METHODS ADOPTED FOR DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY

Introduction

Students today we are going to discuss the different methods for studying development.
There are many different ways to study development depending on the aspects of
development under study, but the beginning of every study starts with making a
hypothesis.

So we will first look at what is a hypothesis and how to make a good hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a explanation to some phenomenon or event.

While formulating a hypothesis, you are writing a statement or question relating what
will happen after you perform a given experiment.

The purpose of a hypothesis is to help create testable parameters through which

information can be gained.E.g. of a hypothesis in education is “would using technology
in class everyday make lessons more interesting to students?”

You will usually be required to come up with a hypothesis as part of an

assignment.Before you begin any research you should understand what the goals and
requirements of the assignments are. This will help limit the scope of your research.

Decide a topic based on the limits of your assignment and then begin research.Read
about the subject broadly or read any material that was specifically assigned or required
by the assignment.This will give you ideas for your hypothesis.

You can find information from your textbooks, at a library, or online for making your
hypothesis. The basic formulation for a hypothesis is:
“If....then....That means. If I do this then this will happen”
Students, let us now look at the different methods of proving a hypothesis in
development studies.

Experimentation

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in

one variable cause changes in another variable.This method relies on controlled
methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.Lab
experiments are very common in psychology because they allow researchers to have
more control over the variables.

These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The problem,
of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not always identical to what takes place in
the real world.Sometimes researchers might opt to conduct their experiments in the
field. For example, let’s imagine that a social psychologist is interested in researching
prosocial behaviour.
The experimenter might have a person pretend to faint and observe to see how long it
takes on lookers to respond.This type of experiment can be a great way to see
behaviour in action in realistic settings.However, it makes it more difficult for the
researchers to control the variables.

Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the scientific method when conducting an
experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how
scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.
The four basic steps of the process are:
1. Formulating a Hypothesis
2. Designing a Study and Collecting Data
3. Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions
4. Sharing the Findings

Most psychology students will be expected to use the experimental method at some
point.

Cross sectional research

Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as descriptive

research. Researchers record the information that is present in a population, but they do
not manipulate variables.

Cross sectional research can be used to describe characteristics that exist in a

population, but not to determine cause-and-effect relationships between different
variables.These methods are often used to make inferences about possible
relationships or to gather preliminary data to support further research and
experimentation.

Cross-sectional utilizes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest,
but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic status, educational background,
and ethnicity.

For example, researchers studying developmental psychology might select groups of

people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this,
any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather
than to other factors.

A cross-sectional study design is used when

• The purpose of the study is descriptive, often in the form of a survey. Usually
there is no hypothesis as such, but the aim is to describe a population or a
subgroup within the population with respect to an outcome and a set of risk
factors.
• The purpose of the study is to find the prevalence of the outcome of interest,
for the population or subgroups within the population at a given point of time.
 • Advantages of cross sectional studies are
• Relatively inexpensive and takes up little time to conduct;
• Can estimate prevalence of outcome of interest because sample is usually taken
from the whole population;
• Many outcomes and risk factors can be assessed;
• There is no loss to follow-up.
•
Disadvantages are
• Difficult to make casual inference;
• Only a snapshot: the situation may provide different results if another time-frame
had been chosen;

Longitudinal research

The next method we will look into is longitudinal research.Longitudinal research is a

type of research method used to discover relationships between variables that are not
related to various background variables.This observational research technique involves
studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.

Data is first collected at the outset of the study and may then be gathered repeatedly
throughout the length of the study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last for
several decades.The benefit of this type of research is that it allows researchers to look
at changes over time.Because of this longitudinal methods are particularly useful when
studying development and lifespan issues.However, longitudinal studies require
enormous amounts of time and are often quite expensive.

Because of this, these studies often have only a small group of subjects, which makes it
difficult to apply the results to a larger population.Another problem is that participants
sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking the sample size and decreasing the amount
of data collected.

There are three major types of longitudinal studies:

• Panel Study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.
• Cohort Study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as birth,
geographic location or historical experience.
• Retrospective Study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical
information such as medical records.

Cross sectional research differs from longitudinal research in the aspect cross-sectional
studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular point of time.

Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time,
while cross-sectional research is focused on looking at variables at a specific point.
Observation

Observation is a very important method of studying development since development

involves very slow and subtle factors of human behaviour.Observation is way of
gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting physical characteristics in their
natural setting.

Observations can be overt (everyone knows they are being observed)or covert (no one
knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed).The benefit of covert
observation is that people are more likely to behave naturally if they do not know they
are being observed.

However, you will typically need to conduct overt observations because of ethical
problems related to concealing your observation.Observations can also be either direct
or indirect. Direct observation is when you watch interactions, processes, or behaviours
as they occur;for example, observing a teacher teaching a lesson from a written
curriculum to determine whether they are delivering it correctly.

Indirect observations are when you watch the results of interactions, processes, or
behaviours; for example, measuring the amount of food

wasted by students in a school cafeteria to determine whether a new food is acceptable

to them.

When should you use observation for evaluation?

• When you are trying to understand an ongoing process or situation. Through
observation you can monitor or watch a process or situation that your are
evaluating as it occurs.
• When you are gathering data on individual behaviours or interaction with people.
Observation allows you to watch peoples’ behaviours and interactions directly, or
watch for the results of behaviours or interactions.
• When you need to know about a physical setting. Seeing the place or
environment where something takes place can help increase your understanding
of the event, activity, or situation you are evaluating. For example, you can
observe whether a classroom or training facility is conducive to learning.
• When data collection from individuals is not a realistic option. If respondents are
unwilling or unable to provide data through questionnaires or interviews,
observation is a method that requires little from the individuals for whom you
need data.

