Med Term

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"Endo-" (meaning "within") as in "endoscope" (an

RULES OF PRONOUNCIATION IN MEDICAL instrument used to look inside the body)
TERMINOLOGY "Hyper-" (meaning "over" or "excessive") as in
"hypertension" (high blood pressure)
The correct way to formulate a definition for medical "Hypo-" (meaning "under" or "deficient") as in
words is to read the word parts from the right to the left. "hypoglycemia" (low blood sugar)
You should first explain the suffix, then the prefix, and "Trans-" (meaning "across") as in "transfusion" (the
finally the word roots and/or combining forms. transfer of blood from one person to another)
Medical terms are often derived from Latin and Greek "Sub-" (meaning "below" or "under") as in "subcutaneous"
roots, so the pronunciation of these terms can be (under the skin)
influenced by the rules of those languages. "Inter-" (meaning "between") as in "intervertebral"
For example, in the word "rhinitis", the "rh" is pronounced (between vertebrae)
as if it were the Greek letter "rho" (r), "i" is pronounced as "Super-" (meaning "above" or "over") as in "superficial"
"eye", and "tis" is pronounced as "tiss". (on or near the surface)
Medical terms often have silent letters that do not affect "Intra-" (meaning "within") as in "intravenous" (within a
the pronunciation, such as the "e" at the end of a word in vein)
English. For example, in the word "pneumonia", the "e" is "Extra-" (meaning "outside") as in "extraperitoneal"
silent, so it is pronounced as "new-moan-ya". (outside the peritoneal cavity)
In general, medical terms are pronounced as they are It is important to note that prefixes can have multiple
written, with the emphasis on the syllable that is stressed meanings and can also be used in conjunction with other
in the word. For example, in the word "cardiology", the prefixes and suffixes to form complex medical terms.
stress is on the "car", so it is pronounced as
"car-dee-ology".
When a medical term has multiple syllables, the stress is Here are some examples of medical terms with 2 prefixes:
usually on the syllable before the suffix. For example, in the
word "appendectomy", the stress is on the "ap", so it is "Intravenous extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation" (IV
pronounced as "ap-pen-dek-tomy". ECMO) - is a technique in which blood is oxygenated
In some cases, the stress may be on the root of the word, or outside of the body, using an artificial lung, before being
on another syllable, depending on the word's origin. For returned to the patient's body. "Intravenous" refers to the
example, in the word "anatomy", the stress is on the "a", so delivery method of the oxygenated blood within a vein,
it is pronounced as "a-nat-o-my". "extra-corporeal" refers to the fact that the oxygenation
Consonants are pronounced as they are in English, but takes place outside of the body.
some medical terms may use special characters which will
have their own specific pronunciation. For example, in the "Inter-transhepatic biliary drainage" (ITBD) - is a
word "trachea" the "ch" is pronounced as "k" so it is procedure used to relieve blocked bile ducts by inserting a
pronounced as "tray-kee-ya". catheter through the skin, into the liver, and into the bile
ducts. "Inter-" refers to the location of the procedure which
PREFIX is between, in this case, the liver, and "transhepatic" refers
A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a base to the fact that the catheter is inserted through the liver.
word to create a new word with a different meaning. In
medical terminology, prefixes are often used to indicate the "Hyper-baric oxygen therapy" (HBOT) - is a treatment in
location, size, or direction of a medical condition or which the patient is placed in a chamber and breathed
procedure. pure oxygen under increased pressure. "Hyper-" refers to
the increased pressure in the chamber, "baric" refers to the
Examples of prefixes in medical terminology include: pressure.
"Peri-" (meaning "around") as in "pericardium" (the sac
around the heart)

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"Sub-cutaneous interstitial laser therapy" (SILT) - is a
procedure in which a laser is used to deliver energy to the
deep layers of the skin to treat certain skin conditions.
