Chapter 2:

Literature Review

Career Development

The last few decades have been marked by great changes in the South African workforce, not
only has there been an influx of Black professionals but there has also been a notable inflow
of women in professional positions and a few more have occupied managerial roles (Van
Klaveren & Tijens, 2009). Grant Thornton Business Report revealed that in 2012 South
Africa had 28% of women in top management positions, a percent increase from the previous
year’s survey (Grant Thornton, 2013). This positioned South Africa just outside the top 10
countries when it comes to women in top managerial positions, thus illustrating that South
Africa has been making progress albeit limited. Advancement into managerial roles can only
happen through the process of career development. Career development refers to a change or
a series of changes that occur in an individual’s career (Brown, 2002). However, it should be
noted that not all change is developmental or means progression. Career development as
operationalised in this study refers to systematic and successive changes in one’s professional
life that is indicative of progression (White, Cox & Cooper, 1992). These changes are marked
by the hierarchical climbing of the proverbial corporate ladder, increased salary, greater
freedom to pursue interests thus further developing one’s career and increased recognition
and respect from one’s peers (White, Cox & Cooper, 1992). In order to fully understand the
concept of career development, one should look at the factors required to have a successful
career, which are occupational space, the individual`s potential and non-work space (White,
Cox & Cooper, 1992).

With this understanding of what is required to develop successfully throughout one’s career,
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) can be used to explain how an intersection of
variables can lead to a successful career. The theory was derived from Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory. The framework examines how variables such as self-efficacy, goals and
outcome expectations intersect with external variables such as the environment in which one
finds themselves and nominal variables such as gender in either promoting or inhibiting
growth in career development (Lent & Brown, 1996).

The first premise of the Social Cognitive Career Theory is that there are three interlinked
variables which are essential to regulating a person’s career behaviour and thus development,
self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations and personal goals (Lent & Brown, 1996).
Bandura understood self-efficacy beliefs to be each person’s judgements about their
capabilities to organise then executive certain courses of action to attain desired performances
(Lent & Brown, 1996). Self-efficacy as operationalised in this study refers to the belief
system that one develops over time based on past performance and academic
accomplishments.

Outcome expectations refer to the beliefs people hold about the outcomes of their actions
(Lent & Brown, 1996). People explore the likely effects of certain behaviours; the same
applies to the workplace context. Outcome expectations are based upon an individual’s own
personal experiences from past behaviour as well as second-hand information one has
received regarding similar situations. In this case, an intermediate level manager might expect
to be given a promotion to executive level management based upon their own past
experiences of promotions based on great performance and the organisation’s promotion
policies. For example, in South African local government, promotions and advancement are
said to be based on the system of meritocracy, therefore women in lower levels or entry level
management positions can expect the result of consistent high performance to be a promotion
should a higher position be available, these expectations are formed by their knowledge of
the departmental promotions policies, their own work contributions as well as the experiences
of others who have done the same within the same environment.

The third variable is personal goals, these are most central. Personal goals are more solid than
the belief system seen in self-efficacy and outcome expectations. They are a way through
which people organise, guide, and sustain their own efforts even without external
reinforcements (Lent & Brown, 1996). The interaction of these three variables aid in
regulating the career behaviour and thus marginally career development.

Second, in understanding the theory, it is of great importance to note how gender and race
can expose an individual to certain spaces and opportunities. Whilst, race is not a variable of
interest in this study when examining the career development of women, it cannot be
discounted. Thus the intersection between gender and the three other variables (self-efficacy,
outcome expectations and personal goals) is of significant importance in understanding the
career development of women in management positions within municipal authorities. For
instance, gender because gender has been such a topical issue in South African organisations,
various measures have been emplaced to ensure that all are afforded the same opportunities
and access to resources to be able to succeed.

The final point that can be extrapolated from the social cognitive career theory is that of
understanding the impact of environmental factors. In this study, the influence of
environmental factors is explored in terms of how an individual’s career development is
affected. Therefore, environmental factors as operationalised in this study refer to the work
environment. The environmental factors that affect the career development in this instance,
refer to both the professed organisational culture, as well as the organisational climate.
Organisational climate has been defined in a number of ways, for example, Kouzes & Posner
(1993) simply define it as the collective view of the people that work in a particular
organisation as to the nature of their environment. It is also important to note that the climate
and culture of an organisation can be at odds, this is mostly due to the fact that climate takes
on a more subjective take on the nature of an organisation.

Career development is thought to be regulated by one’s behaviour, the environment in which

they work and their beliefs about their own capabilities. The general expectation is that when
one is in an environment that is conducive to growth, has the correct capabilities and abilities
to progress and is driven, they should advance in their careers regardless of gender (White,
Cox & Cooper, 1992).

The diagram of the Social Cognitive Career Theory is presented in the Diagram 1 below.
Diagram 1

CSST Diagram

Career Development

Environment

Gender Self-Efficacy Personal Goals

Diagram based on the factors for CSST in Lent & Brown (1996, 193).

Thus, by understanding the basic principles of the theory, it is evident that the career
development of an individual depends upon a number of factors, some of which are outside
the control of those individuals. For the purpose of the current study, the environment in
which one works and gender can be seen as factors that can either positively or negatively the
career progression of women. An environment that supports the advancement of women as it
does men, and where social constructs of gender are used as an appraisal system on the
ability of women, can lead to a more representative workforce.

Dual-Development career model

The Dual-Development Model developed by White, Cox and Cooper (1992) examines the
career development of women with particular emphasis on the intersection between work and
home commitments. The model acknowledges that women are faced with more difficulties
than men when developing and establishing themselves in the workplace (White, Cox &
Cooper, 1992). The work environment can either be conducive or detrimental to the career
development of women. Schein (2009) explained the importance of corporate culture; culture
has the ability to influence and shape company policies as well as the general attitudes of the
people in an organisation. It is argued that there are cases of structural discrimination against
women in recruitment and selection processes. It is argued that there are masculine values
entrenched in these processes in organisations and men tend to benefit from the inherent bias.
Masculine attributes overshadow women`s abilities and perceived traits (Collinson, Knights
& Collinson (1990). It is noteworthy that women appear to be bypassed for positions that
they qualify for such as in top management. It is through such practices that the career
development of women might take a worse trajectory than their male counterparts. This
serves to highlight how great a part a woman`s work environment influences her career
development. Women face more constraints in the work environment such as dominant
beliefs about the suitability of women to higher positions or their ability to perform as
effectively as men when in those positions. When such beliefs are prominent in organisations
that could prove to be detrimental to women`s career development as compared to men
(White, Cox & Cooper, 1992).

The dual-development theory outlines the commitments women have outside the work
environment such as familial commitments (White, Cox & Cooper, 1992). According to the
theory, men and women accommodate their spouses’ careers differently. It is shown that
women are said to play a more compromising and adaptive role (Beena, 2011). That is,
women will at times, halt their careers in order to allow their significant other to prosper in
their own careers (White, Cox & Cooper, 1992).

Research done in Australia suggested that women even with the increased participation of
women in paid executive work; remain the largest caregivers of both their nuclear and
extended families (Austen & Birch, 2000). The study found that women who are in paid full-
time work perform on average five hours of household work and shoulder the majority of the
child rearing responsibilities (Austen & Birch, 2002). This in contrast to the 2.9 hours spent
by employed men on household responsibilities (Austen & Birch, 2000). This translates to
women having to work fewer hours at their places of employment; which in turn, has a direct
effect on how their work commitment is perceived by their immediate superiors and
colleagues.
To further elucidate the research findings by Austen & Birch (2000) research conducted
revealed and defined the three major forms of work-home conflicts, namely, time-based
conflict, strain-based conflict and behaviour based conflict (Greenhaus, Callan & Godshalk,
2010).

The table below defines and outlines the impact of each of the conflict on the career
development of women.

Table 1:

Work-Home Conflicts

Definition Outcome

Time-Based Occurs when the responsibilities one has at The need choose between spending more
home and work compete for the commodity time at work or home. According to
of time. Time conflict arises from the need research most women opt reduce the amount
to manage time spent at work on projects, of time spent at work in order to have
business trips and overtime work and time sufficient family responsibility time.
spent at home on family role
responsibilities. Time-Based conflict mostly
affects married women and women with
younger children.

Strain-Based Most occurs when psychological strain More adverse effects such as tension,
produced in one role has a spill over effect fatigue, irritability and depression are noted
on the functioning of another role. This with strain-based conflict. Most commonly
strain also affects the individual as it leads to the negative spill over from one role
requires the person to show emotions to the other. That, in turn, affects the
appropriate for the functioning of those performance in either one or both domains.
roles. For some women, the emotional
demands of the roles may be in constant
conflict, for example, a manager may be
expected to be detached, strategic and
objective, whereas the family may require
one to be nurturing, warm and attentive.
Mostly affects women in management
positions who have to care for family
members.

Behaviour-Based Behaviour based strain most commonly Fatigue and psychological strain arises as
occurs when people cannot amend roles to the constant need to role switch between
appropriate settings. As with strain based home and work increases. The inability to
conflict, one might exhibit behaviours that keep up with the constant behavioural
are considered desirable in the workplace at change may lead to underperformance in
home, however such behaviours might be one or both spheres.
deemed less desirable in that environment.
Table based on the work-home conflict theory in Greenhaus, et al (2010,)

Therefore, when looking at the career development of women, it is of extreme importance to

examine external factors as well as intrinsic factors such as motivation, drive and
determination.

Impact of familial responsibilities on career advancement

Due to the fact that the current study specifically explores the career barriers experienced by
women in management positions, it is of great importance to examine the concept of career
advancement from the perspective of the Family Responsibility Model. Given the fluid and
flexible nature of the concept of career advancement, this study uses a definition that is two-
fold, one that defines the markers of advancement and includes the concept of sustainability.
Therefore, career advancement refers to improvements in job quality seen through “higher
pay, more work hours, a promotion, increased stability, better pension and other fringe
benefits” (Foster, 2011, p. 7). Moreover, it includes a person’s ability to maintain the above-
mentioned factors. Meaning that, career advancement is not a once-off occurrence, it is
continuous throughout one’s career. Thus, in the current study, career advancement is viewed
as the ability of women to advance beyond the current the managerial levels and to excel
further.

Equally important is noting that central to career advancement, is having the right
environment in which to grow and advance, for example, research by Croteau and Wolk
(2010) found that organisations which have an advancement manager for top talent
retainment tend to promote their top talent more than organisations that do not. Thus,
indicating that career advancement is successful when there is organisational support as well
as individual determination and intent.

One of the markers of career advancements is the increasing amount of hours one has to
spend at work, familial responsibilities might an impact on the time one has available for
overtime work.

1.1 The impact of marriage on career advancement:

 Research shows that men who are married fare favourably in wage negotiations and
promotion opportunities. This could be related to the perception of stability and
responsibility that comes with the status and values attached to being married
(Beauregard, 2007). In contrast, women who are married more often expected to take on
less demanding jobs (Beauregard, 2007). The same research has suggested that single
women are more likely to advance rapidly than their married counterparts; this is due to
the belief that single women have less home responsibilities and are able to dedicate
more time to work responsibilities.

1.2 The impact of children on career advancement:

Having children may reduce advancement opportunities for women for a number of reasons.
First, some women may choose to take less work responsibilities once they are mothers. In a
survey conducted by Opportunity Now- it was shown that 83% of women participants stated
that commitment to family responsibilities impeded their career progress (cited in
Beauregard, 2007). Another reason is that women continue to take on the bulk of household
responsibilities and childcare, leaving limited time for career advancement opportunities.
Lastly, organisations may mistakenly assume that women with children will have reduced
commitment to the organisation and less interest in career advancement opportunities.
(Beauregard, 2007).

