Status of Sorghum Smuts and Their Control in Eastern Ethiopia

Temam Hussien
Department o f Plant Sciences. Alemaya University, P.O. Box 165, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Abstract
A survey was made in East Ethiopia during O ctober to November over 2 0 01 -200 3 to
investigate the status of sorghum smuts, their importance, local control practices and reasons
for their continued occurrence, A total of 240 farms and 120 farm ers random ly from four
sorghum growing districts in the region were used. According to farmers, sm uts were endem ic
and they knew them since childhood- In farm ers’ view, the main sorghum smuts requiring
control were covered kernel smut (S. sorghi Link.) and long smut (S. ehrenbergii Vanky). The
incidence o f covered kernel smut and long sm ut ranged 5-2 0 % and 7 -1 4 % , respectively; and
In some isolated farms, it reached 80%. Loose kernel smut (S. cruentum (Kuhn.) Potter.) and
head smut (S. reilianum (Kuhn) Langdon & Fullerton) were rarely encountered, and their
incidence never exceeded 4%. Smuts caused a 13% estimated combined yield loss in
sorghum. Farmers never applied chemical seed dressings against smuts because fungicides
were not available and/or affordable to farmers. Farmers mainly used local sorghum cultivars
selected and retained for yield potential, with little emphasis on smut resistance. Improved
varieties were not available, and when available, the supply was inadequate. Many farm ers
(48%) did not exercise any control measure; whereas, some used different local control
methods. Many reasons contributed to the continued occurrence of sm uts in the region.

Key words: Sorghum smuts, control practices, eastern Ethiopia

Introduction sorghum diseases (Esele 2002). Covered and

loose smuts are also reported to be the most
Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.] is important sorghum diseases in East Africa
an important and indispensable crop in (Esele 2002).
Ethiopia. In eastern Ethiopia, sorghum is the
In eastern Ethiopia, sorghum smuts have been
major staple food crop, and it is largely
a problem for a long time. All o f the above-
produced by smallholder farmers. There is
mentioned four smuts occur in all sorghum-
high genetic variability in highland and
growing areas in the region; but disease
lowland sorghum types (Brhane 1973).
intensity varies from place to place (AU
Diseases constitute an important production
2003). Covered kernel smut and loose smut,
constraint under traditional and improved
both seed-borne, are most common.
cropping systems and cause tremendous crop
According to AU (2003), long smut also
loss depending mainly on the environment
became very important during 2001-2003
(Mengistu 1982). Among panicle diseases,
particularly in Fedis and Dire Dawa areas.
smuts such as covered kernel smut (S.
Little is known o f the exact yield losses in
sorghi), loose kernel smut (S. cruentum),
sorghum due to these diseases. However, the
head smut (S. relianuni) and long smut (S.
incidence and severity o f smuts every year
ehrenbergii) are the most wide-spread
could justify that they are economically
diseases (Mengistu 1982, Temam 1990). In
important and may result in significant yield
the Horn o f Africa, smuts are economically
losses depending mainly on the environment.
important that cause 5-80% yield losses, and
For instance, unlike those afflicted by
collectively they are the most damaging o f all
covered kernel smut and long smut, plants

Pest Mgt. J. Eth. 10:41-51 (2006)