"Sub-" refers to the location of the procedure which is Noun Suffixes
under the skin, "interstitial" refers to the fact that the laser The following general suffixes convert roots into nouns.
energy is delivered to the deep layers of the skin. Note that the ending -sis may appear with different
combining vowels as -osis, -iasis, -esis, or -asis. The first
"Peri-operative blood management" - is a set of guidelines two of these denote an abnormal condition.
and best practices that are followed to ensure the safe and The suffix -logy applies to many fields other than medicine.
efficient management of blood before, during, and after It contains the root log/o taken from the Greek word logos,
surgery. "Peri-" refers to the location of the management which means “word,” and generally means a field of study.
which is around the operation, "operative" refers to the fact Terms with this ending are also used to identify an
that the management is related to surgery. institutional department or a specialty, as in cardiology,
dermatology, radiology, and others
SUFFIX
A suffix is a word part added to the end of a root word to Adjective Suffixes
create a new word with a different meaning. In medical The suffixes below are all adjective endings that mean
terminology, suffixes are used to indicate the condition or “pertaining to,” “like,” or “resembling”.
procedure being described.
Note that for words ending with the suffix -sis, the first s is
Examples of suffixes in medical terminology include: changed to a t before adding -ic to form the adjective, as in
-itis: indicating inflammation, such as in appendicitis genetic, pertaining to genesis (origin); psychotic,
(inflammation of the appendix) pertaining to psychosis (a mental disorder); or diuretic,
-ectomy: indicating surgical removal, such as in pertaining to diuresis (increased urination)
appendectomy (surgical removal of the appendix)
-osis: indicating a condition or disorder, such as in neurosis ROOT WORD
(a type of mental disorder) A root word is the base word to which prefixes and suffixes
-emia: indicating blood, such as in anemia (a condition are added to create new words. In medical terminology,
characterized by a lack of red blood cells) root words are often derived from Greek or Latin and are
-algia: indicating pain, such as in neuralgia (pain caused by the foundation for many medical terms.
irritation of a nerve)
-gram: indicating a record or image, such as in Examples of root words in medical terminology include:
electrocardiogram (a record of the electrical activity of the Cardi/o: heart
heart) Gastr/o: stomach
-scope: indicating an instrument for examining, such as in Nephro: kidney
microscope (instrument for examining small objects) Ophthalm/o: eye
-ic: indicating a type of or characteristic of, such as in Cyt/o: cell
chronic (long-lasting) Dermat/o: skin
-logy: indicating a study of, such as in cardiology (study of Urolog/y: urinary system
the heart) Radi/o: radiation
Rhin/o: nose
The suffixes given in this chapter are general ones that are Path/o: disease
used throughout medical terminology.
COMBINING VOWEL
They include endings that forms: A combining vowel is a vowel that is added to a root word
● Nouns: a person, place, or thing to make it easier to join it with a suffix. It is used to avoid
● Adjectives: words that modify nouns awkward combinations of consonants when adding a suffix
● Plurals: endings that convert single nouns to to a root word.
multiples

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Examples of combining vowels in medical terminology
include:
-o-: often used to connect a root word ending in a
consonant to a suffix beginning with a consonant, such as DISEASE
in gastrectomy (surgical removal of the stomach) Infectious diseases—caused by certain harmful
-i-: often used to connect a root word ending in a micro_x0002_organisms and other parasites that live at the
consonant to a suffix beginning with a vowel, such as in expense of another organism. Any disease-causing agent is
thoracotomy (surgical incision into the thorax) described as a pathogen.
-a-: often used to connect a root word ending in a vowel to
a suffix beginning with a consonant, such as in hepatoma Degenerative diseases—resulting from wear and tear,
(a type of liver tumor) aging, or trauma (injury) that can result in a lesion
(wound) and perhaps necrosis (death of tissue).