Therefore, it is of great importance to examine the effect of family responsibilities when

studying the career development of women.

Career advancement barriers

Barriers, as used in this study, refer to all the obstacles that impede women from upward
progression in their organisations. These barriers can be both external and internal to the
individual. The study looked at environmental and intra-personal barriers that obstruct the
career development in management positions.

Environmental Barriers:
External or environmental barriers refer to any obstacles existing within the work
environment that can thwart or stagnate the development of an individual’s career (Reddy,
2006).

Political interference is one such barrier. However, in order to fully grasp the concept of
political interference, it is important to understand the structure of the South African
government. This is particularly important given that research was conducted in a
municipality in South Africa.

Overview of South African Government structure

The South African government is represented at three levels, which are the National,
Provincial and Local government (De Visser, 2010). Within the level of local government, it
is further divided into two functions, the administrative and political functions (De Visser,
2010). Particular interest for this study was directed towards the administrative function of
Local government.

Below is a Diagram of the structure of the South African government.

Diagram 2

Structure of SA government
 National

Provincial

Local: Political &

Administrative

Diagram based on information on the structure of government in De Visser (2010).

Political Interference

There are three tiers of governance in South Africa, the National government, Provincial
government and Local government. Below is a diagrammatic representation of the structure
of governance in South Africa. The current study will explore barriers faced by women
employed at the grassroots level of governance, which is local government. The
Constitutional court of South Africa recognises the role of local governments. It was decided
that its council is a deliberative legislative assembly with legislative and executive powers
recognised in the Constitution (De Visser, 2010). Meaning that, local government has the
authority to implement by-laws; this gives municipalities the freedom to exist and exercise
their authority free of undue influence and interference from political parties (De Visser,
2010).

The Municipal Systems Act No. (32) Of (2000) stipulates that the municipal council has to
appoint senior managers; any further appointments made should come from the senior
managers instead of the municipal council (De Visser, 2010). This effectively differentiates
administrative from legislative roles. Furthermore, the Code of Conduct for Councillors bars
or prohibits councillors from interfering in administrative affairs (De Visser, 2010). Another
step taken to prevent undue political influence is demonstrated in the Municipal Finance
Management Act No. (56) of (2003) which effectively prevents councillors from partaking in
tender decisions. This clearly demonstrates the importance of separating the administrative
from the legislative functions of local governance. A direct interference by political entities
on administrative affairs can present itself as a major career developmental issue for women
aspiring to certain positions.

Therefore, as used in this study, political interference refers to undue and inappropriate
influence on functions that are administrative in nature by political office-bearers. There are
two different types of interference that will be explored in the study. Recruitment Interference
occurs when non-administrative members exert influence on recruitment and selection
processes (Trautman, 2006). It can also be seen that promotions and transfers of employees
could be affected by political interference and this type of interference can prevent women
from advancing from being general employees to being municipal managers. Finally, the
work environment and budget interference could occur when political office bearers directly
get involved in the running of some of the municipal departments (Trautman, 2006). Thus,
the presence of political interference can be considered to be an external barrier in the
advancement of women managers.

1. Organisational Culture

In a broad explanation, organisational culture refers to the environment and way of working
that has been cultivated by the organisation (O’Donell & Boyle, 2008). Culture in this sense,
involves not only the organisational climate but also practices that organisations develop
around handling their people (O’Donell & Boyle, 2008). This definition will be used in
conjunction with Schein’s (2009) definition of culture in this study. Schein defined
organisational culture as “a pattern of basic assumptions that a group has invented,
discovered or developed in learning to cope its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration, and that have worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be
taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those
problems” (Schein, 1990, p. 111).

Furthermore, it is of significant importance to note that culture extends beyond what is formal
in the organisation. It applies to unofficial ways of methods of working that may not be
recognised by the organisation but occurring nonetheless. In this case, it is found that laws of
equality and affirmative action protect the rights of women for fair and equal representation
throughout all the levels within the organisation. However, there may be incorrect beliefs
about the ability of women to perform at executive levels with that organisation.

Schein’s definition of culture comprises of three levels:

 Behaviours and artefacts: this is the most notable of the culture levels, it consists of
the constructed physical and social environment of the organisation. For example,
organisational mottos (Schein, 1990).
 Values: values are less visible than the behaviours and artefacts, however the
constituents of this culture provide the meanings through which the patterns of
behaviour can be learned and understood (Schein, 1990)
 Basic assumptions: these represent the unconscious level of culture, it is at this level
that the values have been learned over a period of time and are taken as the
organisation’s acceptable way of operating. (Schein, 1990).

The South African government has taken great strides in ensuring that there be equal
representation of all people in all professions and all levels within those professions. Such is
evidenced by the implementation of affirmative action and Broad Based Black Empowerment
policies. However, organisational culture has more implications than just compliance with
regulations and laws, it includes cultivating an environment and climate that believes in and
supports these values. Thus, whilst looking at an organisation’s compliance to regulations is
importance, it is also noteworthy to examine any previously held assumptions and beliefs
about the ability and capability of women to manage departments and the manner in which
those beliefs influence and affects the organisational culture. Given that organisations are
comprised of groups, it is at times found that certain sub-groups form within an organisation
followed by development of a culture that is unique to the group, Doina, Mirela and
Constantin (2008) refer to that as institutional sub-cultures. This phenomenon therefore
makes it possible for an organisation to have a broader organisational culture that may differ
from the smaller institutional subcultures.

Below is a diagram of Schein’s Culture Model Applied to a South African Municipality

Diagram 3:

Application of Schein’s Culture Model

 Behaviours and
Artefacts: Equality
Laws and Practices
in the organisation

Values:implementa
tion of fairer hiring
processes through
the organisation

Basic Assumptions:
Long standing
beliefs about the
abilities of women
held by coworkers
and superiors

Diagram based on Schein’s Culture Model. The diagram and information within have been
designed by the researcher for illustrative purposes.

Relevance of Schein’s Culture model to South African municipalities

In Schein’s Model, there are three cognitive levels at which organisational culture is
measured. At the very first, most basic level, are artefacts, behaviours and general attitudes
that can be seen by all in the organisation. In the context of municipalities across South
Africa, these artefacts include visual representations such as posters of Equality Laws,
women in leadership positions, mission statements that promote fair employment practices
across all levels of the organisation. By having these visual representations of the culture, the
organisation sets a tone for all those who work in it, and furthermore, for those who are
coming into the organisation.

The second level according to Schein, is comprised of the values or the professed culture of
the organisation (Schein, 2009). Municipalities in South Africa profess to have a non-racial
and non-sexist culture, and that is manifest in their hiring practices. The organogram of most
municipalities in South Africa show that there are women at all executive levels, that trend
trickled down to the lower levels of the organisation. However, the presence of women in
higher and executive positions does not mean that the positions are predominantly occupied
by women or that women have equal representation in those positions. As per the professed
values, an organisation that make the claim to non-racial and non-sexist culture should,
present with fewer obstacles to people belonging in previously disadvantaged groups.

The third level at which culture is measured, is the Basic Assumptions level. At this level, the
organisational culture is at the subconscious level and that is the least visible of all the culture
levels (Schein, 2009). These are often referred to as the tacit assumptions of the organisation.
It is at this point that, the professed and tacit culture can differ. In the context of the current
study, tacit assumptions within the municipality can refer to the long standing beliefs about
the suitability of women for executive roles or roles that were once thought of as the domain
of men. Thus, it becomes entirely possible to have a different subculture that differs from that
which is professed by the organisation. Resistance to the career advancement of women in
local government could be shown when men engage in negative behaviours such as refusing
to be managed by someone of a different gender, done with the intention to pull down the
women in managerial positions.

2. Glass Ceiling Effect

The glass ceiling effect refers to the systematic invisible barriers that prevent women as well
as other minority groups from advancement (Weyer, 2007). The glass ceiling analogy directly
speaks to the inequalities between men and women across various workplaces (Baxter &
Wright, 2000); and as a consequence of that, the different opportunities afforded to them
based on nominal characteristics such as gender. Cotter, Hermsen, Ovadia and Vanneman
(2001) defined the glass ceiling through four major criteria, namely, the presence of invisible
barrriers faced only by women and minorities, the level at which barriers are most visible,
visibility of barriers over a career and probability of advancement of women compared to
men. The definition of the concept is explored further in this study.

First, as explained in the definition, the glass ceiling concept refers to the artificial and
invisible barriers to the career advancement of women and minorities, these barriers illustrate
discrimination, “a deep line of demarcation between those who prosper and those who are left
behind” (Cotter, et al, 2001, p.656). Thus, a close examination of this definition reveals that
the glass effect is not only a barrier, but one that cannot be explained by the personal
qualifications or work experience of the individuals. Thus, the first criterion in understanding
the glass effect is in this context, is that it must represent a gender discrimination of an
individual within the workplace context that cannot be explained by either his or her
education level, employment history, personality dispositions or employment opportunities
(Cotter, et al, 2001).

Secondly, the area of interest of this research, is determining which career barriers most
affect women who are already in management positions. Thus, the second criteria of
determining the indicators of the presence of the glass ceiling effect is that, discrimination
would be based upon the gender of an individual and this could be more notable in the higher
levels of management (Cotter, et al, 2001). In this regard, the glass ceiling is not only deemed
to be discriminatory or a form of discrimination based on gender but that the premise of it is
such that the discrimination will increase as one moves up the corporate hierarchy ( Cotter,
et, al, 2001).

The third criterion is related to the level at which barriers are most likely to occur, as
explained in the second criterion. It is argued that the disadvantages of the glass ceiling
effects are seen through increment over the career span of an individual (Cotter, et, al, 2001).
Meaning that, even when the work experience of one increases, the probability of that one
individual getting promoted or an increment of pay remains low. This third criterion, is
strongly visible in the very definition of the glass ceiling effect, in that the discrimination is
based on gender, regardless of any other factor or personal characteristic.

The last criterion is observing gender inequalities in terms of the chances of advancement
into higher levels (Cotter, et al, 2001), this means that one has to look at the number of
women and men in each level of management and from that, determine the proportion of
women versus men that will eventually advance to the next level of management.

For example, if general advancement in an organisation has meant that three women and six
men are promoted to a certain level within that organisation, it can be assumed that, should
the pattern be followed, the number of women to progress to the next level of management
will be half the number of men that will progress (Cotter, et al, 2001). Thus, the glass ceiling
is noticeable even in the processes and probabilities of advancement within that organisation.

Even though women have become a great part of the workforce, accounting for the majority
of employees in some organisations; there is however a limit on how far they can move
vertically. Baxter and Wright’s argument of what the glass ceiling mirrors that of Cotter, et
al, in that they understand the glass ceiling to be an impermeable barrier that prevents women
from moving past a certain point, with Baxter and Wright stating that “…below this barrier,
women are able to get promoted, beyond this barrier, they are not” (Baxter & Wright, 2000,
p.276).

Zamfirache (2010) suggested that the invisible barriers are stereotypes about women, media
related issues and informal environmental boundaries. Studies done by Zamfirache have
suggested that the media has played a significant part in perpetuating stereotypes about
women in positions of power (Zamfirache, 2010).

Literature on gender discrimination has indicated that the other factors that contribute to the
prevalence of the glass ceiling effect include beliefs about the ability women possess in terms
of job performance, especially with regards to jobs that were traditionally considered to be
the domain of men or require masculine traits (Weyer, 2007).

Such erroneous perceptions about the ability of women often act as an invisible barrier that
can ultimately prevent a suitable candidate from advancing in their career.

There have been several theories used to explain the prevalence of the glass ceiling effect on
the career advancement of women. This paper will utilise one theory to explain glass ceiling
phenomenon.