42 T e m a m H u s s ie n

infected with loose and head smuts are nearly According to a survey in Uganda, very few
always barren, resulting in a directly farmers had any technical knowledge of
proportional yield loss to the number o f smuts or their control, and the traditional
plants infected. practices employed by farmers were largely
responsible for the continued occurrence of
In many parts o f the world, seed-treatment sorghum smuts in the Florn o f Africa (Esele
fungicides are routinely used for disease 2002). Some o f the traditional practices were:
control in sorghum. The fungicides are most farmers keep and use their own seed for
effective in reducing or eliminating seed- planting during the next season, very few
borne pathogens. For example, covered and farmers treat seeds before planting, some
loose kernel smuts, which were once among farmers ratoon their sorghum which serves as
the most serious diseases o f sorghum, are no a means o f loose smut propagation and most
longer problems because o f the use o f seed farmers use late-maturing varieties that are
treatment fungicides (Frowd 1980). Covered susceptible to head smut. However, whether
kernel smut is very destructive in developing the survey findings on the situation and
countries where seed dressing is not continued occurrence o f smuts in the Horn
practised. In West Africa, losses o f 5 to 10% (Esele 2002) held true for eastern Ethiopia
due to the disease are reported (Frowd 1980). and whether farmers used any local control
According to Merkuz (2001), the mean yield measure was not investigated. The present
loss under farmers condition in northwest survey was, therefore, undertaken to
Ethiopia ranged from 38 to 44%. Similarly, determine the distribution, incidence and
Eshetu (2002) reported yield losses ranging severity o f sorghum smuts; assess the reasons
from 1 to 54% in artificially inoculated fields for their continued occurrence and collect and
that consisted o f different varieties in document available indigenous smut control
northeast Ethiopia. practices in East Ethiopia.
Research on sorghum smuts in Ethiopia has
largely been limited to diagnosing diseases,
Materials and Methods
recording outbreaks, and advising farmers on
a cultural control method, i.e., the use of
fermented cattle or goat urine for the control D escription o f the study areas
o f covered kernel smut (EARO 1996). O f Five major sorghum-growing districts were
course, seed treatment with the fungicide selected for the study as representatives of
Thriam is recommended for the control o f three major agro-ecological zones in East
covered kernel smut; but very few farmers Ethiopia: highland (> 1900 m), mid-altitude
treat seeds before planting (EARO 1997). (1500-1900 m) and lowland (< 1500 m). The
According to EARO (1996), the most districts were: Alemaya (highland); Babile,
promising control method for covered kernel Fedis, and Jijiga (mid-altitude); and Dire
smut is the use o f goat urine and the fungicide Dawa Administrative council (lowland).
Apron Plus. Table 1 presents some descriptions o f the
study areas.
The occurrence, distribution, and incidence o f
sorghum smuts and the traditional control Eastern Ethiopia has a bimodal rainfall
practices used by farmers in eastern Ethiopia pattern with short and long rainy seasons. The
were not adequately studied and documented short rainy season occurs from April to June
In spite o f the availability o f some control and the long season from July to October.
methods, smuts continued to jeopardize The region receives about 25% o f its annual
sorghum production. Moreover, the reasons rainfall during the short rainy season and 45%
for the continued occurrence o f the diseases during the long season.
in subsistence farms were not studies.
 Sta tu s and Control of S org hum S muts 43

Table 1. Elevation, latitude, longitude, soil properties, rainfall, and temperature of the study areas

District Altitude Latitude Longitude Soil type pH Total annual Mean annual
(m) rainfall (mm) tem perature (°C)

Alemaya 1820-2040 9°26’N 42°03'E clay loam 8.5 790 17

Babile 1650-1710 9°08'N 42°21'E sandy loam 7.0 500 22

Dire Dawa 1110-1770 9°31'N 41°51'E sandy loam 8.0 500 28

Fedis 1650-1700 9°12'N 42°04'E sandy loam 7.0 600 22

Jijiga 1600-1700 8°44'N 40°22’E sandy loam 8.0 510 23

Distribution o f sorghum gen otypes and

F ield survey
their reactions to sm uts
Field surveys were conducted for three years
During the survey, the types o f sorghum
during October-Novem ber in 2001-2003
cultivars or varieties grown by farmers were
when most o f the sorghum was at milk and
documented. The reactions o f the cultivars to
dough stages. Five peasant associations (PAs)
smuts under farm ers’ field condition were
from each o f the 5 districts and 10 farms from
determined using the method suggested by
each PA were randomly selected for the filed
Abbas (1991). To classify the reactions o f the
surveys. A total o f 240 farms consisting o f 40
test genotypes, the mean disease incidence
from Alemaya and 50 from the other 4
was used, where < 1% incidence = highly
districts were used.
resistant, 1-2% = resistant, 2.1-5% =
Fields were sampled on both sides o f the road moderately resistant, 5.1-10% = moderately
and smut incidence and severity were susceptible, and > 10% = susceptible (Abbas
recorded by inspecting 100 plants per sample 1991).
field. Sample plants were systematically
selected by moving diagonally in an ‘X ’
pattern from one end o f each field to the Yield loss assessm ent
other. Plants were selected randomly from Losses in sorghum yield due to covered
five spots in each o f the two diagonals o f the kernel and long smuts were estimated using
field and the panicles were recorded as either healthy and diseased heads in randomly
diseased or healthy. Disease severity was selected fields from each sample PA.
determined as percentage o f infection on each Differences in yield between the healthy and
panicle. To obtain the variation between the diseased heads were calculated to assess the
surveyed districts, data on disease incidence effect o f the pathogen on sorghum yield
and severity were statistically analyzed (t- under actual farm condition. In each selected
test) using the MSTAT-C computer software field, 10 healthy and 10 diseased heads were
package. randomly selected and tagged. Disease
severity on each selected diseased head was
Field surveys were supplemented by
scored and the average o f the ten plants was
conducting interviews with subsistence
computed. The selected healthy and diseased
farm ers’ during October-November. A total
heads were harvested separately and threshed.
o f 120 sample farmers were selected from the
Yield loss was determined using the formula
five major sorghum growing districts. The
(Miller 1965):
interviews were administered using a pre-
coded questionnaire.
44 T e m a m H u s s ie n