WORD DERIVATIONS: Common examples include arthritis, cardiovascular
As mentioned, most medical word parts come from Greek problems, and certain respiratory disorders such as
(G.) and Latin (L.). The original words and their meanings emphysema.
are included in this text only occasionally. They are Structural malformations such as congenital
interesting, however, and may aid in learning. malformations, prolapse (dropping), or hernia (rupture)
For example, muscle comes from a Latin word that means may also result in degenerative changes.
“mouse” because the movement of a muscle under the skin
was thought to resemble the scampering of a mouse. Neoplasia—abnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue.
The coccyx, the tail end of the spine, is named for the
cuckoo because it was thought to resemble the cuckoo’s Immune disorders—this category includes failures of the
bill. immune system, allergies, and autoimmune diseases, in
which the body makes antibodies to its own tissues.
WORD ENDING IN x:
When you add a suffi x to a word ending in x, the x is Metabolic disorders—resulting from lack of enzymes or
changed to a g or a c. If there is a consonant before the x, other factors needed for cellular functions. Many
such as yx or nx, the x is changed to a g. hereditary disorders fall into this category. Malnutrition
caused by inadequate intake of nutrients or inability of the
For example, pharynx (throat) becomes pharyngeal body to absorb and use nutrients also upsets metabolism.
(fa-RIN-jē-al), to mean “pertaining to the throat;” coccyx
(terminal portion of the spine) becomes coccygeal Hormonal disorders—caused by underproduction or
(kok-SIJ-ē-al), to mean “pertaining to the coccyx.” overproduction of hormones or by inability of the
If a vowel comes before the x, such as ax or ix, you change hormones to function properly. One example is diabetes
the x to a c. Thus, thorax (chest) becomes thoracic mellitus.
(thō-RAS-ik) to mean “pertaining to the chest” and cervix
(neck) becomes cervical (SER-vi-kal) to mean “pertaining Mental and emotional disorders—disorders that affect
to a neck.” the mind and adaptation of an individual to his or her
environment.
WORD BEGINNING WITH rh:
When you add a suffi x beginning with rh to a root, the r is The cause of a disease is its etiology (ē-tē-OL-ō-jē),
doubled. although many diseases have multiple interacting causes.
For example: hem/o (blood) + -rhage (bursting forth) = An acute disease is sudden and severe and of short
hemorrhage (a bursting forth of blood) duration. A chronic disease is of long duration and
men/o (menses) + -rhea (flow, discharge) = menorrhea progresses slowly.
(menstrual flow)
Infectious Diseases
Infectious diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi
(yeasts and molds), protozoa (single-celled animals), and

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worms (helminths) (Box 6-3). Infecting organisms can gram-positive organisms stain purple and gram-negative
enter the body through several routes or portals of entry, organisms stain red (see Fig. 6-1).
including damaged skin, the respiratory tract, digestive Chlamydia and rickettsia are two bacterial groups that are
system, and the urinary and reproductive tracts. smaller than typical bacteria and can grow only within
An infected person’s bodily discharges may contain living host cells (see Box 6-3).
organisms that spread infection through the air, food, INFLAMMATION
water, or direct contact. Microorganisms often produce A common response to infection and to other forms of
disease by means of the toxins (poisons) they release. The disease is inflammation.
presence of harmful microorganisms or their toxins in the When cells are injured, they release chemicals that allow
body is termed sepsis blood cells and fluids to move into the tissues.
This inflow of blood results in the four signs of
MANEFISTATIONS OF DISEASES inflammation:
The different manifestations of disease can vary greatly ● Heat
depending on the underlying condition, but some common ● Pain
examples include: ● Redness
● Pain or discomfort ● Swelling
● Changes in appetite or weight The suffix -itis indicates inflammation, as in appendicitis
● Fatigue or weakness (inflammation of the appendix) and tonsillitis (infl
● Fever or chills ammation of the tonsils).