1.1.The Stereotype Theory:

Through its usage of schemas, the stereotype theory explains how humans code
information and act according to coded information. Schema refers to the organised
pattern of thoughts or behaviour, those organised thoughts are then categorised
(Kaufmann, Isaksen & Lauer, 1996). With that understanding of schemas, stereotypes are
then explained to be a more special case of a schema, in that, people who fall into a
stylised set of information are treated according to what one believes about that given
group or category (Kaufmann, et al, 1996).
Stereotypical way of thinking might inform employees and employers that certain
categories are more suitable for a certain position and some are not. Thus, when
individuals who are in the position to make organisational decisions perceive higher level
management positions to be most appropriate for people belonging in one category it
follows that people who are not members of that category can be overlooked for those
positions, even though they qualify and have the relevant work experience.
 Research has indicated that the traits that are most coveted in individuals who are
occupants of higher management positions often overlap with traits that are considered
masculine (Kaufmann, 1996). Such findings have a profound effect on schema based
information processing, where “women” and “leadership” are at times made mutually
exclusive. In this manner, the glass ceiling effect can thus be experienced in South
African organisations.

Lack of mentorship and formal networks

Mentoring is defined as a process through which a more experienced and qualified individual,
usually in a position of power guides a junior individual (Palmer & Johnson-Bailey, 2008).
Mentoring has been widely used as a tool through which careers have been further developed
and advanced, with both the mentor and the mentee benefitting from the relation (Palmer &
Johnson-Bailey, 2008). The benefits of mentorship manifest in both external and internal
markers, studies have suggested that people who have mentors benefit from increased
competence, increased level of competence in their own abilities and increased self-esteem;
additionally they are also noted to be promoted at a faster rate, receive greater compensation
and experience a higher morale and satisfaction with their careers more than people with no
mentors (Palmer & Johnson-Bailey, 2008). This is made possible by mentors providing a
blueprint through which the mentees’ goals can be realised, above that, more channels and
business networks are open to people with mentors than those without mentors. Thus, the
absence of a mentoring relationship can prove to be an external barrier, particularly in an
organisation with political undertones. Alignment and support systems may be way through
which barriers are mitigated.

Gender Discrimination in the workplace

Social Role Theory: Structural explanation

The origin of the Social Role Theory as a gender related theory was an attempt to make sense
of the reasons and causes of sex differences and similarities in social behaviour (Ealy, Wood
& Diekman, 2000). The main assumption of the social role theory is that men and women are
assigned different roles in society based on their gender (Weyer, 2007).
The social role theory uses more of a structural approach to understanding gender behaviour
(Dulin, 2007). The structures that are most important to take note of when examining the
effect on gender based behaviour are, the family, organisations, institutions and communities
(Dulin, 2007). It is assumed that these structures have caused men and women to act or
behave in a certain way.

In an attempt to further explore the causes of gender differences in behaviour, such as

answering if they are a consequence of external factors rather than biological, Eagly (2000)
found that even though one can never find a strict either/ or answer, societies do have a great
influence in the development of sex roles of social roles (Dulin. 2007). These social roles are
informed by the societal norms of behaviour that apply to a certain category of people.

According to the social role theory, it is widely believed that men and women possess certain
qualities and traits that predispose them to the type and nature of roles they typically occupy
(Weyer, 2007). Behaviour is then modelled after such stereotypes, due to demands placed on
them by society (Vogel, Wester, Heesacker, & Madon, 2003). Men are believed to possess
masculine traits such as assertiveness which would make them suitable for leadership
positions, whereas women are believed be more nurturing and caring, thus making them
suitable for service industry vocations (Weyer, 2007).

Furthermore, Eagly and Steffen proposed that the division of labour is the most notable
source that creates and assigns most social roles to individuals. It was argued that the division
of labour encourages gender role expectations as well as sex-typed skills and beliefs
associated with women. Therefore, sex roles are emphasised in society (Eagly & Steffan,
1984). Their research showed that occupational role was a strong cause of judgement of
communal or agentic roles (Eagly & Steffen, 1984). This means that from the occupation of
the individual, women are judged to be either feminine or masculine.

Research by Eagly has suggested that within the work space domain, there are two dominant
beliefs about the differences between men and women, these differences can then be further
divided into two domains: agentic and communal (Dulin, 2007). Agentic qualities are those
mentioned earlier, such as assertiveness, aggression and an innate ability to lead. The
qualities that are consistently associated with masculinity are “manifested by self-assertion,
self-expansion, and the urge to master” (Dulin, 2007, p.106), in contrast to that, communal
qualities are manifested by “selflessness, and concern for others” (Dublin, 2007, p.106).
To elucidate the impact such dimensions have in the work space, a meta-analytic study on
gender and the effectiveness of leaders showed that generally, women and men were found to
be equally effective as leaders, however, when leadership was defined in the more masculine
or agentic terms, men were found to be more effective and when leadership was defined
using interpersonal relationship factors such as how well leadership get along with
subordinates, women were seen as more effective (Eagly, Karua & Makhijani, 1995).

Expectations States Theory

The expectations states theory emerged as the need to understand the imbalances in power
structures between groups of people. The theory specifically examines how hierarchies are
formed between groups are formed, that is, how one group is often afforded more influence
and opportunities (Correll & Ridgeway, 2003). In this case, these hierarchies are examined
and studied within the workplace context and the two groups of interest are women and men.
Moreover, the theory further examines how these structures of power imbalance are
maintained and how they are then related to various inequalities. In this context, inequalities
refer to the barriers that women in positions of power within local government face and how
these barriers impede the career advancement of the women.

There is a measure of overlap between the Expectations States Theory and the Social Role
Theory. Both theories acknowledge the effect culture and structures have on behaviour.
Whilst the social role theory examines how gender stereotypes are perpetuated in society, the
expectations states theory makes an attempt to understand how people evaluate and assess an
individual (Weyer, 2007). The theory suggests that people mainly use two criteria to evaluate
the competency level of a person, the first criterion is nominal, meaning characteristics such
as gender and race can be used to make an assessment of an individual (Weyer, 2007). The
second criterion is that ordinal, the education level or experience of an individual, can be
used to evaluate their competency (Weyer, 2007). For the purpose of this study, the first
criterion will be used to assist in explaining why gender discrimination is still prevalent in
organisations.

The social expectations theory seeks to explain the emergence of hierarchies when a group of
people perform with one goal in mind (Correll & Ridgeway, 2003). The theory states that the
socially significant characteristics of an individual (such as race or gender) are taken into
consideration when performance expectations are formed; and as a results, those performance
 expectations lead to status hierarchies or behavioural inequalities (Correll & Ridgeway,
2003). Meaning that the gender of an individual can determine their suitability for that role
based on expected performance, which in turn, leads to the status hierarchy where one gender
is more likely to get the position that the other. In this study, the relevance of the theory to
women in management was that it explained the extent to which closely held beliefs affect
more than just the general attitudes of individuals in an organisation, but they are
instrumental in creating and maintaining a gender based hierarchies that limit the career
progression of women as a group.

Below is a figure of the formation of the expectation and status hierarchies.

Figure 1:

The formation of expectations and status hierarchies

Socially significant characteristic Performance expectations Behavioural

inequality

Amended Expectations and Status Hierarchies figure adapted from the original “The
formation of performance expectations and status hierarchies” found in Correll and
Ridgeway (2003, p.31).

Both the Eexpectations States Theory and the Social Role Theory will be used throughout the
study to demonstrate how culture can inform behaviour and also give a plausible explanation
for the prevalence of discrimination and bias against women.

Gender bias in organisations manifests in a variety of ways (Collinson, Knights & Collinson,
1990). There is gender discrimination in the recruitment process (Collinson, Knights &
Collinson, 1990). A collection of case studies show that stereotypical gender roles are often
used as way of rationalising the decision not to hire competent and qualified women
candidates. In one case study, a manager had advertised for a financial managerial assistant,
however all female applicants were rejected (Collinson, Knights & Collinson, 1990). The
manager explained that the job required a “hard-nosed approach to business”, the ability to
make “objective choices” which is why he preferred to appoint men as part of his “realistic
professional” approach to business (Collinson, Knights & Collins, 1990, p.97).

Another form of gender discrimination lies in remuneration practices in organisations. Recent

statistics show that women earn less than men who have the same qualification as they do
(Beena, 2011). This trend is not a uniquely South African phenomenon (Kahn & Blau, 2000).
It was found that across different sectors, there appeared to be gender earning disparity in the
US. Both the Social Role Theory and the Expectations Role Theory can be applied to
understand why there is a disparity in pay between men and women. Men are believed to
possess the desirable traits, which would make them more competent for certain jobs and
they are rewarded accordingly (Weyer, 2007). This pay discrepancy is important given that
career development has a number of indicators, one of which is an increase in pay as one
progresses in the organisation.

Intra-Personal Barriers

Role Conflict

Role conflict as used in this study refers to the competing expectations and demands placed
on working women; women manage both the home sphere and their jobs (Beena, 2011). The
expectations from the multiple roles the women assume can lead to role conflict (Ahmad,
1995), should role conflict arise, there may be interference with fulfilling the expectations of
the other role.

Women who are wives, mothers and a manager might experience role conflict as well as role
ambiguity, the existence of would lead to strain. It is not uncommon to find that some women
are not be able perform at their best when experiencing role conflict. In most contemporary
organisations, performance based appraisals are used as a method of measuring performance
and the suitability of one for an advanced role or position than which they occupy. In such
situations women who are responsible for household and work based tasks can at times be
bypassed for a position for which they are qualified. Constant interruptions similar to those
mentioned above present as barriers to the career advancement of women managers.
Therefore, in addition to observing external barriers that impede the career advancement of
women, intrapersonal barriers may present as an obstacle as well.
Motivation

Motivation as used in this research refers to the reasons behind the manner in which people
behave (Graham & Weiner, 1996). Of particular interest in this study is exploring the reason
why some people are able to perform under great pressure with little to no provocation
whereas some give up or require a wealth of assistance. In short, that is the most notable
difference between women who are able to progress to higher positions within their
organisation. Atkinson’s Theory of Achievement Motivation uses determinants of behaviour
to explain motivation. According to Atkinson’s theory the tendency (T) to approach an
achievement related goal is product of three factors, which are the motive for achievement
(M), the probability that one will succeed (P) and the incentive value of success (I) (Graham
& Weiner, 1996).

Below is a table with the definitions of each of the determinants of motivated Behaviour.

Table 2:

Motivated Behaviour Determinants.

T=M x P x I

Determinants Definition

T The tendency to approach an achievement-

related goal.

M Achievement motive, an enduring

characteristic that drives one to strive for
success.

P Refers to a cognitive expectation that a

certain action will lead to realisation of the
goal.

I The incentive value of success.

Table adapted from Graham & Weiner (1996, p.70-71).

Thus, when women apply for higher level jobs, there are certain behavioural factors that have
to be considered. According to Aitkin’s theory, a certain enduring characteristic has to be
present in the candidate, followed by the knowledge of how certain actions will lead to the
realisation of the goal and finally. Thus, if there is an absence of any one of the behavioural
determinants of motivation, it can be deduced that the tendency to achieve goals is reduced.
In this regard, the lack of motivation can be a career barrier for women working within
municipal authorities.

Central to understanding motivation, is understanding the concept of locus of control. Locus

of control as conceptualised by Rotter refers to “people’s perceptions of control over access
to reinforcements” (Anderson, Hattie & Hamilton, 2005, p.517). Individuals with an external
locus of control view the environment determines the rewards and outcomes that they attain,
where as an individuals with an internal locus of control strongly believe that outcomes are
based upon their own actions, decisions and efforts (Anderson, et al, 2005). Individuals with
an internal locus of control would be more likely to drive their own career developments even
with the existence of external barriers.

