Lecture Notes DSA Unit-I
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likeicannot4Data Structures & Algorithms Using C
Unit 1: Data Structures Overview and Arrays (8 Lectures)
Concepts of Data Types, Abstract Data Type, Data Structure, Fundamental and
Derived Data Types. Importance of data structures. Array as a data structure
(characteristics, advantages, disadvantages).Representation of arrays – single and
multidimensional. Address calculation of array element using column and row major
ordering. Address translation functions for one & two dimensional arrays. Insertion and
deletion in arrays. Use of arrays for large number representation.
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Lecture No. 1-8
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he term data structure is used to describe the way data is stored, and the term
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algorithmisusedtodescribethewaydataisprocessed.Datastructuresandalgorithmsare
interrelated. Choosing a data structure affects the kind of algorithm you might use, and
choosinganalgorithmaffectsthedatastructuresweuse.AnAlgorithmisafinitesequenceof
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instructions,eachofwhichhasaclearmeaningandcanbeperformedwithafiniteamount
of effort in a finite length of time. No matter what the input values may be, an algorithm
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terminates after executing a finite number of instructions.
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1.1 Introduction to Data Structures: (Lecture-1)
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ata Structureisawayoforganising,managing,andstoringdatainacomputerso
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thatitcanbeaccessedandusedefficiently.Itprovidesasystematicwayoforganisingand
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accessingdatathatenablesfastandefficientoperationsonthedata.Themaingoalofusing
Data Structure is to reduce the complexity of accessing and manipulating data.
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Datastructureisarepresentationoflogicalrelationshipsexistingbetweenindividual
elementsofdata.Inotherwords,adatastructuredefinesawayoforganisingalldataitems
that considers not only the elements stored but also their relationship to each other. The
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term data structure is used to describe thewaydataisstored.Todevelopaprogramofan
algorithm we shouldselectanappropriatedatastructureforthatalgorithm.Therefore,data
structure is represented as:
Algorithm + Data structure = Program
data structure is said to be linear ifitselementsformasequenceoralinearlist.
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The linear data structures like an array, stacks, queues and linked lists organise data in
linear order. A data structure is said to be non linear if its elements form a hierarchical
classification where data items appearatvariouslevels.TreesandGraphsarewidelyused
non-linear data structures. Tree and graph structures represent hierarchical relationships
between individual data elements. Graphs are nothing but trees with certain restrictions
removed.
Data structures are divided into two types:
• Primitive data structures.
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• Non-primitive data structures.
Primitive DataStructures are the basic data structures that directly operate upon the
achine instructions.They have different representations on different computers. Integers,
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floating point numbers, character constants, string constants and pointers come under this
Category.
Non-primitivedatastructuresaremorecomplicateddatastructuresandarederived
from primitive data structures. They emphasise on grouping same or different data items
with relationship between each data item. Arrays, lists and filescomeunderthiscategory.
Figure 1.1 shows the classification of data structures.
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1.2 Data structures: Organization of data
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The collection of data a program have some kind of structure or organization.No
matter how complex data structures are they can be broken down into two fundamental
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types:
• Contiguous
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• Non-Contiguous.
Incontiguousstructures,termsofdataarekepttogetherinmemory(eitherRAMor
inafile).Anarrayisanexampleofacontiguousstructure.Sinceeachelementinthearrayis
locatednexttooneortwootherelements.Incontrast,itemsinanon-contiguousstructure
are scattered in memory, but they are linkedtoeachotherinsomeway.Alinkedlistisan
example of a non-contiguous data structure (as shown in figure 1.2).
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1.3 Abstract Data Type (ADT):
Thedesignofadatastructureinvolvesmorethanjustitsorganisation.Youalsoneed
to plan forthewaythedatawillbeaccessedandprocessed–thatis,howthedatawillbe
interpreted actually, non-contiguous structures – including lists, tree and graphs – can be
implemented either contiguously or non- contiguously likewise, the structures that are
normally treated as contiguously - arrays and structures – can also be implemented
non-contiguously.
The notion of a data structure in the abstract needs to be treated differently from
whatever is used to implement the structure. The abstract notion of a data structure is
defined in terms of the operations we plan to perform on the data.
Considering both theorganisationofdataandtheexpectedoperationsonthedata,
leads to the notion of an abstract data type. An abstract data type(ADT) is a theoretical
construct that consists ofdataaswellastheoperationstobeperformedonthedatawhile
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hiding implementation.