Y j t _y r In Babile district, covered kernel smut was

YL(%)=--------- *100 predominant with 20% mean incidence and
YP 50% severity. This was followed by long
where, YL = yield loss, YH = yield o f healthy smut with 70% mean incidence and 50%
heads, and YI = yield o f infected heads severity. The incidence o f both head and
loose kernel smuts was about 1%. There was
Data were transformed with square root statistically significant difference (p < 5%) in
transformation, and statistical analysis was the incidence o f these diseases in the district.
performed using the MSTAT-C software. In Dire Dawa Administrative Council, long
smut was predominant with 13% disease
Unlike those afflicted by covered kernel and
incidence and 5% severity. Covered kernel
long smuts, plants infected with loose and
smut showed about 5% mean disease
head smuts are nearly always barren.
incidence and 4% disease severity levels.
Therefore, the yield caused by loose and head
Loose kernel and head smuts were very rarely
smuts loss is directly proportional to the
observed (< 1% incidence).
incidence or number o f plants infected.
In Fedis, long and covered kernel smuts were
predominant with mean disease incidence of
Results 10 and 7%, respectively. Loose kernel and
head smuts were very rarely observed (< 1%
O ccurrence an d distribution o f sorghum incidence). The severity o f all the four smuts
sm uts was more than 50%. In Jijiga area, covered
kernel and long smuts were dominant with
All the four sorghum smuts were observed
mean disease incidence o f 16 and 11%,
attacking sorghum in farm ers’ fields in all the
respectively, and severity o f more than 50%.
surveyed areas (Table 2). In Alemaya district,
There were lesser incidences o f head and
loose kernel smut was predominant with a
loose kernel smuts, 3 and 1%, respectively.
mean incidence o f 2.18%, followed by
covered kernel smut (1.33%) and head smut Reaction o f sorghum genotypes
(1.18%). The incidence o f long smut was less
than 1%. The mean disease severity o f both In the surveyed areas, both local cultivars and
covered and long smuts was about 50%. improved varieties o f sorghum were
There was no statistically significant cultivated by farmers. Five local cultivars
difference (p = 0.05) in disease incidence were grown in Alemaya: Muyra Dima (42%),
between the different smut diseases in Fendisha Adi (21%), Worabi Dima (14%),
Alemaya. Worabi Adi (14%), and Fendisha Dima (7%).

Table 2. Incidence of smuts in five sorghum-growing districs in eastern Ethiopia

District No. of Incidence (%)

farms Covered Long Head Loose
surveyed kernel smut smut smut kernel smut
Alemaya 40 3 2 2 4
Babile 50 20 7 1 0.24
Dire Dawa 50 5 14 0.1 0.05
Fedis 50 7 10 0.5 0.04
Jijiga 50 16 11 3 1
Mean* 10.11a 08.75“ 1.40° 01.10°

‘ Values with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05)
 S tatu s and C ontro l of S orghum S m uts 45

Table 3. Occurrence of smuts on different sorghum genotypes in eastern Ethiopia

Sorghum Local or Composition (%) Smut incidence (%)*

District genotypes improved
CKS LS LKS HS

Fendisha Dima Local 0 7.00 00.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0