Self-Efficacy

The concept of self-efficacy was first used by Bandura as a major concept in the Social
Cognitive Theory (Zulkosky, 2009). Self-efficacy as conceptualised in the current study, uses
Bandura’s definition which is “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated
levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives” (Bandura,
1994, p. 72). This definition comprises of three subparts, first and crucial to understanding
self-efficacy is knowing that the process is subjective and relies on one’s own perceptions
and beliefs. The individual has to engage in a process of self-appraisal and it is through this
process that these beliefs about one’s own abilities and capabilities are formed. Secondly,
there have to be expected levels of performance or an end goal to achieve, an individual can
only make informed decisions about their abilities to perform a certain task if the task is
clearly outlined; and the last aspect to understanding self-efficacy is the effect such beliefs
have on their lives. The beliefs an individual has about their own abilities cannot be
separated from the imminent effect. Conversely, the lack of belief in one’s own capabilities to
perform on the job, will also have an effect on their lives.
The presence of a strong sense of self-efficacy has a profound effect on the approach people
take when approaching difficult tasks, literature has indicated that a strong sense of self-
efficacy will enhance human accomplishments and as well as their overall wellbeing
(Bandura, 1994). It is argued that people with a strong sense of self-efficacy differ from those
with a weakened one in a number of ways; first is their approach to failures. Those with a
strong sense of self efficacy have the tendency to view failure as a lack of sufficient effort,
deficient knowledge or skills necessary to perform the task on hand, even then they view
those things as acquirable (Bandura, 1994). Even more telling, is their belief that failure is a
setback and not permanent. Secondly, when there is a strong sense of self-efficacy, problems
are approached as issues to be mastered and not avoided (Bandura, 1994). For example, the
presence of a barrier in an organisation will not easily discourage the individual, instead, they
will be motivated to approach the barrier as something that can be overcome with enough
effort from the individual. A lack thereof is expected to have the opposite approach to
problems. Thirdly, a positive outlook is often present in those with a strong sense of self-
efficacy. This means that these individuals often develop interest in activities because of their
positive outlook, and this, in turn translates to engrossment of the individual in those
activities and affects their commitment levels (Bandura, 1994). On the contrary, should a
person have a less sense of self-efficacy, the opposite is expected to occur. Furthermore
research has indicated that, not only do these individuals not view problems as conquerable
and temporary, but because of their more negative approach, they are more prone to suffering
from stress and depression (Zulkosky, 2009).

A significant part of understanding the concept of self-efficacy is understanding and knowing

where a strong sense of self-efficacy comes from, or in short, what its source is. This next
section examines the most common sources of self-efficacy; furthermore, applications to the
current study will be made.

First, it is proposed that self-efficacy is born out of performance expectations (Bandura,

1977). This is particularly important as it draws from an individual`s personal experiences
(Bandura, 1994). This means that, if an individual has an experience of having mastered
certain tasks in the past, the same behaviour is expected in the future. One draws from the
experiences they once had. Bandura outlined that having mastered certain tasks in the past,
does not imply that those tasks were easy or no effort was necessary or that failure did not at
once occur during that time and more significantly, that foremost to attaining any kind of
success is a persevering attitude; he argued “a resilient sense of efficacy requires experience
in overcoming obstacles through perseverant effort. Some setbacks and difficulties in human
pursuits serve a useful purpose in teaching that success usually requires sustained effort”
(Bandura, 1994, p. 73).

By stating that, the notion of easy success and mastery is dispelled. In the context of the
current study, mastery as a source of self-efficacy is expected to come from having navigated
a political environment to get to the position that one occupies. Thus, individuals who have a
great sense of self efficacy will look at the problems encountered in that past and more
importantly, the effort needed to overcome such problems. In short, this source of efficacy
informs women that “they have what it takes to succeed” (Bandura, 1994, p.73). However,
women who have a weaker sense of efficacy will not be able to objectively assess the
processes and efforts that got them to this point in their careers. As such, their own inability
to do that, will often become a barrier to achieving certain goals.

The second source of creating and reinforcing efficacy is through vicarious experiences
provided by models (Bandura, 1994). This is simply a process where individuals look at
people that are similar to them in characteristics which are relevant and see that these
individuals have succeeded. For an example, a newly appointed ward Director might look at
another woman who had previously occupied that role successfully. By doing that, one
reinforces their own beliefs in their ability to perform successfully. Furthermore, social
modelling includes looking at the competencies that one’s model possesses that one aspires
to, through a process of learning, an individual can have those competencies too 9Bandura,
1994). This means that in order for one to vicariously learn from a social model, one has to
look further than just characteristics they have in common, but look at the attributes and
competencies the model has that aided them to successfully perform certain tasks. It is only
through that process that one can develop or strengthen their sense of efficacy.

The last source of efficacy is the emotional arousal of an individual (Bandura, 1977).
Emotional arousal as used here refers to the levels of anxiety or self-doubt that one has when
faced with difficult situations (Bandura, 1977). A heightened sense of emotional arousal can
be debilitating to performance, this increased stress and fear levels. Therefore, individuals
who always approach perceived threatening events or situations with an increased sense of
arousal will often fare worse off that those with more regulated emotions.

This process of emotional arousal is a source of efficacy as it affects the manner in which
problems are faced and overcome (Bandura, 1977). If an individual is constantly stressed or
anxious over a situation then they will be less likely to succeed at that particular task and that
in turn affects their beliefs about their competence level in successfully completing tasks
similar to that in the future (Bandura, 1977).

Thus, through examining the sources of self-efficacy and understanding what the concept
means, it is clear that when an individual has a low sense of self-efficacy, their ability to
successfully perform job related tasks is decreased significantly, and as a result of that, their
prospects for job advancement is also affected. As such self-efficacy or the lack thereof can
prove to be a barrier to the career development of women in management positions.

Therefore, the presence of self-efficacy becomes extremely important, in that, it is expected

to equip women who are in management positions with a belief system that allows them to
approach every work related task as something that can be achieved as opposed to an obstacle
that cannot be overcome. For example, a manager who works within an organisational
climate that is not supportive of women in executive positions will view that as an obstacle
that can be overcome instead passively accepting the status quo.

Self-efficacy and careers: Past research findings

Past research conducted in the field of efficacy has indicated that there is a relationship
between career development and self-efficacy. Nasta (2007) defined career using Hackett and
Beck’s (1991) theory of career self-efficacy. The theory states that it refers to people’s
judgements of their abilities to perform career behaviours in relation to their career
development. Thus, in this definition, it is clear that, there is a sustainability aspect to these
beliefs, judgements and behaviours. People are expected to be consistent in what they believe
they are capable of achieving throughout their careers. The results of the study showed that
there is a correlation between positive career efficacy and career exploration (Nasta, 2007).
Meaning that people with a strong sense of self efficacy were more likely to engage in
behaviours that would expand their careers, that is inclusive of vertical movement in their
given organisations.

Similarly, Abele and Spark (2009) conducted a study on the longitudinal impact of self-
efficacy and career goals on objective and subjective success. In their study, it was stated that
the objective parameters of objective success were “salary, promotions and hierarchical
status” (Abele & Spark, 2009). They found that there was a correlation between occupational
or career self-efficacy and career goals, furthermore, they found that there is a relationship
between these goals and objective success, that is hierarchical mobility and pay increases
(Abele & Spark, 2009).

Such research findings emphasise the importance of career self-efficacy in the development
of one’s career. Conversely, it also demonstrates that the lack of self efficacy can be career
halting or prove to be a barrier to the advancement of one’s career.

Conclusion:

The theories used throughout the study provided a way of understanding how internal process
such as motivation and self-efficacy can be integral to how an individual approaches not only
the tasks they are faced with but the obstacles that exist. Even more important, they illustrate
how the lack of motivation and a strong sense of self-efficacy can present as career barriers to
women in management positions who aspire to progress to higher positions. Another internal
process that affects the career progression of women is how they approach dual roles, that is,
the extent to which juggling multiple roles impacts career prospects of women managers.

Understanding that every organisation is governed by its own culture and climate, it was of
great importance to explain how the organisational culture affects the way in which women
are perceived within an organisation and more importantly, how this perception either
promotes or impedes the career development and advancement of women.

One of the more pertinent external factors that has been used in this research is political
interference, this presented as significantly important given that the study specifically focused
on women in management positions in local government. The usage of one’s power to
influence processes that are outside an individual’s authority is expected to have a negative
influence of the career advancement of women managers, by either limiting or completely
blocking their progression to higher positions.

Lastly, theories such as the states expectations theory and the social role theory explain how
women as a group are perceived and appraised differently than their male counterparts and
how that appraisal affects their opportunities to progress to higher positions within their
organisations.
The literature presented in this paper therefore highlights that there are a number of barriers
that can be seen during the course of one’s career. The careers barriers explored in the paper
can be of an internal of external source. As such, environmental barriers covered are the
organisational culture, glass ceiling effect, discrimination based on beliefs about a certain
gender and political interference. The internal factors that can present as barriers include role
conflict, motivation and self-efficacy.

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to determine the nature of the career barriers women faced and
how these barriers affected their career development. Moreover, this study also sought to
determine how career barriers, both environmental and intrapersonal could be detrimental to
the career development of women managers in a local government entity.

Research Question

 What are the career barriers faced by women managers in municipal authorities in
South Africa?

Chapter 3:

Research Methodology

Research Design

Stangor (2011) describes research design as a method used by researchers to collect, analyse
and interpret data. Similarly, de Vaus (2001, p.9) explained that research design is a
“structure” and a “work plan”, it is further stated that research design is a method in which
research questions can be satisfactorily answered.

Given that the purpose of the current study was to explore career barriers that women in
management positions faced, the research design was qualitative in nature. According to
Stangor (2011) descriptive research is designed to answer questions about current status of
affairs. It is further stated that, descriptive research allows the researcher to have a record of
thoughts, feelings as well as behaviours at a specific time (Stagnor, 2011). In descriptive
research, the researcher has no direct control of any of the variables being investigated or
studied (Kothari, 2004). However, it provides fact-finding ways of enquiring and allows the
researcher to report what has happened or what is currently happening. Thus, this method was
highly suitable for use in the current study as it allowed the researcher to contextualise the
past experiences of the respondents to their current situations. A qualitative methodology
refers to the manner in which meanings, traits and defining characteristics of events, people,
interactions, settings are studied and made sense of (Tewksbury, 2009). Furthermore, it
provides researchers a more scientific method of studying social phenomena (Tewksbury,
2009). The essence of qualitative methodology lies in lies in the quality with which the
phenomena is explained and described, quality was defined as “the what, how, when and
where of a thing- its essence and ambience” (Tewksbury, 2009, p38).

The qualitative methodology was used for the current study. The method allowed the
researcher to understand and describe the barriers women face in their career development.
The study utilised thematic content analysis to understand career barriers experienced by
women in management positions (Joubish et al., 2011). Thematic Content Analysis has been
defined as “a quantitative analytic method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns
within data, it also minimally organises and describes data set in rich detail” (Braun 7 Clarke,
2009, p. 79). Given that data was collected at the same period of time and all participants
were interviewed once, the research was cross-sectional. The research utilised deductive
reasoning to guide the identification of themes for analysis. This means that a number of
theories were identified and then used to guide the researcher on which observations to make.
This approach is described by de Vlaus (2011, p. 6) as “moving from the general to the
particular”. This method allowed for modification or rejection of prejudices once
observations were made.

