The document discusses financing of higher education in Iraq, including the relationship between public and private funding sources. It outlines challenges including balancing adequate funding with independence of universities. Key factors discussed are direct and indirect economic returns on education investments and maintaining equal opportunities. Diversifying funding sources while ensuring inclusion is recommended.
The document discusses financing of higher education in Iraq, including the relationship between public and private funding sources. It outlines challenges including balancing adequate funding with independence of universities. Key factors discussed are direct and indirect economic returns on education investments and maintaining equal opportunities. Diversifying funding sources while ensuring inclusion is recommended.
Original Title
Higher Education between funding pressures and AcademicIndependence in Iraq
The document discusses financing of higher education in Iraq, including the relationship between public and private funding sources. It outlines challenges including balancing adequate funding with independence of universities. Key factors discussed are direct and indirect economic returns on education investments and maintaining equal opportunities. Diversifying funding sources while ensuring inclusion is recommended.
The document discusses financing of higher education in Iraq, including the relationship between public and private funding sources. It outlines challenges including balancing adequate funding with independence of universities. Key factors discussed are direct and indirect economic returns on education investments and maintaining equal opportunities. Diversifying funding sources while ensuring inclusion is recommended.
DOI 10.15520/sslej.v7i01.40 http://sslej.in/index.
php/sslej Research Article
ISSN: 2456-2408 Social Science learning Education Journal
Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic
Independence in Iraq Mazen Dawood Salman Department of financial and Banking Sciences, College of Administration and Economics, University of Baghdad, Iraq Abstract: - The aim of Study to identify the obstacles and challenges of higher education in Iraq. Financing of higher education is both important and sensitive. Higher education is costly, on one hand, and faces competition from other important sectors for the distribution of public expenditure among these sectors, on the other hand. The lack of adequate funding for higher education affects its quality on one hand, and its access and diversity on the other, thus affecting the goals of economic efficiency and equity among the strata of society. Therefore, reliance on public (government) funding is no longer sufficient and it is necessary to rely on private sector funding, but taking into account students from poor segments. The contribution of private companies and businesses, as well as contributions from charities and others to support higher education and scientific research, can also be broadly and legally opened up, as recommended by research to diversify the sources of education and achieve the independence of universities while maintaining the principle of equal opportunities for all members of society. Keywords: - Financing, Higher Education, academic independence, Higher education indicators. 1. Introduction: have been able to expand higher education while The issue of financing for higher education raises increasing its quality without demanding a several questions, including about the absolute substantial contribution from students and their amount of expenditure and about the ratio of such families, but most developing countries need a expenditure to other aspects of public expenditure or sustainable financing strategy for higher education. as a proportion of GDP, or about its efficiency and These strategies are based on five components its reflection on the quality of education. The source, increased public investment, Diversify corporate sustainability and continuity of such expenditure, revenues by increasing cost-sharing. Expansion of whether public or private, are also important issues the private sector, Growth in enrollment in technical (MHAIBES & MAHMOOD, 2020). Therefore, education and vocational training and Expand the use recent studies on the economics of education have of new performance technologies (OECD, 2010). focused on the subject of financing higher education The importance of this research is that it discusses and comparing the benefits generated by higher the sources and ratios of funding for higher education education economically, socially and institutionally, in Iraq, especially in view of the financial pressures on the one hand, with the costs borne by individuals, under Iraq's general budget as a result of the decline Governments and society as a whole, on the other, in in oil prices. The purpose of this research; is to order to generate an acceptable or profitable return or highlight the importance of government funding for return at the level of the individual or society in higher education in an absolute and relative way, and exchange for the sacrifice incurred. to assessment the cost of education in the Iraqi In developing countries, the cost of providing higher education system in the private sector, The research education is usually largely on the shoulders of hypothesis is that there is a direct link between Governments, while in developed countries it is on private-sector funding for inclusive education on the taxpayers in general, and this may raise several one hand, and university autonomy and questions about the relationship of the most accountability on the other. Finally, the research beneficiaries of the higher education system to those structure is based on two axes. The first is the who pay the fair share of the cost. A few countries conceptual framework for financing and academic