Fendisha Adi Local 21.00 0.00 0 0 .0 0 04.0 03.0
>, Muyra Dima Local 42.00 04.67 01.83 01.0 00 .0
T
O
E Muyra-1 Improved 01.50 00.00 00.00 00.0 00 .0
0)
< Muyra-2 Improved 00.50 0 0 .00 0 0 .0 0 00.0 00.0
Worabi Dima Local 14.00 0.00 07.00 0 .0 0 0 0 .0
Worabi Adi Local 14.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 00.0
Beduqani Local 06.00 04.50 21.00 0 0.0 00.0
Bullo Local 28.00 07.88 08.00 0 0.0 0.22
o
Chamie Local 39.00 11.00 07.00 01.0 0.11
Mishsinga Adi Local 03.00 24.00 01.00 0 0.0 0 0 .0
ro Mishinga Dima Local 07.00 02.50 19.50 0 0.0 0 0 .0
CO
Muyra Dima Local 10.00 03.70 50.00 0 0.0 0 0 .0
Wodaageray Local 07.00 01.50 64.50 00.0 00.0
Worabi Local 03.00 02.00 036.00 0 0.0 00.0
Alisho Adi Local 17.00 0 0 .00 0 0 .00 00.0 00.0
ra Amagikita Dima Local 08.00 05.00 09.00 0 0 .0 00.0
i
ra
Q Amagikita Adi Local 08.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 00.0 00.0
<U Jeldi Local 50.00 05.17 13.17 00.0 0 0 .0
O Worabi Local 08.30 0 0 .00 09.00 00.0 00.0
Others (mixed) Local 09.00 02.00 06.00 0 0 .0 00.0
Cherchero Local 25.00 00.00 02.50 0 0 .0 0 00.0
Gubiye Imp. 20.00 03.20 01.80 0 0 .0 0 00.0
.2 Hafera Local 13.00 18.70 04.00 00.00 0 0.0
4) Lugo Local 04.00 30.00 01.00 0 0 .0 0 00.0
Li­
Oldhale Local 13.00 02.30 01.30 00.00 00.0
Shuna Local 25.00 02.00 14.50 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0
Abdiro Local 05.00 15.00 02.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0
Adengab Local 30.00 18.20 09.00 0 0 .0 0 00.0
Aqlibadan Local 02.00 16.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 00.0
Harur Local 02.00 28.00 00 .0 0 0 0 .00 00.0
llmijama Local 27.00 25.60 01.10 00 .0 0 0 0 .0
Kelmali Local 02.00 03.00 00.00 00 .0 0 0 0 .0
ra Kemisne Guru Local 02.00 18.00
o> 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 00.0
“3 Kusso Local 05.00 16.00 09.00 00.00 00 .0
Mukurie Local 07.00 17.70 06.00 00.00 00 .0
Qoldere Local 02.00 08.00 00.00 00 .00 0 0 .0
Sudan Local 02.00 16.00 18.00 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0
Washenad Local 02.00 36.00 02.00 0 0 .0 0 00 .0
Wagare Local 05.00 42.50 00.50 0 0 .0 0 00 .0
Yeriyeri Local 07.00 07.70 00.30 00 .00 00 .0

*CKS, covered kernel smut; LS, long smut; LKS, loose kernel smut; HS, head smut

There was no smut incidence on Fendisha In Dire Dawa, the local cultivars grown were;
Dima, M uyra-1, Muyra-2, and Worabi Adi. Alisho White, Amagikita Red, Amagikita
However, very low infections were White, Jeldi, and Worabi. However, Jeldi
encountered On Muyra Dima, Fendisha Adi, (50%) and Alisho White (17%) were
Worabi Dima and Worabi Adi, (Table 3). predominant. Amagikita Red, Amagikita
More than 86% o f the cultivars were resistant White and Worabi were more or less o f equal
to moderately resistant to all the four smut importance (about 8% each). About 8% o f the
diseases Moreover, about 36% o f the farms were covered with a mixture of
surveyed farm ers’ fields were free from smut cultivars. None o f the surveyed fields were
infection. free from smut infection. About 67% o f the
46 T e m a m H u s s ie n