Research paradigm

Qualitative research has been defined by a number of different ways; each depended upon the
field of study. Denzin & Lincoln (2005) outlined features of what would qualify as
qualitative research. First, qualitative research is a situated activity, consisting of
“interpretative, material practices check” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.3) that makes the world
more visible. These practices manifest in the form of interviews, given notes and recordings.
Secondly, qualitative research involves an interpretative yet realistic approach to the world
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). From that definition, it can be understood that researchers who
choose the qualitative research paradigm are trusted with the task to study phenomena as they
occur within their natural settings, furthermore, and of more importance, the meanings that
people bring to phenomena (Stangor, 2011). In addition, it is pointed out that the word
paradigm as used in qualitative research refers to a set of “very general philosophical
assumptions about both the nature of the world and how we understand it” (Maxwell, 2005,
p. 224). Again, highlighting the importance of a naturalistic setting and the meaning people
attach to phenomena. In short, it relates to how researchers see and understand the
experiences of those that are studied. Paradigms in research are based on ontological,
epistemological and methodological assumptions (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Ontological
assumptions of a study has been defined as the assumptions made about the existence of a
phenomena, this definition is based on Lawson’s definition of ontology, it is defined as the
“study of what is or what exists” (Lawson, 2009, p.1) and “the study of entities or things”
(Lawson, 2009, p.1).

For the current research, critical theory was used as a tool of understanding phenomena.
Crtical theory is defined as an approach to literature of research that considers the social,
historical and ideological forces and create and maintain reality (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
When using critical theory as a research paradigm, that enables the researcher to relate and
establish how reality is often shaped by history, social, political, economic and gender factors
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Thus, this paradigm will allow the researcher to aptly investigate
how the career barriers affect the career development of women in municipal authorities.

A diagrammatical representation of the research approach is given in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2:

Research Approach
 Qualitative
Descriptive

Critical Theory

Exploratory

Sampling method

Not everyone had a fair and equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample, therefore
nonprobability sampling was used (Huck, 2009). The purposive sampling technique was used
in the current study. This means that the sample comprised of people who had characteristics
needed. Huck (2009) stated that when purposive sampling is used, the group must meet
certain criteria in order to be part of the sample, thus the people selected for the study were
women in management positions working within a municipality in Gauteng.

Sample

The research was conducted at various offices of a municipality in Gauteng. All the women
included in the sample were in management positions, the level of which varied. The research
did not require level of management to be specific, therefore, some were in entry level
management and others were in executive levels. The sample consisted of ten women of
different ethnicities and races and from different age cohorts. Participation in the study was
completely voluntary.
The age range of the sample was from the age of 30 to 60 years old. The mean age was 38
years. As per the specifications and requirements of the research, the sample consisted of
female managers. Of these, twenty percent (2) were Coloured, ten percent (1) was White and
seventy percent (7) were Black. Although race was not a variable of interest in the study, it
was of great importance in the discussion of results. All the participants reported to have a
minimum of a degree with more than half of the sample reporting to have a post graduate
degree. Fifty percent (5) of the sample were in executive level management positions, with
twenty percent (2) being in junior management positions and thirty percent (3) being in the
intermediate management position. Sixty percent of the sample reported to have post
graduate degree with forty percent reporting that their highest qualification was a Bachelor’s
Degree. All participants reported to have had worked for more than five years in the
organisation. The years of service mean was 11.8 for the entire sample. Given that the study
examined intrapersonal barriers to career development, participants were asked to state their
marital status and the number of children they had. Of the ten participants, one was a
widower, two were divorced, three were single and four were married. However, all the
women were mothers.

Demographic details are presented in Table 3 below.

Table 3

Demographic Details of Sample

Number Mean Percentage

Age 10 38

Gender:

Female 10 100

Race:
Black 7 70

White 1 10

Coloured 2 20

Marital Status:

Single 3 30

Married 4 40

Divorced 2 20

Widowed 1 10

Children:

Yes 10 100

No

Education Level:

Matric

Diploma

Degree 4 40

Post Graduate Degree 6 60

Management Level:

Junior 2 20

Intermediate 3 30

Executive 5 50

Tenure: 10 11.8

Inclusion Criteria

In order to understanding the demographic make-up of the sample, the inclusion criteria were
that all participants had to be women. The women recruited had to be in management
positions in a municipal authority in Gauteng. Given that the women were from a pool of
managers, the participants were expected to be from the ages 28 to sixty five.

A municipality within Gauteng was the organisation used for data collection.
Research Method

Surveys are self-report measures that are administered through questionnaires or interviews
(Stangor, 2011). Surveys are widely used in descriptive research in an attempt to understand
the sample. It is through surveys that participants were able to share their views, experiences
and feelings about any barriers they have faced in their career development. This research has
therefore utilised surveys which were conducted using interviews to collect data from
participants.

The majority of interviews were conducted in-person, allowing the researcher to build a
rapport with the participants. Stangor (2011) highlighted that in-person interviews are
important if the researcher wishes to develop a sense of trust with respondents. Another
advantage of in-person interviews is that they allowed the researcher to take note of non-
verbal cues from respondents. Three of the interviews were conducted through electronic
mail; this was done to accommodate the participants’ schedule. All three participants allowed
the researcher to send an email asking for clarification of certain points made.

Semi-structured interview questions were be used to gather data. Semi structured interviews
allowed the participants enough freedom to express their opinions, feelings and experiences
in a controlled manner (Stangor, 2011). Along with the semi-structured questions, there was
also a list of open-ended questions designed by the researcher.

Interview schedule and demographics questionnaire are attached in appendices 1 and 2.

Research Instruments

The research instruments used in the current study were interviews and a demographic
questionnaire. As alluded to previously, the majority of the interviews were conducted face-
to-face, with only three interviews being conducted electronically. Both methods presented
with positive as well as negative aspects, first, electronic interviews allowed the participants
to answer all questions as truthfully as they could without the presence of the researcher,
however, because of the researcher’s presence, meaning could not be extrapolated from the
body language of the participants.

An interview schedule was used in all interviews, with all the questions being semi-
structured. The interview schedule was designed in such a way as to cover three areas of
interest. The first subsection was titled “self”, questions within this subsection are related to
the interviewees, their careers, achievements and aspirations. This was designed with the
intention to inform the researcher about where the participants are in their careers, their
positions within their organisations, the organisation’s approach to employment equity and
the people that work with the interviews. This information would later be used when
analysing intrapersonal barriers and the organisational culture.

The second subsections was titled ‘career development”, the questions within this section
were designed to examine the career progression of the interviewees, along with that, if there
have been any interruptions that have been outside their control, meaning, barriers in their
organisation. The final subsection was titled “career barriers”, questions within this section
were designed with the aim of discovering the nature of career barriers, if the women have
experienced them.

Along with the interview schedule, demographic questionnaires were distributed to each of
the participants, as with the interview schedule, the majority were distributed when the
interviews were conducted, however, they were sent and subsequently submitted by the three
other participants through electronic mail. The demographic questionnaire was used to further
analyse the sample, what was found was used alongside the data collected in interviews in the
analysis phase of the study.

Procedure

A formal request was sent to the committee of a municipality in Gauteng. After which, a
Director from one of the regions within the municipality was approached by the researcher.
The director was given a cover letter detailing the research content and structure. After the
Director had read through the cover letter, access into the organisation was requested by the
researcher. The researcher, research supervisor and the regional director had a meeting to
outline how research would be conducted, logistics and rules of conduct were established
during this meeting.

After the brief meeting with the Regional Director, a formal letter granting access into the
organisation was sent by the regional director to the researcher. The letter stated that the
purpose of the study was understood and women in management positions who were willing
to be interviewed could be approached. Furthermore, a list of suitable candidates was given to
the researcher by the Regional Director.

Appropriate candidates were approached by the researcher after receiving the formal written
permission letter. All participants were given a letter explaining the purpose of the study as
well as consent letters.

Each participant was approached telephonically or electronically prior to the interview.

Electronic mail was used to formally send an invitation to the study, and interview details
were also finalised electronically. Due to scheduling and time constraints, three of the ten
participants were sent the interview schedule and demographic questionnaire through
electronic mail and it was explained to them that completing and sending the completed
interview schedule would be viewed as consent. All three participants agreed to this and sent
back the completed interview questionnaire. Therefore, with three of the participants, both
the interview schedule and demographic questionnaire were completed in survey format,
meaning that, under each question, they typed in their response in a different colour.

Upon meeting the seven of the ten participants, they were each given hard copies of the
Consent Form, Participant Letter and Demographics questionnaire. All were informed that
participation was completely voluntary and it would not lead to any one of them being
disadvantaged or advantaged in any way. Furthermore, it was explained that their identities
would be known to the researcher and that the final research report would not have any
identification information. The implication was that, anonymity was not possible in face-to-
face interaction but it was guaranteed in the research report and subsequent publications. The
researcher then informed the participants that they can withdraw from the research at any
point without any penalties. The participants were also informed that they can refrain from
answering any questions that they find uncomfortable. The seven participants completed the
demographic questionnaire before each interview was started, upon completion, each
participant handed the completed questionnaire to the researcher. In every interview, the
researcher highlighted the process of interviewing, including the estimated time of each
interview and the structure of each interview. Each interview was expected to be between
forty five minutes to an hour, however, with all but one participant, the average time for an
interview was an hour and thirty minutes. The researcher then used the interview schedule as
a guide during the interview; six of the seven were recorded on an audio device. This allowed
the researcher to be fully immersed in the interview process. In the one interview were
consent for audio recording was not granted, the researcher extensively took notes throughout
the interview.

There were no benefits to participation and no anticipated harm, however it was elucidated
that should any one participant felt unsettled or had any strong emotions evoked by
participation, the researcher would stop the interview and the participants would be debriefed.
If then further necessary, the participant would be referred to counselling services or
Employee Wellness Programmes (EWP) within the organisation. The researcher provided
each participant with a letter with the information and contact details of the counselling
organisations or departments at no additional charge to them, in case of any trauma
experienced as a result of the interview process.

After obtaining verbal consent from participants, the researcher arranged to meet with
participants at a location and a time convenient for them. Participants were also given an
audio consent form. Six of the seven participants who had been available for face-to-face
interviews gave the researcher permission to use an audio recording device during the
interviews process. During the interview process, participants were given a biographical
information sheet to complete. The biographical data collected was used to assess the race,
age, tenure and job level, all of which were be of great importance when examining barriers
women face.

Participants were informed that a summary of the study would be available in the library of
the University of the Witwatersrand in form a research report.

Once all data had been collected, the researcher began the process of transcription followed
by analysis of data using thematic content analysis. Only the researcher and the research
supervisor had access to the raw data. All transcripts are kept in a password locked computer
owned by the researcher. The audio material was deleted as soon as the researcher had
transcribed the interviews.

The researcher will keep the data post completion of study, and again, only she and the
research supervisor will have access to it.

Data Analysis

Thematic Content Analysis (CTA) was the method used to analyse data. Anderson (2007)
describes thematic content analysis as the descriptive presentation of data; this method
requires textual data to be used. Braun & Clarke (2006) described Thematic Content Analysis
as a way through which themes with data are identified, analysed and reported.

Themes within CTA refer to the way in which important messages are captured (Braun &
Clark, 2006) in relation to the research question asked. In this research, themes were coded
according to the number of times they emerged across the sample. Therefore, the most
frequent answers were captured, schematised and then analysed. Within the themes found in
this research, certain sub-themes arose within.

Largely semantic themes were used when identifying and creating themes, however, latent
themes were identified in the process as well (Braun & Clark, 2006).

Thematic content Analysis was selected as a suitable method of analysing data because it
allowed the researcher to remain objective during data analysis (Anderson, 2007). This in
turn, minimised researcher bias in the interpretation of findings. This method also allowed the
researcher to get rich in-depth understanding of the participants` world view and their lived
experiences of career barriers faced by women managers in local government (Anderson,
2007).