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Mazen Dawood Salman / Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic Independence in Iraq independence of higher education. The second Level of satisfaction achieved in the demand for focuses on methods and challenges of higher trained labour; this shows the importance of financing, followed by conclusions and employment policies, forms of employment and the recommendations. level of wages. Special demand for education; The 2. Conceptual framework for financing higher focus here is on the special rate of return on education and its independence investment in education, fee levels, other forms of 2.1 Public-private funding options: social cost and other factors. Internal competence of Increasing financial pressures on investment in educational institutions; which is expressed by the education, combined with increased private demand relationship between input and output through the for education, have led many Governments to indicators of waste, failure and abandonment. Firstly, increase the contribution of students and their Geographical and social distribution of educational families to financial support for funding through opportunities (Bassam, 2014). Impact of distribution several cost-recovery mechanisms, including student of educational opportunities on income distribution fees and loans. However, there are some who argue and the contribution of education to poverty for supporting higher education. The first is that reduction and poverty rates (Barr & Crawford, social benefits outweigh private benefits, prompting 2005). Governments to support education in order to 2.2 Independence and academic freedom: maintain the minimum required to invest in The term academic freedom was first used in the education. The second argument concerns social United States in 1885, in Britain in 1901, and was justice and equal opportunities, and lack of reliance founded in the United States in 1915 by the on market forces and the private sector alone in the Declaration of Principles of the American Society of provision of education (Abdul Rahman et al., 2021). University Professors (Brubacher & Rudy, 2017). By contrast, with limited mechanisms to allocate The 1940 Declaration of Academic Freedom by the public budget resources based on performance, State American Society of University Professors (AAUP) institutions of higher education will not have specific defined academic freedom as the right of the faculty administrative and financial incentives that make to have full freedom to research and disseminate the them more innovative and enable them to use fruits of their research. (Barnes, 2019; Salman et al., resources more effectively. Rigid government 2021). The major principles of academic freedom systems, in which institutions of higher education and independence include The freedom of a operate, will not provide sufficient incentive and researcher to educate, investigate and discuss flexibility to use limited resources in efficient and problems in his or her field of science, and to express effective ways (Mhaibes, 2009). his or her findings through publication or teaching, The third argument; Based on the principle that without the interference of politicians or education is subject to economies of scale, achieving administrators, unless the means used by a the principle of efficiency requires that the public competent body of his or her competence are clearly sector burden core financing to benefit from inappropriate or contrary to the ethics of his or her expansion and thus enter the private sector (Shore & profession. The right to participate in the Wright, 2003). Generally speaking, before investing management of the institution and decision-making in an educational project, the project owners must (Essam, 2012): take into account the following criteria direct A. Free choice of research subjects. economic returns on investment; this is by balancing B. Freedom of expression and free dissemination the opportunity cost of resources with the expected of opinions and free interpretation of future benefits of increased graduate productivity. knowledge through the media. Indirect economic returns, through external benefits C. Freedom to engage in academic activities and that affect the incomes of other members of society. activities. Financial benefits; they are in the form of higher D. Freedom of travel and communication with taxes paid resulting from the increase in income. other academics.
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Mazen Dawood Salman / Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic Independence in Iraq Academic independence is crucial for achieving to private funding from the family sector, to international standards in scientific research and contributions from companies and foundations to making use of them through dissemination and contributions from charities and others (Agarwal, development, as well as providing opportunities for 2006). creative minds to emerge and advance. The revival One of the challenges in financing higher education of the innovation movement and the recording of is that public spending is unsustainable, as well as inventions and publications in periodicals and economic constraints on universities that reduce literature in the study and research centers is a efficiency incentives (Barr, 2004). so a three-element positive indication of the absence of pressure from strategy could be proposed; Deferred variable fees, funders (Altameemi & Flayyih, 2021). suspended income loans and effective measures to With regard to the relationship of independence to enhance access to education, which are applicable in finance, most of the world's evolving and mature a country that can collect income tax, and the institutions include in their strategy a clearly stated challenge remains to finance higher education in governance system regarding governance ways that enhance quality and avoid crowding out independence, diversification of funding sources primary and secondary education (Lorimer, 2019). such as partnership and marketing of services, as 3. The Results and discussions : well as the role of private finance, relying on 3.1 Higher education funding trends and costs in transparency, participation, accountability and the Iraq: role of audit in the proper utilization of their Iraq launched the National Strategy for Higher resources (Aebi et al., 2012). The main sources of Education and Education in Iraq for the period 2011- funding for universities can therefore be identified 2020. The entry of Iraqi universities into the world such as Receives funding from public rankings as a target and indicator of the quality of administrations of the State. Students' contribution to higher education in Iraq. Adopting a true twinning of some tuition. The