● Swelling or redness Inflammation is one possible cause of edema, a swelling or
● Cough or shortness of breath accumulation of fl uid in the tissues (Fig. 6-4). Other causes
● Nausea or vomiting of edema include fl uid blockage, heart failure, and
● Diarrhea or constipation imbalance in body fluid composition.
● Skin rash or itching
● Changes in vision or hearing IMMUNITY
● Changes in vision or hearing Immunity refers to all our defenses against infectious
● Chest pain or palpitations disease.
● Seizures or tremors Inflammation and phagocytosis are examples of inborn or
● Mood changes, such as depression or anxiety innate protective mechanisms, which are based on a
● Memory problems or confusion person’s genetic makeup and do not require any previous
● Abnormal bleeding or discharge exposure to a disease organism.
Immunity that we develop during life from exposure to
These manifestations can be the result of a wide range of disease organisms is termed acquired immunity, or
conditions, from acute infections to chronic diseases, and adaptive immunity.
can occur singly or in combination. It's important to seek This type of immunity is specific for particular diseases
medical attention for any new or unusual symptoms to encountered by natural exposure or by the administration
receive proper diagnosis and treatment. of vaccines
BACTERIA Neoplasia
In shape, bacteria are: As noted earlier, a neoplasm is an abnormal and
Round, or cocci, shown in Figure 6-1 uncontrolled growth of tissue—a tumor or growth.
Rod-shaped, or bacilli, shown in Figure 6-2 A benign neoplasm does not spread, that is, undergo
Curved, including vibrios and spirochetes, shown in Figure metastasis to other tissues, although it may cause damage
6-3 at the site where it grow.
Bacteria may be named according to their shape and also An invasive neoplasm that can metastasize to other tissues
by the arrangements they form (see Fig. 6-1). is termed malignant and is commonly called cancer.
They are also described according to the dyes they take up A malignant tumor that involves epithelial tissue is a
when stained in the laboratory. The most common carcinoma.
laboratory bacterial stain is the Gram stain, with which If the tumor arises in glandular epithelium, it is an
adenocarcinoma (the root aden/o means “gland”); a

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cancer of pigmented epithelial cells (melanocytes) is a
melanoma. IMAGING TECHNIQUES
A neoplasm that involves connective tissue or muscle is a Imaging techniques employ various types of energy to
sarcoma. produce visual images of the body.
Medical care begins with assessing a disorder using The most fundamental imaging method is radiography
information gathered from the patient and a variety of (Fig. 7-8), which uses x-rays to produce an image
testing and examination methods. Based on these results, a (radiograph) on film or to produce a digital image that can
course of treatment is recommended that may include be viewed on a monitor.
surgery. Radiography is the preferred method for imaging dense
tissues, such as bone.
Diagnosis Some soft-tissue structures can be demonstrated as well,
Medical diagnosis, the determination of the nature and but a contrast medium, such as a barium mixture, may be
cause of an illness, begins with a patient history. needed to enhance visualization.
This includes a history of the present illness with a Other forms of energy used to produce diagnostic images
description of symptoms (evidence of disease), a past include sound waves, radioactive isotopes, radio waves,
medical history, and a family and a social history. and magnetic fields.
A physical examination, which includes a review of all
systems and observation of any signs of illness, follows the TREATMENT
history taking. Surgery is a method for treating disease or injury by
Practitioners use the following techniques in performing manual operations. Surgery may be done through an
physicals: existing body opening, but usually it involves cutting or
● Inspection: visual examination puncturing tissue with a sharp instrument in the process
● Palpation: touching the surface of the body with of incision. See Box 7-4 for descriptions of surgical
the hands or fingers instruments and Figure 7-11 for pictures of surgical
● Percussion: tapping the body to evaluate tissue instruments.
according to the sounds produced (Fig. 7-2) Surgery usually requires some form of anesthesia to dull or
● Auscultation: listening to body sounds with a eliminate pain.
stethoscope (Fig. 7-3) After surgery, incisions must be closed for proper healing.