Data analysis process

After data was collected in the form of interviews, the researcher familiarised with the
interview material. This was accomplished through listening to the recorded interviews and
rereading the interview schedules of the participants who elected to electronically send their
responses. After familiarising with the data, transcriptions of the data were made. It is from
the transcribed material that the Initial themes were then generated; this was used as the first
step to coding. Latent and explicit messages were developed, and then identified. Once
coding was completed, four broad themes were identified. Within each theme, subthemes
emerged. The themes that emerged were then named and reported.

Below is a diagram of the process of data analysis using Thematic Content Analysis

Diagram 4:

Thematic Content Analysis Model

Data Collection Data Display

Data Reduction

Conclusion

Drawing

Interactive Model of Data Analysis found in Miles & Huberman (1994, p.12) as cited by
Alhojailan (2012).

Reliability and Validity

Although the concepts of reliability and validity are often associated with quantitative
research, they are essential in ensuring the reliability and generalizability of qualitative
research. The notion of reliability of a qualitative research study is closely associated with the
extent to which it is dependable and trustworthy (Golafshani, 2003); due to its meaning, the
term reliability has been used interchangeably with the terms neutrality, conformability and
credibility in qualitative research (Golafshani, 2003). Thus, reliability in qualitative research
does not begin in the analysis stage but is a process which is continuous throughout the
research process.

To ensure validity and reliability in this study, the researcher used the process of verification
throughout the project. Verification refers to the different mechanisms used during the
process of research to significantly increase validity and reliability of the results and as an
extension, the study (Morse, Barret, Mayan, Olson & Spiers, 2002). With the understanding
that the verification process begins at the start of each study, the researcher used methods and
strategies that would aid in ensuring validity and reliability, such as investigator
responsiveness, ensuring that the research is methodologically coherent and the elimination
of researcher bias. Each of the strategies is explained in detail below.

Firstly, as proposed by Morse, et al (2002), the concept of investigator responsiveness was

utilised throughout the process, this was particularly true in the interviewing phase. Given
that the distinguishing factor of the current study from other women in management position
studies was to establish whether political interference was in fact a career limiting barrier for
women in municipal authorities, it was greatly important to be aware of the sensitivity of the
matter. When interviewing the respondents, the researcher ensured that questions relating to
political manner would be phrased in such a way as to not lead the participants into a certain
direction or way of responding, while keeping the essence of the question. Flexibility and
sensitivity were used during this phase. Thus, when respondents displayed discomfort to
further expound certain points made, the researcher would not push for an answer, instead,
respondents were allowed, to an extent, to drive the interview process.

The second step was to ensure that the research would be methodologically coherent, that is,
there would be congruence between the research question used and the methodologies used to
answer that research question (Morse, et al, 2002).

Central to ensuring that results would answer the research question was ensuring that the
correct sample was recruited. Working with women who held office as managers in
municipal authorities was crucial, and further than that, these women had to have aspirations
to move past their current managerial level in the organisation. Only then could they answer
the question of what barriers impeded their career advancement in municipal authorities
could be answered.

Lastly, the elimination of researcher bias was essential in the analysis stage. In order to report
what was said by the respondents, the researcher ensured that analysis was based upon the
data collected and not any ideas or beliefs they held prior to the study. Thus the researcher
made an attempt to ensure that the research report reflected the ideas collected from the
sample and not the beliefs of the researcher.

Ethical Considerations

Before data was collected from all the participants, permission was requested from the
University of the Witwatersrand’s Ethics Committee. A formal written request form with
particulars of the study was sent to the committee; along with the request was a copy of the
proposal. All participants were only approached after the committee had approved the
research study. Participants who had been interested in participating in the research were
advised to contact the researcher through email. The participants were all informed that their
participation would be completely voluntary and that no incentives would be given to any of
them. Furthermore, it was explained that no one who partook in the study would be
advantaged or disadvantaged in any way. It was moreover explained to the participants that
participation in the study would pose no risk to them as their responses or interview
transcripts would not be shared with anyone they worked with, including their colleagues and
immediate superiors thus preventing victimisation. Given that the data was collected in the
form of interviews, participants were thus known to the researcher therefore they were
therefore not anonymous, however anonymity would be guaranteed in the report write up. It
was fully explained to the participants that confidentiality would be guaranteed. Only the
researcher and the research supervisor had access to the raw data. All participants were fully
briefed on the content and procedure of the study.

All ten participants were given formal consent forms to sign prior to the commencement of
the interviews. Seven of the ten participants signed and submitted the signed consent form
and six of the participants signed the audio consent form. Three participants were not
available for face-to-face interviews and were therefore sent the interview schedule through
electronic mail and it was explained that submitting completed interview schedule would be
deemed as consent. A brief synopsis of the study with contact details of the researcher and
supervisor was given to participants. Prior to commencement of the interviews, the
participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any point without
penalty.

The participants were informed that “active deception” (Stangor, 2011, 53) was not going to
be used and that the researcher would be transparent in all proceedings. However, consent
was worded in such a way that the full hypotheses of the study was not be reveal, this was
done to not make the interviewees alarmed and as a result of that, be more guarded in their
responses. This is explained by Stangor’s definition of passive deception (Stagnor, 2011).
Passive deception occurs when the researcher decides to not fully share the nature of the
hypothesis with the participants (Stangor, 2011). Polonski (2004) stated that under certain
circumstances, knowing the full scope of the research may result in the modified behaviour of
participants, thus the decision to not share the full details of the study was due to concerns
about how participants might respond. Each of the participants was fully debriefed after their
participation. This was done to reduce psychological problems associated with the negative
consequences of the research. The raw data would be kept safe in a password locked
computer owned by the researcher for about 5 years and will be accessible to the researcher
and the supervisor.

The summary of the results will be available on request.

Chapter 4:

Results:
Thematic Content Analysis was used as a method of analysing data. Braun & Clark (2006)
aptly defined thematic content analysis as the process through which information is
categorised into themes.

Thematic content analysis captures an important piece of information about the data in
relation to the research question or questions asked (2006). In thematic content analysis, there
are two ways through which themes are formed, inductive or theoretical. This research used
an inductive approach to themes, meaning that the data was specifically collected for the sake
of the current study. The themes that were identified from participants` responses in the
interview were categorised according to how they answered the research question. This
means that the researcher did not approach the data with certain themes in mind. Rather,
themes were formed during data analysis. Inductive analysis is, therefore, considered an “a
process of coding data without trying to fit into a pre-existing coding frame, or the
researcher’s analytic preconceptions. In this sense, this form of thematic content analysis is
data driven” (Braun & Clark, 2006, p.12).

Steps in the Analysis:

For the purpose of this research, the researcher followed the steps outlined by Braun & Clark
(2006).

4.1. Acquainting oneself with the data:

Only data that was collected by the researcher was used for analysis. Given that the purpose
of this step was to familiarise the researcher with the collected data, it was of great
importance to for the researcher to be fully involved in the information. This process allowed
the researcher to search for meanings and patterns in the information.

4.2. Transcription of data:

First, before the verbal data were transcribed, the written interviews sent through electronic
mail were thoroughly read through and then transcribed. All seven of the recorded material
from the face-to-face interviews were then transcribed. During this process, key messages
were transcribed verbatim. These messages were then later used in the final stages of data
analysis.

4.3. Generation of codes:

Braun and Clark described codes to be any feature of the data that appears interesting to the
researcher, it is further explained that these are “the most basic segment or element of the raw
data or information that can be analysed in a meaningful way regarding the phenomenon”
(Braun & Clark, 2006, p.18). Several codes were generated by the researcher based on the
structure of the study. Meaning that, codes that were generated either belonged to the
“internal” or “external” barriers.

4.4. Themes

From the themes generated, the researcher looked for recurring themes, this was done by
looking at how a number of codes could be combined to form one theme or codes were
expanded into themes. As with the coding process, the theme developing process followed
the structure of the research, they were categorised based on the nature of the barrier. The
themes were then reviewed and named. The report was produced using the themes developed.

The results of the study are presented in the following manner; the themes are identified first,
and then described, followed by a presentation of how the themes applied to the research
question. Following the structure of the research, the themes are categorised by their
orientation, meaning whether they were characterised as either environmental or
intrapersonal. Within the broader environmental bracket, political interruption was
established as a major theme, within which the subtheme of political affiliation arose. The
second theme identified within the environmental umbrella was the perceptions of ability by
subordinates. The third theme to emerge from environmental factors was subordinate dissent.
The fourth theme noted was the structural change within the municipality. Lastly, age was
identified as the last theme under environmental barriers.

Within the internal barriers umbrella, four themes were recognised: the first was ability and
willingness, the second theme to emerge was self-esteem, the third was presentation of self
and the forth theme under internal barriers was family responsibility.

The themes are discussed in greater detail below.

Environmental Barriers

Subordinate dissent
Subordinate dissent as used in this study refers to the extent to which subordinates resist the
leadership of the managers. This resistance as seen in the data gathered can be explicit as well
as covert. Seventy percent of the respondents explained that, central to managing a well
performing department is having a willing and dedicated labour force. Thus, the performance
of each manager is based upon the deliverables at the end of each business year. It was
further explained that, for a manager to receive a favourable review, the department has to
have been performing optimally. Of the seven respondents that shared their views on
manager performance, all expressed the opinion that the major obstacle was subordinate
dissent that was characterised by employee behaviours such as deliberately disrupting the
smooth operation of their respective departments. This was demonstrated by one participant’s
response. Participant 1 stated: “I sometimes find that they (subordinates) pretend to not have
any work or leave work undone. This trend is more visible now that the department is
restructuring, they know that our performance is closely monitored at during these periods
(approaching elections) they do it on purpose”.

This perception was made even more salient given the environment in which they worked. As
was stated by Participant 2: “This is a political environment, everything is political here,
even the people you work with. One has to be very careful”.

Of the three respondents that were not Black, it was reported that they suspect the reason for
dissent was underlined with racial undertones. With regard to the difference in how manager
of different races are treated, participant 6 said “I don’t want to say that I am treated better,
but we have three managers in the department, of is senior to me and the other is on the same
level as me, and the other is senior but the people here listen to me than they do the senior
manager”. Without stating explicitly, the respondents implied that being a manager that is not
Black marginally improved the way in which subordinates received and accepted directives
from them. This perception is in line with previous research, Black and White candidates at
the same level are often not treated equally by colleagues, subordinates and superiors. It is
reported that White candidates are often assumed to be more knowledgeable, trustworthy and
are given the benefit of doubt more often than Black candidates (Drake-Clark, 2009). In
addition to the racial undertones of the dissent, participants stated that the dissent might also
be driven by their gender, this was alluded to by one respondent who had recently been
appointed as a director, she stated that her predecessor was a middle aged Black man, she
said: “the person who held my position before me is who I reported to, I saw how the staff
treated him, they listened to him. I took over and have had to set ground rules to get my
subordinates listen to me”. Moreover, she stated that in her previous position, when faced
with deadlines, she would phrase work requests as coming from him as opposed to her, this
was done with the purpose to get subordinates to timeously deliver work.

Other respondents reported that the reason why some of the subordinates might not be
cooperative fully was due to the organisational structure. During restructuring of
departments, the employees are moved around and people may not be sure of their position in
the organisation and therefore less likely to perform to their best ability. Participant 8 wrote
“The department is changing, people are being moved around everywhere, and they are tired
of working hard then being moved. But that makes my job hard”.

In that regard, the majority of the respondents identified subordinate dissent as an obstacle to
their own career progression.