Somecommonabstractdatatypesarelinkedlists,stack,queue,trees,trie,graphs
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etc.
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1.4 Fundamental and Derived Data Types
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The basic data(also known as fundamental data types) types are defined in the
programminglanguageCorC++formthefundamentalbasisofanyprogram,asthename
suggests. e.g : int, char, float, double are fundamental types in C/C++.
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Derived data types: The data types are formed by using a collective of a few
fundamentaldatatypes,hencearederiveddatatypes,asthenamesuggests.e.g. arrays,
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structures, unions etc are some examples of derived data types.
Note:For more clear understanding refer to figure 1.1
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1.5 Importance of data structures
Data structures are essential tools for storing and organising data in computer
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programs.Theyprovideanefficientwaytoaccessandmanipulatedata,makingiteasierfor
programmers to write code that is both efficient and easy to understand. Here are some
reasons why data structures are important:
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a. Efficient Data Access: Data structures provide efficient methods for
accessing and searching data. By organisingdatainaspecificway,wecan
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access it faster and more efficiently.
b. ResourceOptimization:Datastructurescanhelpoptimisetheuseofsystem
resourcessuchasmemory,diskspace,andprocessingpower.Byusingdata
structures that are appropriate for the task at hand, we can reduce the
amount of memory and processing power required to manipulate the data.
c. CodeReusability:Datastructurescanbereusedacrossmultipleprograms,
saving time and effort. Once a data structure is implemented and tested, it
can be used in different programs and contexts, reducing the need towrite
new code from scratch.
d. Scalability: As programs grow and data volumes increase, data structures
help ensure that the program remains scalable. By using the right data
structures, we can ensure that our programs can handle larger and more
complex data sets without sacrificing performance or stability.
Insummary,datastructuresareimportanttoolsforstoring,organising,andaccessing
data in computer programs. Theyhelpoptimiseperformance,reducecodecomplexity,and
ensure scalability, making them essential for modern software development.
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1.6 Array as a data structure (characteristics, advantages, disadvantages) (Lecture 2)
An array is a collection of similar types of dataitemsstoredatcontiguousmemory
locations.Theideaistostoremultipleitemsofthesametypetogether.Thismakesiteasier
tocalculatethepositionofeachelementbysimplyaddinganoffsettoabasevalue,i.e.,the
memory location of the first element of the array (generally denoted by the name of the
array).
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Applications:
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Storingandaccessingdata:Arraysareusedtostoreandretrievedatainaspecific
order.Forexample,anarraycanbeusedtostorethescoresofagroupofstudents,
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or the temperatures recorded by a weather station.
Sorting: Arrays canbeusedtosortdatainascendingordescendingorder.Sorting
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algorithms such as bubble sort, merge sort, and quicksort rely heavily on arrays.
Searching: Arrays can be searchedforspecificelementsusingalgorithmssuchas
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linear search and binary search.
Matrices:Arraysareusedtorepresentmatricesinmathematicalcomputationssuch
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as matrix multiplication, linear algebra, and image processing.
Stacks and queues: Arrays are used as the underlying data structure for
implementing stacks and queues,whicharecommonlyusedinalgorithmsanddata
structures.
Graphs:Arrayscanbeusedtorepresentgraphsincomputerscience.Eachelement
inthearrayrepresentsanodeinthegraph,andtherelationshipsbetweenthenodes
are represented by the values stored in the array.
Dynamicprogramming:Dynamicprogrammingalgorithmsoftenusearraystostore
intermediate results of subproblems in order to solve a larger problem.
Characteristics:
An array is always stored in consecutive memory locations.
It can store multiple values of similar type, which can be referred to with a single
name.
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hepointerpointstothefirstlocationofthememoryblock,whichisallocatedtothe
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array name.
Anarraycaneitherbeaninteger,character,orfloatdatatypethatcanbeinitialised
only during the declaration.
The particular element ofanarraycanbemodifiedseparatelywithoutchangingthe
other elements.
All elements of an array can be distinguished with the help of index number.
Advantages:
fficient access to elements: Arrays provide direct and efficient access to any
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element in the collection. Accessing an element in an array is an O(1) operation,
meaning that the time required to access an element is constant and does not
depend on the size of the array.