1. Students, do you know how you can plan for observations?

Determine the focus.

Think about the evaluation question(s) you want to answer through observation and
select a few areas of focus for your data collection.For example, you may want to know
how well a curriculum is being implemented in the classroom.Your focus areas might be
interactions between students and teachers, and teachers’ knowledge, skills, and
behaviours.

2. Design a system for data collection. Once you have focused your evaluation think
about the specific items for which you want to collect data and then determine how you
will collect the information you need.There are three primary ways of collecting data
through observation. These three methods can be combined to meet your data
collection needs.Recording sheets and checklists are the most standardized way of
collecting observation data and include both preset questions and responses.

These forms are typically used for collecting data that can be easily described in
advance (e.g., topics that might be covered in a lesson).Field notes are the least
standardized way of collecting observation data and do not include preset questions or
responses.Field notes are open-ended where data that can be written or dictated onto a
tape recorder.Time your observations appropriately.

It is critical that you schedule your observations so you are observing the components
of the activity that will answer your evaluation questions.This requires advance
planning.

What are the advantages of observation?

We are able to collect data where and when an event or activity is
occurring.Observation method does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide
information and allows you to directly see what people do rather than relying on what
people say they did.

What are the disadvantages of observation?

Observation method is susceptible to observer bias.This method suffers from the
“hawthorne effect,” that is, people usually perform better when they know they are being
observed, although indirect observation may decrease this problem.

Observation can be expensive and time-consuming compared to other data collection

methods and it does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.
Case study

In development study, a case study (or case report) is a descriptive or explanatory

analysis of a person, group or event. An explanatory cases study is used to explore the
cause of certain events.

The definition of case study: a case study is as follows: “Case studies are analysis of
persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that
are studied holistically by one or more methods.

Case study research can mean single and multiple case studies, can include
quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence, and benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions.Case studies should not be confused with
qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative
evidence.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not
always the case.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questionnaire as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also
sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and
respond to them.

Types of questionnaires
1. Structured questionnaire
a) Have definite and concrete questions
b) Is prepared well in advance.
c) Initiates formal inquiry.
d) Supplements and checks the data, previously accumulated.
e) Used in studies related to economics, social problems, administrative
policies and changes.
2. Unstructured questionnaire
a) Used at the time of the interview
b) Acts as the guide for the interviewer
c) Is very flexible in working
d) Used in studies related to the group of families or those relating to the
personal experiences, beliefs etc.

A questionnaire can also be divided as follows depending on the nature of the questions
therein.
1. Open ended questionnaire
a) Respondent is free to express his views and the ideas.
b) Used in making intensive studies of the limited number of the cases.
c) Merely an issue is raised by such a questionnaire.
d) Do not provide any structure for the respondent’s reply.
e) The questions and their orders are pre - determined in the nature.
2. Close ended questionnaire
a) Responses are limited to the stated alternatives.
b) One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.
c) Respondent cannot express his own judgment.
 3. Mixed questionnaire
a) Questions are both closed and open ended.
b) Used in field of social research.
4. Pictorial questionnaire
a) Used very rarely
b) Pictures are used to promote the interest in answering the questions
c) Used in studies related to the social attitudes and the prejudices in the
children.
5. Data collection
Students we will now look at data collection methods in development. There are
many ways to collect data for study and research in development.

Personal interviews

Face-to-face: involves trained interviewers visiting people to collect ire data using
questionnaire.It is a good approach for ensuring a high responses rate to a sample
survey or census, and trained interviewers gather better quality data.

However, there are some disadvantages to this approach. Respondents may not always
be available for interviews and the travel costs of the interviewer could be high.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but

instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-
held computer to enter the information directly into the database.This method saves
time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying
around hundreds of questionnaires.

However, this type of data collection method can be expensive due to basic
requirements as laptop and the interviewer to have computer operating skills.

Telephone interviews; involves trained interviewers collecting information / data over

phone.This method is quicker and less expensive than face-to-face
interviewing.However, only people with telephones can be interviewed (about 98% of
the Canadian population), and the respondent can end the interview very easily.

Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI): is a type of telephone interview, but

with the interviewer keying respondent answers directly into a computer. ( This saves
times involved in processing data, but can be expensive to set up, and requires
interviewers to have computer and typing skills. )

The Internet: The growing popularity of the Internet brought a major shift in Electronic
Data Reporting (EDR).

Other methods include direct observation, or the use of existing records.The choice of
method depends on various factors: complexity and length of questionnaire, sensitivity
of requested information, geographical dispersion of survey population, cost and time
frame.

Often the most satisfactory collection strategy uses a combination of methods.For

example, mail surveys have proven to be quite efficient when designed as a follow-up
for those who did not respond by telephone interview.

Conclusion

Whatever method the researcher chooses for his or her study in development he or she
has to make sure that the data collection is ethical.
Some of the principles involved in data collection in studying development are:
• Protection from harm: the subject under study in child development is often an
underage minor and as such he or she should be protected from any kind of
harm from the results of the study.
• Often there are many legal restrictions that the researcher will need to follow.
• Informed consent: It is always good practice to get the consent of the subject
being studied and to get this consent in writing for the protection of both the
person being studied and the researcher when the results of the research are
being published.
• Privacy: Since developmental study is related to very personal matters the
privacy of the subjects being studied should be protected at all cost.
• Knowledge of results: In the case of adults and even sometimes teenagers who
can understand the results of the study, it becomes the duty of the researcher to
convey the results to the subjects so that they can take any remedial measures
for any problems.
• Beneficial treatments: In case researchers identify any problem, he or she should
also suggest and support the subject to take any beneficial treatments for the
problems identified in the research.