Perception of ability by subordinates

This theme is closely related to the theme of subordinate dissent, the women in the sample
expressed concern over the number of times they had to assert themselves at work. None
would state that the perception of ability was based on their gender. However, an
overwhelming majority stated that they had to continuously prove they can perform. This
sentiment was an overtone in the responses of the participants across the various racial and
age groups. Participant 6 reported that during meetings, she had has to constantly assert
herself more than everyone who was present in the meeting, and that was done to ensure that
she would be heard and understood. On a prompt by the researcher, she stated that in most
meetings, men accounted for the majority of the attendants.

Most of the respondents noted that their place was questioned, the reasons for their promotion
was questioned even though they had the necessary qualifications and experience requisite
for the management role. This was reflected in one participant’s response, participant 3
wrote “I have a postgrad degree and many other accredited certifications in management, and
I have been a manager before, but here, they question everything I do. But I am tough on
them. I assert myself all the time”.

Literature suggests that society assign certain characteristics to genders, these are mostly
based on stereotypes; certain roles are believed to be more suitable for a particular gender
based upon these stereotypes (Weyer, 2007). Therefore, to people who hold such ideas and
values, management positions might be more suited to men than women. This perspective
could be instrumental in explaining why the mangers felt their ability to perform was
constantly being scrutinised.

This was made evident by the experiences shares by the majority of the sample. It was vastly
reported by women that at one point in their careers as managers, they had been faced with
the general lack of trust and belief in their abilities to manage their business units,
departments or subordinates. Moreover, more than half the sample reported that one of the
reasons there continued to be subordinate dissent was because they perceived them (women
managers) as being incompetent in some capacity. Participant 9 said “The fact is, if people
do not see you as a leader then you are not their leader. We see that a lot here. They will stop
working with you and ignore protocol and report to someone else if they think they should
not be reporting to you”.

The culture of doubt has become somewhat prevalent within that environment. One
respondent who had recently been promoted to the office of Regional Director reiterated the
importance of establishing oneself after promotion. It was emphasised that women who get
promoted to managerial positions should ensure that they received the support they needed
from subordinates. It is part of leadership ability to make subordinates aware that they should
recognise the authority and ability of the woman manager. When trust is built between
women managers and subordinates departments would be run smoothly and the women
managers would manage employees and resources effectively. She stated “during the last few
years, I have been promoted several times and I have made it part of my job to let them know
beforehand that I am capable of doing the job. Some people have worked under me in other
departments, but I still had to sell my abilities to them once I became Regional Director. I
have made it part of my job to do so”.

The extent to which their subordinates perceive them as being capable and competent has an
effect on the way they are able to manage their departments. They face more obstacles in the
form of resistance when their subordinates perceive them to be less capable as managers.

Political Interruption/Interference
As mentioned in the procedure chapter, three of the respondents had requested their interview
to be conducted through electronic mail. The interview schedule (see appendix 5) had
questions regarding political inference. All three of the respondents reported that they were
aware of political interference in the organisation but felt that they were personally
unaffected by it. The responses were well understood given that all respondents had used
company resources to send their responses.

However, of the seven respondents that were available for face-to-face interviews, all
mentioned and raised the issue of political interference before the question was asked.
Respondents reported that one of the greater obstacles facing the organisation as a whole was
the inappropriate utilisation of political power. The perceived existence of political
interruptions was identified by the respondents on two levels, the organisational level and
personal level. Participant 8 said “As you know we cannot deny where we are, political
interference is seen everywhere, the organisation operates like that. People use whatever
power they have to influence decisions. I have had to fight against a political placement in
my department, prompted further by the researcher, the respondent continued to state that,
she ran the risk of political misalignment by refusing to agree to a political placement”.

She further stated “Obviously, I still have my job but I don’t know if I have upset them, the
promotions I received in the past were before I refused the placement. So far, nothing has
happened”.

The most common type of political interference is that which involves recruitment, selection
and placement. Respondents noted that the times they had seen political involvement in
administrative affairs, it had been of that kind. This was shown in the response given
participant 4, she said “My former boss was given a directive to create a post, and he was
also given a name of the individual who would fill that post”. Similarly, another respondent
was recorded as saying “Sometimes people are told that certain positions that are vacant must
not be advertised. As soon as a post is available, they already have a person in mind, you
know, a person who will work well with them”.

Another respondent said that she has in the past seen people being given positions based on
how they are politically aligned, although that occurred in another department not the one in
which she was a manager. When asked if there had been a position that she had applied for
that she did not receive that she felt she was well qualified and experienced for, she said
“Yes, of course, I suspect there are somewhat political reasons, but I can’t say for sure. But I
applied again for that same position. I will see if I get it or if I am given the same reasons for
not getting it as I was given”.

The respondents reported that the central to political interruptions, is how politically aligned
individuals were. To that end, political alignment arose as a subtheme of political
interruptions. Political misalignment in this kind of organisation bears a great amount of
implications for women in management positions, one being that misaligned individuals run
the risk of career limitation by those who exercise political influence on administrative
functions.

In this perspective, political alignment refers to the associations or groups a manager aligns
themselves to at work. In other words, is it the manner in which they actively partakes in
organisational politics, this is done to ensure that they the necessary support. The women
reported that, in order to not be greatly affected by the political aspect of their organisation,
they had to be selective in who they aligned themselves to. Participant 5 said “Yes, here,
you have to be very smart, you know your environment and you have to organise your work
around it to not be affected by it.” This opinion was shared by another respondent who
reported “Political interference or influence is here, it is part of our organisation. You as an
individual have the choice of how to deal with it. Be smart, know how to avoid the traps of
political interference”.

Although none of the seven respondents gave a definition of what they consider to be
political interference, all of them used in in terms of recruitment and candidate positioning
within their organisation.

In this case, alignment refers not only to whom the people mostly associate with, but, also
who they mostly avoid if they can help it.

The majority of the sample reported to avoid circles that would put them in direct exposure to
political interference that would lead to their careers being interrupted.

Given that the respondents worked within a politically charged environment, they each
expressed their inability to freely associate with a political party as that would render them
vulnerable. As mentioned previously, political alignment is seen as important in this
environment. The respondents stated that some obstacles could be avoided by simply
avoiding publicly associating oneself with something. Thus, even though political affiliation
was not explicitly named as a career barrier, the women admitted that in order to avoid
imminent obstacles, they had to avoid associating themselves with a political party within the
workspace.

Municipal structural change

As part of local government, the administrative function is affected as much as the political
function when it comes to structural changes. A change in leadership often means that there is
an associated change of plans for the departments. When the interviews were conducted,
many departments within the municipality were affected by the impending structural changes.
Some of the respondents worked with departments that were most affected by these structural
changes; all of those who were affected reported that they were rendered powerless as many
of plans had to be placed on hold until they had fully restructured. Participant 3 stated
“Right now I am unable to perform my job as I should because there are changes within the
department. I have been told to put some of my plans on hold until the restructuring process
is complete. There is nothing I can do about this, so I stopped. Her sentiments were mirrored
by another respondent who added “Every five years during this time, all our jobs are affected,
because there is uncertainty, you don’t know the vision the new leadership has, sometimes
the things you had been working on are no longer needed and you have to start again with the
new people. It affects how I do my job”.

One highlighted an element of organisational politics to it, she indicated “When there is
restructuring, you get new heads, you have to know them and they have to become familiar
with your work. It takes times to develop that, to have the relationship you had with your old
superior. Truthfully, sometimes for your project to get the green light, you have to have the
right support”.

Through their responses, it can be deduced that restructuring affects them on two levels; first,
it introduces an element of uncertainty. Most of the women reflected that during restructuring
periods they are unsure of the new vision and that affects the way in which they perform their
jobs. The second element is also centred on the notion of uncertainty; however, in this case, it
involves their actual role. Roles are affected by any structural changes that occur within any
given organisation. It meant that even though the women did not lose their title and position
however, the nature of their job at times, changed. This was seen in the case of participant 9
who stated that “Because the department is changing, there are many roles which are vacant
and they will not fill them up. So, right now I have been told that my job includes managing
three other departments. I have been doing that and will continue to do so until this process is
over. But this means that I am often unable to manage my department effectively because my
role has changed so much. I have way more responsibility, but my title on paper, reflects only
one”

Due to the uncertainties associated with restructuring, the women perceived that process as a
barrier as it affected the manner in which they performed their jobs as departmental
managers.

Age

Age emerged as a theme that was closely linked to the themes of subordinate dissent and
perception of ability by subordinates. During analysis of data, it was found that most of the
women who had reported subordinate dissent were younger in age. This coincided with the
reports given by younger managers who stated that age appeared to be a factor, which was
most visible in the manner in which they are perceived and respected by subordinates.

The mean age of the sample was found to be thirty eight, meaning that the sample was neither
too old nor too young. However, age became a factor in how people are perceived by their
subordinates. Upon analysing the themes, it was noted that the younger managers appeared to
face more subordinate dissent than their older counterparts.

This observation was proven true by participant 10 who shared that her greatest obstacle
was that people questioned her ability because she was younger than them. She wrote: “The
people that I manage have been here for a long time. The problem with that is that most of
them are much older than me and do not like to take instructions from ‘a child’ and the other
problem is that they think because they have been here for so long, I cannot tell them
anything. It is a constant struggle with them”. Another respondent who was close to
retirement added that she had faced less resistance now than when she was younger, she
stated “I cannot say if it is age or the fact that I have worked with them for long. But people
seem to respect my work and management abilities now than when I was younger”.

Related to age, is the fact that all of the participants who were in junior management shared
similar experiences of not only being the recipients of doubt by their subordinates but also
being micro-managed by their superiors. That cannot be said to be as a consequence of age
alone, however, the respondents believed that their age was a factor. One responded clarified
her believes that age was a factor by stating “There are people who were promoted with me
and they are not being micromanaged like I am and it is not surprising that of all those people
I am the youngest and I am a woman.”

When asked by the researcher if within their current positions, they are allowed the space to
exercise their authority freely; all of the junior managers stated that they have found that they
are still audited by their immediate superiors even on matters that were within their domain
and authority. This is in stark contrast to what the rest of the sample shared, when asked the
very same question, they reported to have had the freedom to exercise authority over their
respective departments. This does not conclusively indicate that age is a factor when the
ability to manage is considered by both superiors and subordinates, but it does show
discrepancies in treatment between young and older managers.

Internal Barriers:

Ability and willingness to take on additional responsibilities

The municipality encouraged all employees to pursue education. Education opportunities

ranged from short courses offered by the department to Bachelors and post- graduate degrees
offered by various educational institutions. The department had placed the responsibility of
career development on the employees. A significant number of respondents reported that the
distinguishing factor between them and their peers who had not progressed to the level of
manager was that their peers had not utilised the resources made available to them by the
organisation. One respondent added “The organisation offers us many schooling
opportunities. It is just that people are not willing to take advantage of that. They do not even
choose what you can study. I am now completing my honours in theology. The organisation
is paying for it, and the truth of the matter is that I will not even use the skills learnt there on
organisational matters”. Another respondent showed the researcher a cabinet full of
certificates, the certificates ranged from short courses and a business degree paid for by the
organisation. She stated “I had to own my development, I went to them, told them I wanted to
further my studies and they approved my request. Difference is that I was willing to approach
them and further than that, I was willing to spend my time studying”.

The idea of willingness to take on the additional responsibility of school when already tasked
with work duties appeared to be weighty within this theme. Even though most of the
respondents had children in school they devoted a fair amount of time studying. This was
evidenced by the fact that all respondents had acquired some type of educational skill under
the guidance of the organisation. Furthermore, a respondent who at the time of the interview
was completing a post graduate in business expressed gleeful anticipation of what her
prospects will be after completing her degree, she stated “Right now I am overwhelmed, I
have departmental duties to perform, a lot of people who answer to me and above that, I am
in the final stages of my degree. I am tired but what keeps me motivated is that I know that
once I am done with my degree, I can apply for positions that I feel I am not qualified for at
the moment. That keeps me moving”.