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Fastdataretrieval:Arraysallowforfastdataretrievalbecausethedataisstoredin
contiguousmemorylocations.Thismeansthatthedatacanbeaccessedquicklyand
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efficiently without the need for complex data structures or algorithms.
Memoryefficiency:Arraysareamemory-efficientwayofstoringdata.Becausethe
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elementsofanarrayarestoredincontiguousmemorylocations,thesizeofthearray
is known at compile time. This means that memory can be allocated for theentire
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array in one block, reducing memory fragmentation.
Versatility: Arrays can be used to store a wide range of data types, including
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integers,floating-pointnumbers,characters,andevencomplexdatastructuressuch
as objects and pointers.
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Easytoimplement:Arraysareeasytoimplementandunderstand,makingtheman
ideal choice for beginners learning computer programming.
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Compatibility with hardware: The array data structure is compatible with most
hardwarearchitectures,makingitaversatiletoolforprogramminginawiderangeof
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environments.
Disadvantages:
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Fixed size: Arrays haveafixedsizethatisdeterminedatthetimeofcreation.This
means that if the size of the array needs to be increased, a new array must be
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createdandthedatamustbecopiedfromtheoldarraytothenewarray,whichcan
be time-consuming and memory-intensive.
Memoryallocationissues:Allocatingalargearraycanbeproblematic,particularly
insystemswithlimitedmemory.Ifthesizeofthearrayistoolarge,thesystemmay
run out of memory, which can cause the program to crash.
Insertion and deletion issues: Inserting or deletinganelementfromanarraycan
be inefficient and time-consuming because all the elements after the insertion or
deletion point must be shifted to accommodate the change.
Wasted space: If an array is notfullypopulated,therecanbewastedspaceinthe
memory allocated for the array. This can be a concern if memory is limited.
Limiteddatatypesupport:Arrayshavelimitedsupportforcomplexdatatypessuch
asobjectsandstructures,astheelementsofanarraymustallbeofthesamedata
type.
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ack of flexibility: The fixed size and limited support for complex data types can
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make arrays inflexible compared to other data structures such as linked lists and
trees.
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1.7 Representation of arrays in memory – single and multidimensional (Lecture 3)
One Dimensional Array (1D Array):
Representation of 1D array:
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Multi Dimensional Array (2D Array):
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Representation of 2 D array:
1. Row Major Ordering
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2. Column Major Ordering.
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Fig.2D array in memory
.8Addresscalculationofarrayelementusingcolumnandrowmajorordering(1D,2D
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and 3D):
Address Translation Function(ATF):
Address of any element In the 1-D array:
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Address of A[I] = B + W * (I – LB)where,
I= Subset of element whose address to be found,
B= Base address,
W= Storage size of one element store in any array(in byte),
LB= Lower Limit/Lower Bound of subscript(If not specified assume zero).
Fig.1D Array address
xample:GiventhebaseaddressofanarrayA[1300…………1900]as1020andthesize
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of each element is 2 bytes in the memory, find the address of A[1700].
Solution:
iven,
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Base addressB= 1020
Lower Limit/Lower Bound of subscriptLB= 1300
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Storage size of one element store in any arrayW= 2 Byte
Subset of element whose address to be foundI= 1700
Formula used:
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Address ofA[I] = B + W * (I – LB)
Solution:
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Address ofA[1700]= 1020 + 2 * (1700 – 1300)
= 1020 + 2 * (400)
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= 1020 + 800
Address ofA[1700]= 1820
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Address of any element In the 2-D array: (Lecture 4)
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The 2-dimensional array can be defined as an array of arrays. The
2-Dimensional arrays are organised as matrices which can be represented as the
collectionofrowsandcolumnsasarray[M][N]whereMisthenumberofrowsand
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N is the number of columns.
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o find the address of any element in a 2-Dimensional array there are the
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following two ways-
Row Major Order
Column Major Order
Row Major Order:
Row major ordering assigns successive elements, moving across the rows
and then down the next row, to successive memory locations. In simple language,
the elements of an array are stored in a Row-Wise fashion.
To find the address of theelementusingrow-majororderusesthefollowing
formula:
ddress of A[I][J] = B + W * ((I – LR) * N + (J – LC)) where,
A
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I= Row Subset of an element whose address to be found,
J= Column Subset of an element whose address to be found,
B= Base address,
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W= Storage size of one element store in an array(in byte),
LR = Lower Limit of row/start row index of the matrix(If not given assume it as
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zero),
LC=LowerLimitofcolumn/startcolumnindexofthematrix(Ifnotgivenassumeit
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as zero),
N= Number of column given in the matrix.