cultivars were resistant to covered kernel local cultivars could be susceptible to either
smut and 33% to long smut. One cultivar, covered kernel or long smuts.
Amagikita Adi, was free from smuts. It Ado
was a short cultivar, and it was liked by In Fedis district, five local cultivars and an
fanners. improved variety (Gubiye or P9403) were
encountered (Table 3). Cherchero, Gubiye
Cultivars locally known as Beduqani, Bullo and Shuna were the dominant cultivars with a
Chamie, Mishinga Adi, mishinga Dima, frequency o f 25% each. The frequency o f
Muyra Dima, Wodageri, and Worabi were Hafera and Oldhale was 13% each, while the
grown in Babile (Table 3). Chamie and Buillo cultivar Lugo comprised only 4%. Lugo and
were the dominant cultivars with frequencies Hafera were susceptible to covered kernel
o f 39% and 28%, respectively. The other smut with 30 and 18.7% incidence,
cultivars had low frequencies ranging from 3 respectively; but they cultivars were resistant
to 10%. to long smut. Cherchero was resistant to
covered kernel smut, and moderately resistant
Covered kernel and long smuts were the to long smut. Shuna was resistant to covered
dominant smut diseases in Babile, and none kernel smut, but susceptible to long smut. In
o f the eight cultivars grown in the area were general, cultivars Oldhale, Cherchero and
free from these two smuts. The highest Gubiye showed resistant to moderately-
incidence o f covered kernel smut (24%) was resistant reactions to both covered kernel and
recorded on the cultivar Mishings Adi and the long smuts (Table 3).
lowest (1.5%) on Wodageray. The mean
incidence o f covered kernel smut on the In Jijiga area, 14 local cultivars were
dominant cultivars Chame and Bullo were recorded in farmers’ fields. Among these, the
11% and 7.9%, respectively (Table 3). cultivars Adengab and Ilmijama were
Whereas, the highest incidence o f long smut predominant with frequencies o f 30% and
(64%) was recorded on the cultivar 27%, respectively. The other 12 cultivars
Wodageray. This was followed by incidences were o f low frequencies ranging from 2 to
on Muyra Dima (50%), Worabi (36%), 7% (Table 3). Covered kernel and long smuts
Beduqani (21%), and Mishinga Dima (20%). were the dominant smut diseases encountered
The lowest incidence (1%) was recorded on on the cultivars. All the cultivars were
Mishinga Adi. The incidence o f long smut on infected; but there were differences in the
Bullo was 8.% and Chame 7.%. degree o f infection. The incidence o f covered
kernel smut on the cultivars ranged 3-42.5%,
In general in Babile Woreda, 25% o f the The highest incidence (42.5%) was on the
genotypes were resistant to covered kernel cultivar Wagare, followed by Washenad
smut, while only 12.5% were resistant to long (36%), Harur (28%), Ilmchame (25.6%), and
smut. On the other hand, about 25% o f the Adengab (18.2). Whereas, the lowest
genotypes were susceptible to covered kernel incidence was recorded from Kelmali (3%).
smut and 62.5% to long smut. The reaction o f
the rest o f the genotypes ranged from In general, in Jijiga area about 79% o f the
moderately resistant to moderately cultivars were susceptible to covered kernel
susceptible. According to the survey results, smut, and only 7% were moderately resistant.
none o f the cultivars grown in Babile area On the contrary, 71% o f the cultivars were
were resistant to both o f the diseases at the resistant and 29% susceptible to long smut.
same time. Moreover, those cultivars that Only one cultivar, Kelmali, showed resistance
were resistant or moderately resistant to to both o f these smuts. In addition, the results
covered kernel smut were susceptible to long showed that almost all cultivars that were
smut and vice versa, indicating that under resistant to long smut were susceptible to
favorable environmental conditions these covered kernel smut.
 Statu s and Control of Sorg hum Smuts 47

Table 4. Percentage of farmers practicing different local smut control measures in some
sorghum growing areas in eastern Ethiopia

Indigenous control measure Percentage of farmers practicing different local control

measures for smuts
Babile Dire Dawa Fedis Jijiga Mean %
Rouging out infected heads and 23.26 20.00 22.00 21.00 21.57
feeding to domestic animals

Harvesting, piling and threshing 18.60 20.00 15.00 14.00 16.90

healthy and diseased heads
separately in separate threshing
grounds.
Harvesting, healthy and vigorous 5.00 2.00 2.25 3.25 3.13
heads and staring them separately
un-threshed
Harvesting healthy and vigorous heads 10.00 5.00 4.00 4.22 5.81
and hanging them on smoke till
planting
Washing seeds with fine sand before 5.00 2.00 3.00 2.22 3.06
planting
Washing seeds with Atela, a by­ 2.00 0 0 0 0.5
product of the local beer tella
Washing seeds with goat or cow urine 1.00 0 0 0 0.25
No control measure 35.14 51.00 53.75 55.31 48.30

