Innovation

Theory Diffusion of innovation theory (DIO) developed by E. M Rogers in 1962, is one

of the oldest social science theories. It originated in communication to explain how over time an
idea, or product gains momentum, and diffuses (spread) through a specific population or social
system. Doing something differently than what they had previously. The key adoption is that the
person must perceive the idea, behavior or product as new or innovative. It is through this that
diffusion is possible.

Diffusion is the process of spreading a given idea or practice over time, via specifiable
channels, through a social structure such as Neighborhoods. (Katz et al, 2009). Their work on the
diffusion of innovations records that for a new idea or innovation to diffuse, there must be;

a. Awareness stage

b. Interest stage

c. Evaluation stage

d. Trial and adoption stage.

Different types of innovations require different kinds of adoption units; Bittner (1989) recognizes
that the media can lead someone into getting aware of the existence of an item. From there he
gets interested in, makes attempt to evaluate it, and gives it a trial touch before making up his
mind to acquire it.

The diffusion of innovation theory by Rogers (1983) was set to examine how new ideas
are spread among people through media. It is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what
rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Adoption of a new idea, behavior, or

32
product does not happen simultaneously in a social system; rather it is a process whereby where
by some people are more apt to adopt the innovation than others. Everett Rogers, a professor of
rural sociology popularized the theory in his 1962 book; Diffusion of innovation. The categories
of adopters are; innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (Rogers,
1962, p. 150).

The change agent center’s around the conditions which increases or decreases the
likelihood that a new idea would be adopted or not. That is to say, they help the audience in
deciding on the best idea to adopt by influencing their option about a particular situation. Good
hart et al 1975 and Bar wise et al 1982 thinks that a great deal of media use is actually habitual
and unselective. It relates the usefulness of the media and to what extent it can affect man.

2.4.2 Uses and Gratification Theory

Uses and gratification theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how
people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. It was originated in the 1970 by
Blumler and Katz as a reaction to traditional mass communication research emphasizing the
sender and the message. It focuses on the question, ‘what media do to people’ but rather ‘what
people do with the media’. It discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy
given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interaction, diversion or
escape.

Uses and Gratification theory also called functional theory is concerned with the social
and psychological origin of needs, which generate expectation of the mass media which leads to
different patterns of media exposure, resulting in need gratification and other consequences,
mostly unintended ones. (Kats, 1974, p.20). It is purely audience centered and addresses needs
like surveillance, excitement, guidance, relaxation, tension release, socialization, escape and
integration. To be able to gratify these needs, it must be able to realize that the mass media
audience may belong to the low, middle or high post brow group. (Savary and Carico, 1971).

These uses (exposure to the media) and gratification (benefits) are determined by the
needs of members of the audience. Such needs may include information, entertainment,
selfesteem and prestige. Through the uses and gratifications research, communication scholars
have shown that everywhere, people selectively expose themselves to mass media content,

33
choosing only those media messages that would serve the function of satisfying or gratifying
their needs (Rosengren, 1985).

Therefore, uses and gratification approach emphasizes audience members motive for
making specific consumption choices and the consequences of that intentional media use. That’s
to say, they choose the content, make meaning of it and act on the meaning. It embraces the
interactive nature of media and its audience. It is audience centered and addresses needs such as
surveillance, identity, and socialization and information acquisition. Therefore, people’s needs
are generated by their individual differences. It could be based on sex, ethnic group, and
educational qualification. Because the needs are determined by who or what they are, and people
use the mass media for the purpose of gratifying these needs (Okunna, 1999).

2.4.3 Mediamorphosis Theory

A significant question in this developing era of digitization is how established or

traditional media forms adapt as newer forms come along, (Scott, 2006). Current theorists have
offered valuable depictions, each providing distinctive points. For instance, Shaw (1991)
provides an allusion to the lives of media technologies, each progressing through stages of youth,
maturity, and old age. In his conception (also advanced by Shaw, Hamm & Knott, 2000), media
forms enjoy periods of dominance but then are replaced by newer forms that are more
compelling for the needs of the audiences of the later era. Lehman-Wilzig and Cohen Avigdor
(2004) have more recently expanded on this notion of a media life-cycle, proposing six stages.
They are birth, penetration, growth, maturity, self-defense, and then one of three outcomes:
adaptation, convergence or obsolescence. The authors also imply that, just as the deceased pass
along genes and characteristics, thus playing a role in the continued survival and adaptation of
later generations, so too do dying media technologies lend successful elements that will continue
to exist in adapted forms.