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Fig.2DRow Major
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xample: Given an array, arr[1………10][1………15] with base value 100andthesizeof
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each element is 1Byteinmemory.Findtheaddressofarr[8][6]withthehelpofrow-major
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order.
Solution:
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Given:
Base addressB= 100
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Storage size of one element store in any arrayW= 1 Bytes
Row Subset of an element whose address to be foundI= 8
Column Subset of an element whose address to be foundJ= 6
Lower Limit of row/start row index of matrixLR= 1
Lower Limit of column/start column index of matrix = 1
Number of column given in the matrixN= Upper Bound – Lower Bound + 1
= 15 – 1 + 1
= 15
Formula:
Address of A[I][J] = B + W * ((I – LR) * N + (J – LC))
i.e.
Address ofA[8][6]= 100 + 1 * ((8 – 1) * 15 + (6 – 1))
= 100 + 1 * ((7) * 15 + (5))
= 100 + 1 * (110)
Address ofA[I][J]= 210
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Column Major Order: (Lecture 5)
Address of A[I][J] = B + W * ((J – LC) * M + (I – LR))where,
I =Row Subset of an element whose address to be found,
J= Column Subset of an element whose address to be found,
B= Base address,
W= Storage size of one element store in any array(in byte),
LR= Lower Limit of row/start row index of matrix(If not given assume it as zero),
LC=LowerLimitofcolumn/startcolumnindexofmatrix(Ifnotgivenassumeitas
zero),
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M= Number of rows given in the matrix.
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Fig.2DColumn Major
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xample:Givenanarrayarr[1………10][1………15]withabasevalueof100andthesize
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of each element is 1 Byte in memory find the address of arr[8][6] with the help of
column-major order.
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Solution:
Given,
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Base addressB= 100
Storage size of one element store in any arrayW= 1 Bytes
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Row Subset of an element whose address to be foundI= 8
Column Subset of an element whose address to be foundJ= 6
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Lower Limit of row/start row index of matrixLR= 1
Lower Limit of column/start column index of matrix = 1
Number of Rows given in the matrixM= Upper Bound – Lower Bound + 1
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= 10 – 1 + 1
= 10
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Formula used,
Address of A[I][J] = B + W * ((J – LC) * M + (I – LR))
Address ofA[8][6]= 100 + 1 * ((6 – 1) * 10 + (8 – 1))
= 100 + 1 * ((5) * 10 + (7))
= 100 + 1 * (57)
Address ofA[I][J]= 157
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1.8 Insertion and deletion in arrays (Lecture 6)
Insert Operation:
1.Insert at the end:
In an unsorted array, the insert operation is faster ascomparedtoa
sorted array because we don’t have to care about thepositionatwhichthe
element is to be placed.
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// C program to implement insert
// operation in an unsorted array.
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#include <stdio.h>
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// Inserts a key in arr[] of given capacity.
// n is current size of arr[]. This
// function returns n + 1 if insertion
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// is successful, else n.
int insertSorted(int arr[], int n, int key, int capacity)
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{
// Cannot insert more elements if n is
// already more than or equal to capacity
if (n >= capacity)
return n;
arr[n] = key;
return (n + 1);
}
// Driver Code
int main()
{
int arr[20] = { 12, 16, 20, 40, 50, 70 };
int capacity = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
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int n = 6;
int i, key = 26;
rintf("\n Before Insertion: ");
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for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
// Inserting key
n = insertSorted(arr, n, key, capacity);
rintf("\n After Insertion: ");
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for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
return 0;
}
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2. Insert at any position:
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Insert operation in an array at any position can be performed by
shifting elements to the right, which are on the right side of the required
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position.