commercial activity of universities Iraqi universities with important world universities and the marketing of research aimed at generating through joint study, training and scientific research revenue from commercial activities. In the Arab and output; reducing laxity, promoting academic Islamic world, there could be another type of atmosphere, research and university life, and raising financing based on a moratorium, such as Al-Azhar scientific standards. University and Al-Zaytouna University, which gave Encourage the establishment of community-based the best examples of financial independence (Essam, universities with global standards and quality, 2012). encourage parallel education in universities and 2.3 High-level financing methods and challenges: introduce distance education. Encourage investment Financing for higher education is both important and in the expansion of government colleges and the sensitive. Higher education is expensive, on the one upgrading of their scientific and academic levels by hand, and faces competition from other important the Iraqi and foreign private sectors or by foreign sectors for the distribution of public expenditure universities to provide expenditures outside the among these sectors (McPherson & Schapiro, 2021). government budget. As for private university The lack of adequate funding for higher education education (private education), legislation No. 25 of affects its quality on the one hand, and the lack of 2016 has been enacted to update the laws in force and access to and diversity on the other, thereby affecting to keep pace with developments in the world today. both objectives (efficiency and equity). Reliance on The Higher Education Fund, established at the public funding is no longer sufficient, and it is Centre of the Ministry of Higher Education and each necessary to rely on private funding, but taking into university, college and institute, has moral account students from poor backgrounds. In some personality and financial and administrative developed and developing countries, the most independence. The resources of the Higher important sources of funding for higher education Education Fund are determined by article 4 of the range from funding for central to local governments, Ministry's Status, article 5 of the Universities and
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Mazen Dawood Salman / Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic Independence in Iraq article 6 of the Colleges and Institutes (Higher private sector funding. Table 1 shows that the Education Fund Instruction No. 122 of 1999. The proportion of public expenditure on higher education Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific is less than 2% for 2021 according to the draft Research has also adopted a bill to amend the Federal Budget Act of Iraq and is close to the Companies Act to allocate (1%) annual profits to previous year’s average of 2%. The 2 table estimates companies and transfer them to the Scientific tuition premiums for the various private-sector levels Research Fund for further details (site of the Ministry of teaching for the bachelor (primary) level only to of Higher Education and Scientific Research of Iraq. range from an average of $ 3000 for human In Iraq, higher education is funded primarily by specialties, $ 4000 for economic and administrative central funding from federal budget public disciplines, $ 8000 for scientific studies, and $ 20000 expenditure allocations, which depend on for medical specialties. government oil revenues of more than 90%, and by Table (1) Ministry of Higher Education allocations from the general budget of Iraq for 2021 Total public Total capital Total operating Details spending expenditure expenditure Ministry of Higher Education and 2,914,250,995 81,278,330 2,808,672,665 Scientific Research Total 164,206,006,155 27,755,619,729 120,557,692,591 Relative importance* 1.78 0.29 2.33 Source: 2021 Federal Budget Project, p. 40-43. * Calculated by researchers. Table (2) estimate of the cost of years of study in Iraq (Iraqi dinar/USD) Total cost in dollars $ at the Years of School stage Total Cost (I.D.) Cost per year )exchange rate of 1450I.D,1$) study Primary school 5664 000110111 000110111 6 Middle school 3013 504110111 004110111 3 High school 3005 405110111 000110111 3 Total cost of primary, middle and high school 00063 0000110111 education Bachelors (humanitarian 3541 401110111 000410111 5 sections) Bachelors (Scientific and – 0001110111 – 301110111 01661 -0004 4-5 Medical Departments) 3101110111 601110111 Master (private 4401 001110111 501110111 0 universities) Ph.D. (Private universities) 00504 0001110111 601110111 3 Source: Researchers work based on interviews. 3.2 Indicators for students in higher education increase to the highest level in 2016/2017, then a during the period 2014-2019 decline in 2017/2018 as the security situation A number of facts can be drawn from table 3. The improved and displaced persons returned. number of students admitted to higher education The number of teaching staff in university and (government, private and technical) has increased by technical education also increased from 35,362 in 50% in just five years. Existing students grew by 2014/2015 to 49,753 in 2018/2019, an estimated almost 38% over the same period, and if we move to 29% in about five years students (heads, tenants and tarquins), there was an
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Mazen Dawood Salman / Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic Independence in Iraq School year Faculty Total graduate Total students Total students Total students members students (depositors, deferred) present admitted 2014/2015 35362 100848 130005 574997 160013 2015/2016 38643 130428 134862 608554 148410 2016/2017 41233 144201 148569 647770 190292 2017/2018 47913 152467 124380 743825 233935 2018/2019 49753 148401 ------ 792553 241268 Source: University and Technical Education in Iraq for the academic year 2018/2019, Ministry of Planning, Central Bureau of Statistics, Directorate of Social primary school graduates was 47.1% and graduate and Educational Statistics, p. 5 and p7. graduates 40.7% during the five years of study. The Table 4 also shows that one of the outcomes of the relative importance of graduates of State university expansion of higher education (Government and education and