However, it was Fidler (1997) that termed the innovation and the change taking place in
the media industry as mediamorphosis. Much as Stevenson (1994) refers to the third
communications revolution, Fidler (1997) identifies a “third great mediamorphosis” that began
with application of electricity to communications processes and has evolved into digital systems.
To survive, Fidler says, traditional media organizations must “adapt to a changing and often

34
confusing world” by providing audiences more personal access while maintaining a position of
public trust. In other words, they must overcome the culture shock.

Fidler’s theorizing offers an applicable lens for inspecting the evolvement of Social
Networking Sites. He suggests that when new technological achievements produce a new media
form, older forms must change. Here the theory explains the circumstances in which leaders of
mass media and their audiences encounter the need to evolve into newer forms or suffer the slow
and inevitable deterioration of existing ones. Meanwhile, Dimmick (2003), while focusing on the
direction of the change, argued that older traditional media do seek out safe niches, rather than
die absolutely.

Taken as a whole, this theory generally rests three precepts: (1) media technologies exist
in stages that develop in opposition to other technologies, (2) their adaptations occur as a
response to the threat of newer forms, and (3) despite the possibility of death, most traditional
forms manage to co-exist in adapted roles alongside newer and more powerful technologies. The
theory takes long views of media transition, as they should, and offer mostly predictions about
how they apply to changes coming from the digital revolution.

Although Fidler suggests the process will take more than a generation to mature (1997, p.
8), the morphing has begun. A 2006 study by the Pew Internet & American Life Project, based
on a December 2005 survey, found that 48 million people, or 35% of all Internet users in the
United States, said they have posted content on the Internet (Horrigan, 2006, p.10). The survey
did not ask specifically about posting at online news sites but rather bundled all types of content
(e.g, Web sites, weblogs) into one category.

A 2004 Pew study also estimated that 92 million Americans go online to consume news
(Fallows & Rainie, 2004, p.1), a 70% increase in consumption from results in an earlier Pew
survey in 2000. Virtually larger news media have developed Web sites to carry at least some of
the news stories and photographs also published in their traditional forms (Kawamoto, 2003).
For instance, a 2003 study (Imfeld and Scott, 2005) examining discussion forums at newspaper
online sites found no large-to-medium-size newspapers without online news sites.

Despite the reservations this theory tends to invoke, its usefulness in this work cannot be
overemphasized. For instance, research has shown that many online platforms; including social

35
networking sites have embrace money making- one of the dominant features of the main stream
media; which in turn could influence their content production capable of influencing the
audience’s sexual behaviour. The New York Times Digital, for instance, publicly reported its
highest operating profit yet for the first quarter of 2004, with an $8.4 million operating profit
representing an increase of 32.6% over the same period a year earlier. The online operation said
its revenues grew 31.1% to $25.7 million (The New York Times Company reports first quarter
results, 2004). The Times digital revenue flow remained robust as well for 2004, growing at a
higher percentage rate than print revenue (O’Malley, 2005), and such patterns have continued.

Much as researchers such as Boczkowski (2004a; 2004b) are calling for rigorous
inquiries, professional editors argue that the media evolution toward digital practices needs more
examination, more evaluation, more research, (Scott, 2006), this new media of communication
(social networking sites) that has evolved out of the old ones through mediamorphosis, and
living with some of the traits of the older media, still require a research of this magnitude to
understand its various dimension and implication on human social behaviour especially those
touching on their academic performance.

2.5 Summary of Literature Review

This chapter reviewed the concepts of mass media, internet, social media and social
networking site. It also had a review of related studies. The Diffusion of innovation theory, Uses
and Gratification theory and media-morphosis theory formed the theoretical base of the study.
The relevance of the theories to the study was clearly stated.

36
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