● Vital signs (VS) are also recorded for comparison Traditionally, surgeons have used stitches or sutures to
with normal ranges. close wounds, but today they also use adhesive strips,
VS are measurements that reflect basic functions necessary staples, and skin glue.
to maintain life and include: DRUGS
Temperature (T) Drugs are substances that are used to diagnose, cure, treat,
Pulse rate, measured in beats per minute (bpm) Pulse rate or prevent diseases.
normally corresponds to the heart rate (HR), the number They can be in the form of pills, liquids, injections, or other
of times the heart beats per minute. forms.
Respiration rate (R), measured in breaths per minute Drugs work by altering the function of cells, tissues, or
Blood pressure (BP), measured in millimeters of mercury organs in the body.
(mm Hg) and recorded when the heart is contracting They can be prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, or
(systolic pressure) and relaxing (diastolic pressure) recreational drugs.
Prescription drugs are only available with a doctor's
Biopsy prescription and are used to treat specific conditions.
is the removal of tissue for microscopic examination. Over-the-counter drugs can be purchased without a
Biopsy specimens can be obtained by: prescription and are used to treat common symptoms such
Needle withdrawal (aspiration) of fl uid, as from the chest as headaches or pain.
or from a cyst Recreational drugs are taken for non-medical purposes
A small punch, as of the skin and can have harmful effects on the body.
Endoscopy, as from the respiratory or digestive tract
Surgical removal, as of a tumor or node There are several types of drugs, including:

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Prescription drugs: Only available with a doctor's ● Obstetrics and gynecology: Deals with the medical
prescription and used to treat specific medical conditions. care of women, including pregnancy and
Over-the-counter drugs: Can be purchased without a childbirth.
prescription and used to treat common symptoms such as ● Neurology: Deals with the diagnosis and treatment
headaches or pain. of diseases of the nervous system.
Recreational drugs: Taken for non-medical purposes and ● Psychiatry: Deals with the diagnosis and
can have harmful effects on the body. treatment of mental illness.
Illicit drugs: Illegal drugs, such as cocaine or heroin. ● Dermatology: Deals with the diagnosis and
Controlled substances: Regulated by the government due treatment of skin diseases.
to their potential for abuse and addiction. ● Ophthalmology: Deals with the diagnosis and
Performance-enhancing drugs: Used to improve athletic treatment of eye diseases.
performance or physical appearance. ● Otolaryngology (Ear, Nose, and Throat): Deals
Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception and can cause with the diagnosis and treatment of ear, nose, and
hallucinations. throat diseases.
Depressants: Drugs that slow down the central nervous ● Orthopedics: Deals with the diagnosis and
system and can cause drowsiness. treatment of bones and joints.
Stimulants: Drugs that increase activity in the central ● Anesthesiology: Deals with the management of
nervous system and can cause alertness or excitement. pain and the administration of anesthesia during
Narcotics: Strong pain relievers, can be addictive. surgeries.
● Radiology: Deals with the use of imaging
Adverse drug effects, also known as side effects, are techniques, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI, for
unintended and potentially harmful reactions to a diagnosis and treatment.
medication. Some common adverse drug effects include:
● Nausea and vomiting
● Dizziness and drowsiness
● Headaches and fatigue
● Diarrhea or constipation
● Skin rash or itching
● Insomnia or sleep disturbances
● Changes in appetite
● Joint or muscle pain
● Chest pain or palpitations
● Increased heart rate or blood pressure
● Changes in vision or hearing
● Depression or anxiety
● Seizures
● Anaphylaxis (severe allergic reaction)

BRANCHES OF MEDICINE
There are several branches of medicine, including:
Internal medicine: Deals with the diagnosis and treatment
of diseases in adult patients.
● Pediatrics: Deals with the medical care of children
from birth to adolescence.
● Surgery: Deals with the surgical treatment of
diseases and injuries.