private university education, and of private) after 2003 in Iraq and the 50% increase in education in technical institutes was about 62%, 16% the number of students admitted in five years is the and 20% respectively for the 2018/2019 academic rise in annual growth rates in the numbers of both year. primary and higher graduates. The increase in Table (4) Graduates of Iraqi Universities by Universities Graduates Graduates of Graduates of Graduates Total total School year Postgraduate of technical technical private of public graduates graduates institutes universities universities universities 2014/2015 8081 100848 18796 2134 21513 58405 2015/2016 7547 130428 20047 3064 26951 80426 2016/2017 7613 144201 23757 2858 27578 90008 2017/2018 9345 152467 29682 3124 31633 88028 2018/2019 11039 148401 30126 3126 24056 91093 The relative importance of each of the last 100 20.3 2.1 16.2 61,4 year's university %graduates Source: Graduates of Higher Education in Iraq for the academic year 2018/2019, Ministry of Higher Education, Central Bureau of Statistics, Directorate of Social and Educational Statistics, p. 13. cosit.gov.iq Finally, a Table (5) shows the allocations obtained by some important State universities in Iraq, with a view to achieving the objectives of the Government program without specific criteria. The University of Basra is ranked first, followed by the University of Kufa and the University of Baghdad. Table (5) allocations of the government development program for the most important Iraqi universities for the year 2021 (million dinars) University of University of University of University of University of University of Baghdad Babylon Kufa Technology Basra Mosul University of Technology 446.6 964.9 381.6 1303.4 62.1 768.7 Al-Mustansiria Ministry Tikreet University of University of Al-iraqia university Center University Anbar Nahrin university 678.9 12.6 455.8 356.7 260.2 23.6
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Mazen Dawood Salman / Higher Education between funding pressures and Academic Independence in Iraq Horizontal and vertical expansion in public and employment and employment in the government private higher education took place after 2003 in sector after graduation. general, with a marked continuation of this trend for 4. Conclusions: the years 2014-2019, with student admission Emphasizing the importance of finding permanent, reaching high levels of up to 50% in primary studies. stable and diversified sources of funding for higher This shows the extent to which material and moral education in Iraq, and that the first step in reducing needs from buildings, laboratories and other reliance on central specialties must be followed by requirements have increased through qualified further steps to strengthen autonomy in universities; teaching staff, which is not in line with the modest In order to provide independence to Iraqi budget of the Ministry of Higher Education, which is governmental and private universities in particular, it only 2% of the public budget. On the one hand, Iraq's is necessary to limit the role of the Ministry to governmental universities continue to rely almost oversight, supervision, direction and accountability entirely on public budget allocations, losing an in order to achieve the required transparency in both important part of their independence and ability to public and private education. As a result of the make important strategic decisions. On the other increase in graduates of higher education from hand, the weakness of the allocations originally primary and higher education, which places a burden allocated to higher education, ranging from only 2- on the labour market, decent employment 3% of public expenditure at best, which are subject opportunities to absorb higher education output to cuts and rationalization in the event of an ad hoc become necessary and require the involvement of the crisis, as we are witnessing today, is leading to private sector in solving this problem because the economic difficulties for higher education, public sector cannot respond to labour market particularly State education (university and variables in a flexible and rapid manner. technical). The question of funding state higher Transparency in the management and development education remains important and complex, and a of the Higher Education Fund and governmental recent observation has been that evening education university funds as an auxiliary source of funding for (which depends on the payment of premiums by educational institutions, especially during economic students as well as special maintenance in graduate crises. program) has succeeded in financing and paying References: professors and lecturers through this channel. Also 1. Aebi, V., Sabato, G., & Schmid, M. (2012). private (community) education, which played an Risk management, corporate governance, and increasing role in higher education after 2003, bank performance in the financial successfully financed itself and invested in the crisis. Journal of Banking & Finance, 36(12), expansion to a large extent. Over the last five years 3213-3226. 2014-2019, however, the Corona crisis and declining 2. Agarwal, P. (2006). Higher education in India: numbers of students enrolled at their own expense in The need for change (No. 180). Working paper. both state and community universities (Private 3. Altameemi, A. L. I. H., & Flayyih, H. H. sector) put additional pressure specifically on the (2021). A comparative Study in the Role of private education sector. The proportion of graduates Private Sector in Relationships Analysis for both primary and higher studies has increased to between Economic Sustainability and COVID- 47% and 37%, respectively, during the course of 19 : Evidence from Iraq and Russia UN Estudio study. There has also been a shift in the structure of Comparativo sobre el Papel Del Sector Privado higher education from government and private en el Análisis de las Relaciones entre la Sos. universities and colleges towards technical institutes, 39(November), 1–13. whose student ratio has increased. (17 to 20%) in less https://doi.org/10.25115/eea.v39i11.5842 than five years, because graduates of these private 4. Barnes, P. (2019). Academic independence, medical institutes have higher chances of freedom and ‘enlightenment’: The case of
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