Indigenous sm u t control practices transported to the store. According to the

farmers, seeds obtained from infected heads
The results o f the study showed that the
were never used for planting. A few farmers
majority o f the fanners in eastern Ethiopia
harvested healthy and vigoros heads and
(48.3%) did not exercise any control measure
stored them separately (3%) or hanged them
against smuts. Some farmers, however, used
near the kitchen fire place till planting (6%).
different local control methods (Table 4).
In Babile area, some farmers (2%) washed
About 22% o f the farmers rouged out infected
seeds with Atela, a by-product o f local beer
heads and fed it to domestic animals. They
called tella. Moreover, some farmers (1%) in
then harvested healthy and vigoros heads and
the area washed their seeds with goat or cow
stored them separately till planting in the next
urine, while some others (3%) rubbed seeds
season.
with fine sand before planting.
About 17% o f the farmers harvested, piled,
and threshed healthy and diseased heads
separately on different threshing grounds. M anagem ent practices fa v o rin g sm ut
The practice was sought to avoid intensity
contamination o f healthy seeds by spores The farmers in the survey districts never
from infected panicles during threshing and applied chemical seed dressings against smuts
transportation. Generally the farmers threshed because seed dressing fungicides were not
infected sorghum heads after normal heads available and/or affordable to farmers.
were threshed and the seed yields were Farmers mainly used local sorghum cultivars
48 T e m a m H u s s ie n

Table 5. Farm management practices that favor occurrence of smut in eastern Ethiopia

Farm practices Alem aya Babile Dire Dawa Fedis Jijiga M ean*

Use of own seed/susceptible 70.00 61.00 55.00 62.00 55.00 60.60a

Varieties
Harvesting and piling healthy 0.00 4.80 6.20 5.60 2.20 03.76d
and diseased heads together
Threshing healthy and 1.00 2.00 3.60 3.40 3.10 02.62e
diseased heads in the same
ground
Rouging infected heads very 3.20 6.70 13.30 6.20 8.60 07.60°
Late
Using market seed 3.70 5.20 3.25 5.40 7.28 04.97d
Practicing crop rotation 20.00 54.00 44.00 22.00 36.00 35.20b

*Means with the same letter are not significant (P<0.05)

Table 6. Sorghum yield loss due to smuts under farmers’ field condition in eastern Ethiopia

District Mean sorghum yield loss (%)

Covered kernel smut Long smut Head smut Loose kernel smut
Alemaya 00.10 00.00 02.00 04.00
Babile 10.00 05.00 01.00 00.24
Dire Dawa 05.00 08.00 00.11 00.05
Fedis 06.00 06.00 00.48 00.04
Jijiga 09.00 06.00 03.40 00.97
Mean* 6.02a 05.008 01,40b 01.10b

'Means with he same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05)

selected and retained for yield potential, but Yield losses due to sm uts in eastern
with little or no emphasis on smut resistance E thiopia
(Table 5). Improved varieties were
In the surveyed areas, all the four smuts were
unavailable and when available, the supply
found to cause yield losses o f different
was not enough. When there was shortage of
degrees (Table 6). Covered kernel and long
seeds, farmers used market seeds that might
smuts caused losses o f 6 and 5%,
not be appropriate for planting. Crop rotation
respectively; while the losses due to head and
in sorghum fields was not widely practised
loose kernel smuts were about 1% each. The
due to land shortage (Table 5). Severe
highest losses due to covered kernel smut
infections with covered kernel and long smuts
were recorded in Babile (10%) and Jijiga
were encountered in fields o f farmers that did
(9%), followed by Fedis (6%) and Dire Dawa
not rogue out infected heads early or those
Administrative Council (5%). Long smut
that used market seed for planting and those
caused 8%, 6%, 6% and 5% losses in Dire
that used same threshing grounds for healthy
Dawa Administrative Council, Fedis, Jijiga,
and diseased heads. These might had
and Babile, respectively. In Alemaya, the
contributed to the severe infestation o f
combined loss due to smuts was insignificant.
sorghum with these smuts in eastern Ethiopia.
 Statu s and C ontro l of S org hum S m uts 49