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LCBC/IT
// C Program to Insert an element
// at a specific position in an Array
include <stdio.h>
#
// Function to insert element
// at a specific position
void insertElement(int arr[], int n, int x, int pos)
{
// shift elements to the right
// which are on the right side of pos
for (int i = n - 1; i >= pos; i--)
arr[i + 1] = arr[i];
arr[pos] = x;
}
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// Driver's code
int main()
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{
int arr[15] = { 2, 4, 1, 8, 5 };
int n = 5;
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rintf("Before insertion : ");
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for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
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printf("\n");
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int x = 10, pos = 2;
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// Function call
insertElement(arr, n, x, pos);
n++;
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rintf("After insertion : ");
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for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
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return 0;
}
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Deletion Operation: (Lecture 7)
Inthedeleteoperation,theelementtobedeletedissearchedusingthelinear
search, and then the delete operation is performed followed by shifting the elements.
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// C program to implement delete operation in a
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// unsorted array
#include <stdio.h>
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// To search a key to be deleted
int findElement(int arr[], int n, int key);
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// Function to delete an element
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int deleteElement(int arr[], int n, int key)
{
// Find position of element to be deleted
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int pos = findElement(arr, n, key);
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if (pos == -1) {
printf("Element not found");
return n;
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}
// Deleting element
int i;
for (i = pos; i < n - 1; i++)
arr[i] = arr[i + 1];
return n - 1;
}
// Function to implement search operation
int findElement(int arr[], int n, int key)
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (arr[i] == key)
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return i;
return -1;
}
// Driver's code
int main()
{
int i;
int arr[] = { 10, 50, 30, 40, 20 };
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
int key = 30;
rintf("Array before deletion\n");
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for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
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printf("%d ", arr[i]);
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// Function call
n = deleteElement(arr, n, key);
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rintf("\nArray after deletion\n");
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for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
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printf("%d ", arr[i]);
return 0;
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}
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1.9 Use of arrays for large number representation (Lecture 8)
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We can represent a number as a sequence ofdigitsstoredinanarrayofintegers.
We canwritefunctionstoadd,multiply,etc.onthosearrays,andthenmakethemaslarge
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as we want.
In our new representation, we have an array of "digits" (integers) in some base b.
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ypically, b = 10, ournormaldecimalnumbersystem;thatmakesthingseasytoprint.The
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0'th array element is the1'splace,the#1elementistheten'splace,the#2elementisthe
hundreds place , and so forth (really, the b0's place, the b1 place, the b2 place, etc.)
et's look atsomealgorithmsdoingarithmeticonournew"big"integers.We'llletN
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be the number of digits we will represent. If we need any more, we just increase N. Let
BASEbethebaseofournumbersystem,understoodtobe10typically,butcanbechanged
if we like.
First, we need a way of making a "normal" integer into a "big" integer; we'd like a
functioncalledmake_intsuchthate.g.make_int(A,123)wouldput3inA[0],2inA[1],1in
A[2], and zerosinA[3..N-1].We'lldotheseinCratherthanpseudocodebecausethecode
works out very easily:
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Masud Alam Rofi
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/* put the normal int n into the big int A */
void make_int (int A[], int n) {
int i;
/* start indexing at the 0's place */
i = 0;
/* while there is still something left to the number
* we're encoding... */
while (n) {
/* put the least significant digit of n into A[i] */
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A[i++] = n % BASE;
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/* get rid of the least significant digit,
* i.e., shift right once
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n /= BASE;
}
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/* fill the rest of the array up with zeros */
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while (i < N) A[i++] = 0;
}
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owlet'slookatthemoregeneralcaseofadditionoftwobigintegers.Here,wewant
N
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toaddtwobigintsinarrayscalledA[0..N-1]andB[0..N-1],andputtheresultintoC[0..N-1].
We'llusethealgorithmwelearnedingradeschool:addcorrespondingdigits,plusa"carry"
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generated by previous overflows.
/* C = A + B */
void add (int A[], int B[], int C[]) {
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int i, carry, sum;
/* no carry yet */
carry = 0;
/* go from least to most significant digit */
for (i=0; i<N; i++) {
/* the i'th digit of C is the sum of the
* i'th digits of A and B, plus any carry
*/
sum = A[i] + B[i] + carry;
/* if the sum exceeds the base, then we have a carry. */
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if (sum >= BASE) {
carry = 1;
/* make sum fit in a digit (same as sum %= BASE) */
sum -= BASE;
} else
/* otherwise no carry */
carry = 0;
/* put the result in the sum */
C[i] = sum;
}
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/* if we get to the end and still have a carry, we don't have
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* anywhere to put it, so panic!
*/
if (carry) printf ("overflow in addition!\n");
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} ai
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