In general, the estimated combined loss due continued occurrence o f sorghum smuts in
to smuts in eastern Ethiopia was about 13%. the study area. The farmers continuously used
According to the survey findings, covered their own seeds which were saved from the
kernel and long smuts were economically preceding season. M ost farmers used local
important in the region and, therefore, needed varieties that were susceptible to smuts.
to be controlled. Sometimes healthy panicles are harvested and
processed along with smutted panicles,
resulting in an increasing possibility o f seed
Discussion contamination by covered kernel and long
smut pathogens. Quite often, farmers
removed diseased plants very late when
All the four smuts were observed infecting
neighboring plants had filled grains or were
sorghum in farm ers’ fields with light to
ready for harvest. In such cases, wind-borne
severe infections. Covered kernel smut was
spores could have already contaminated the
the most predominant, and its incidence
mature crop and increased the chances o f
ranged from about 3% to 20% infected
seed infection for the next season.
panicles. The highest mean incidence o f
covered kernel smut was encountered in In the survey areas, both local cultivars and
Babile (20%) followed by Jijiga (16%). In improved varieties were cultivated by
Alemaya, Dire Dawa and Fedis, the incidence farmers. In some locations farmers widely
o f the disease was 3, 5 and 7%, respectively. grew white-seeded sorghum cultivars.
Most o f the panicles (16%) were severely Infected seeds on intact heads might appear to
infected, and almost 50% o f the grains were be healthy because the seed color o f these
replaced by covered kernel smut sori. Mary cultivars had a close similarity to the
o f the fields had 5 to 20 diseased panicles. peridium (white-colored resistant membrane
However, in a few scattered fields, the covering the sorus) o f covered kernel smut.
disease incidence was more than 30% and in The makes similarity could, therefore, it
one field, 80% infected panicles were difficult especially for farmers to differentiate
recorded. the healthy grain o f the white-seeded
cultivars from the diseased one without
Incidence o f long smut ranged from 2 to 14%.
careful examination. As a result, farmers
The highest mean incidence o f long smut was
would unknowingly harvest and thresh
found in Dire Dawa Administrative Council
infected panicles together with healthy ones.
(14%). This was followed by Jijiga (10%),
Hence, the similarity in color might partly be
Fedis (10%), and Babile (7%). The incidence
responsible for the spread o f the disease.
in Alemaya area was less than 2%. The
occurrence o f loose kernel and head smuts Covered kernel and long smuts caused losses
was sporadic, and their incidence ranged from o f 6 and 5%, respectively, while the losses
less than 1 to 4%. due to head and loose kernel smuts were
about 1% each. In general, the estimated
Covered kernel and loose kernel smuts are
combined loss due to smuts in eastern
seed-borne diseases. Seed-borne inoculum
Ethiopia was about 13%. The continued
could, therefore, facilitate the rapid spread o f
incidence and severity o f smuts in the area
the diseases to areas where they did not occur
indicated that they were economically
previously. Covered kernel smut and long
important and could result in significant yield
smut were gaining increasing importance in
losses. For instance, unlike those afflicted by
eastern Ethiopia in spite o f the different
covered kernel and long smuts, plants
control methods used by farmers. The
infected with loose and head smuts were
traditional practices employed by farmers
nearly always barren. Therefore, the loss in
seemed to be largely responsible for the
50 T e m a m H u s s ie n

yield was directly proportional to the number order to use them in sorghum improvement
o f plants infected. programs.

Control particularly o f covered kernel and Acknowledgements

loose kernel smuts can easily be achieved by
I thank Ethiopian Institute o f Agricultural
a cost effective treatment. In Ethiopia, a range
Research for providing financial support to
o f effective seed-dressing chemicals such as
conduct the study. The technical assistance o f Mr
Thiram, Maneb, Captan, Thiram + lindance Amare Kebede, Ms Haimanot Bizuneh and Ms
and Macozeb have been recommended for the Kokebe Gizaw is highly appreciated.
control o f covered kernel smut (EARO 1997
EARO 1996). However, farmers do not treat
seeds before planting because the pesticides References
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markets, and they may be accessible only to
o f some new sorghum varieties and efficacy o f
progressive farmers.
seed dressing fungicides against covered
The most promising control method for kernel smut (Sphacelotheca sorghi}. M.Sc.
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goat urine and the insecticide Apron Plus
(EARO 1996). In Nigeria, systemic seed- AU (Alemaya University). 2003. Sorghum
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