Another dimension to the ability and willingness to study further is what it means in terms of
juggling an additional responsibility of school when already tasks with the responsibility of
managing a department and full time parenting duties. Even more pertinent is that, when
women within the organisation show reluctance in studying further, it is seen as non-
committal to one’s own development and growth and that, in turn affects their advancement
prospects.

The respondents reported that another probable career barrier is the general lack of ability
people have to perform their job tasks and managerial duties. Participant 4 stated “Not every
person has the ability to make a good manager, don’t misunderstand me, they know how to
do a job but can’t be managers, sometimes they don’t have what it takes to be a manager”.

Even though none of the respondent had expressed that they had personally been negatively
affected by the lack of willingness and ability to perform is a barrier for most women who
aspire to be managers to progress to a higher level or position.

Self-concept

Another concept that is closely related to willingness and ability to perform is the manner in
which women perceive and judge their own ability to perform. Many of the respondents said
that due to the recurrent need to affirm themselves in a male dominated environment, it is
essential that they had a secure sense of self.

One responded wrote that “When I first got the position, I was not sure of myself, was not
sure if I can do the job and the people saw it and used it to shut my suggestions. But as soon
as I was confident, I spoke up louder and asserted”, another added that “I had to come out of
my shell, even when I feel like I am sure of what I am doing, I make sure to show them I am
still the authority figure. But that comes from me. If I can’t prove to myself I can do
something, they won’t be able to believe I can do”.

Participants were of the opinion that employees with positive self-concept most commonly
had a high sense of self-esteem which made them appear more dependable. Furthermore, they
stated that such people were more likely to be more responsible and were deemed to be more
goal oriented than those with low self-esteem and a negative self-concept. Thus, it is
reasonable to expect a good manager to have high self-esteem and a more positive sense of
self.

Self-efficacy emerged as a related theme to self-esteem, across all ten of the respondents, it
was reported that in order for one to perform as a manager it is essential to have the positive
beliefs about one’s own abilities. At some point during the interview process, all respondent
had emphasised the importance of believing in one’s own abilities to perform on the job as
well as lead their subordinates effectively. Their reports were in line with Bandura’s
explanation of what self-efficacy is. According to Bandura, self-efficacy refers to the beliefs
that one holds about their ability to perform and accomplish goals (1977). The theory further
states that self-efficacy corresponds to the level of competence one feels they have. Aligned
to their views of the importance of self-efficacy, is Bandura’s description of what occurs
when one has a low sense of self-efficacy, “When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on
their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse
outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully.” (Bandura, 1994, p.72).
Participant five’s views mirrored those of Bandura’s, she stated “I know political
interference exist, we have seen it, but I do not let that part of the job stop me from doing my
own job. It is hard but I do what I came here to do”. One respondent shared that she
empathised with women who did not have strong beliefs in their own ability, she stated “This
is a difficult environment to work in, there are pressures coming in from all angles, I do not
think I could do well in my job if I did not believe in myself. I feel sorry for people who are
not firm in their values. I can’t see they survive here”

In that regard, having a low perception of self and low belief in one’s abilities could be a
career barrier for women.
Presentation of self

The preservation of an image is extremely important for women working within this
environment. This theme relates to the manner in which women managers managed their self-
presentation skills. They had to project an image that portrayed positive attributes of a
manager in an organisation and to create positive affect among subordinates, employees,
colleagues and the executive. This proved to be particularly important given that one of the
barriers they encountered related to how they were perceived by the above-mentioned parties.

A common trend that emerged was that even though the participants mentioned the
perception of ability by subordinates as a possible career barrier; they did not completely
absolve themselves of any responsibility in the making of that perception. One respondent
stated “People can be taught, I think that the greater problem is when you do not change
people’s perception of you.” When prompted further by the researcher to clarify what she
meant by that statement she added that “Yes, people see what they want to see but it is also
up to us to show them what we are”.

From the analysis, it is understood that the majority of the women believed that the lack of
proper presentation of self led to the lack of belief in their abilities by the people around
them. Proper presentation of self in this case, it refers to assertiveness, commitment to work,
and leading by example. Thus, when the women did not present themselves in that manner,
their subordinates were less likely to fully accept their leadership. It was noted that the
determinants of proper presentation of self were comprised of the agentic characteristics
mentioned by Dulin (2007). These are the most desired characteristics in leaders, and even
more important, these are the characteristics that are considered inherently masculine.

It is through this that the women indicated that one of the barriers that impede the career
development of women was due to the manner in which they presented themselves to their
subordinates.

Family responsibility

At first analysis of the sample, it was noted that the women in the sample were mothers. The
mean age of the sample was thirty eight. It was also noted that managerial hierarchy was age-
dependent, meaning that, women who had worked for the organisation longer occupied
executive management positions and those in the lower tier of management were younger in
age. One respondent wrote that “Only after my child was at university was I really able to
start planning my career, what I want, when I want it”. This, did not present itself as a clear
and explicit career barrier, however, it presented as a trend particularly concerning how
women manage duality of roles.

Another respondent added that the only reason she could commit to the long hours that came
with her position was that her child had been at university for a few years, she stated that
before, because she was a single parent, she had to limit the hours she worked, the amount of
work she took home and the responsibilities she had at work. This sentiment was noted across
the board, where most women of a certain age group (above 50 years of age) admitted to
having more time to commit to work now that they were no longer primary the care givers of
their children.

One of the younger respondents who was at the entry level of management stated “To be
honest, I am happy with the job and my position, it allows me enough flexibility to have
enough time with my son. And because it’s an entry level position, the responsibilities aren’t
too great, I still report to someone. I am okay with that for now. May be when my son is a bit
older, I will concentrate more on my career”.

Reports by the women showed that, more than balancing marriage demands and work, of
greater importance to the women is balancing motherhood and work. A significant amount of
the respondents revealed that they had in the past, or are currently taking on fewer
responsibilities at work in order to care for their children. This has in turn, had a limiting
effect on their careers.

The observation that the promotions were largely age-dependant could be due the fact that
women who have above child rearing age, have more time and less role conflict and therefore
dedicate more of their time to career advancement. The inverse if true, as demonstrated by
the answers the younger managers gave, prioritisation of home responsibilities has led a
slowed down advancement process for these managers. The inability to take on additional
work responsibilities due to family responsibilities presents as a career limiting bareer.
Chapter 5

This chapter reflects on the main findings of the research. The recurring themes are
contextualised to the environment where research was conducted.

Discussion

There is a measure of overlap between the themes formed, for example, subordinate dissent is
related to the themes of perception of ability and municipal structural change. This study
indicated that subordinate dissent was motivated by a number of reasons, one of which is how
employees perceive the abilities to manage of Black managers in particular, past research has
indicated that generally white managers are trusted and seen to be more effective and
efficient that black managers (Drake-Clarke, 2009). Furthermore, there appeared to be an
intersection between race and gender on the matter of subordinate dissent, Black managers in
the sample were reported to have received more dissent from subordinates than her white
female counterpart, however, as women, regardless of race, they faced more dissent from
subordinates than did their former director who was male.

In this instance, dissent from subordinates has great negative implication for women in
management positions and their ability to vertically move in the organisation. Essentially, if
women managers are seen to be incapable of managing their subordinates at a particular
level, they will be deemed incapable of managing subordinates at an even higher level.

Closely related to how subordinates take and use instructions from a supervisor, is their
perception of the manager or supervisor’s ability. Perception of ability as used in the current
study is related to gender discrimination within the workplace. The appraisal of a certain
manager’s ability to effectively perform on the job and manage a department is closely linked
to how colleagues perceive women in management positions. Theories such as the Social
Role Theory and Role Expectations Theory explain why women might be seen as less
capable of managing than men. Both theories speak to the socially constructed roles of what
is acceptable for both genders, with men assumed to be more suitable for management roles
(Weyer, 2007). Men are said to have abilities to lead as they possess qualities such as
assertiveness and women are said to possess nurturing qualities (Weyer, 2007). The results
of the study reflected the finding of previous studies and existing literature on women in
managerial positions, participants stated that perception of their ability to lead and possible
dissent is proves to be a career limiting barrier. If the organisation has an overarching climate
of gender based bias, women might find it harder to progress to higher levels of management
as men will generally be considered more suitable for such positions.

Thus, how decision makers and subordinates perceive women in management positions has
great implications on their career development and advancement.

Political interference emerged as a prominent theme in the study. Political interference

appeared to be a phenomenon all participants were familiar with. Political interference as
used in the current study referred to undue influence on administrative function of the
municipality by political and other executive members (Trautman, 2006). Results of the study
suggested that political interference was most seen in recruitment and placement within the
organisation. Past research on the effect of political interference on the career paths of
individuals have yielded similar results to those that have been found in the current study
(Matheson, Wweber, Manning & Arnould, 2007). The study conducted in various countries,
such as the South Africa, Sweden, United States, Mexico, United Kingdom and Korea
indicated that political interference is mostly notable in the appointment of senior officials,
however, it was found that political figures had little authority to terminate contracts
(Matheson, et, al, 2007). This is due to the bureaucratic nature of most public institutions.
Further, it was found that in South Africa, political interference was high in appointment,
promotions, and transference to another position and in performance assessments (Matheson,
et, al, 2007).

The existence of political interference in municipal authorities presents itself as a career

limiting barrier for women, in that some are bypassed for positions for which they are
experienced and qualified for. This becomes more visible as one advances to higher positions
within the municipality. This occurs in South African municipalities even when South Africa
ranks high in countries that have implemented measures that restrict political interference
(Matheson, et, 2007).
In addition to political interference, there are other organisational dynamics and processes
that have an impact on the career advancement of women. The process of organisational
restructuring emerged as a theme. Past literature on organisational restructuring and
performance has suggested that any structural change that occurs results in disruptive effects
on the behaviour of managers and the overall organisational outcome (Andrews & Boyne,
2012), and that these changes are most visible between the time in which the structural
change is announced to when the change begins. This appears to confirm what the current
study has found, women managers found that their performance and that of their subordinates
were affected by structural change, most stated that this was due to the uncertain nature of
change and furthermore, political motivation.

Promotions in the organisation where the study was conducted depend upon the performance
of an individual, therefore poor performance over an extended period reflects unfavourably
on the individuals that manage that department. Thus, during municipal restructuring, women
managers face the task arduous of maintaining high performance amidst uncertainty and an
often uncooperative workforce. Under performance during this period may appear as the
general inability to manage a department and thus affects the career progressions of those
women to higher offices. Furthermore, as stated by respondents, there are political
undertones to restructuring that is seen in the manner in which information is shared and how
resources are allocated during this period. Lack of adequate information and resources can
present as an obstacle to the performance of managers in the affected departments. Thus,
municipal restructuring has an impact on the career advancement of women, particularly
when they are not equipped with adequate resources and a committed workforce.

The factor of age appeared consistently through the study. Contrary to past research on
ageism in the workplace, the current study has found that the authority of older managers is
more readily accepted than that of younger managers.

The concept of ageism refers to discrimination based on age, and that most occurs when older
candidates are bypassed for positions for which they are qualified for (McRae, 2003). In this
case, the South African context is particularly important. It is key to understand age as a
social construct (Andrew, 2012). Generally, there is age related respect that is afforded to
those that are older. This trend is also seen in labour market characteristics, statistics from
Development Bank of Southern Africa (2010) showed that the population group that is most
likely to be retained and has the lowest unemployment rate is that above 35 years of age. The
report stated that this trend indicates that there is bias against younger cohorts in the market
place (DBSA, 2010), furthermore, statistics revealed that women in that age group are most
affected by this market place related bias. Whilst these reports do not emphatically prove that
age is a disadvantage for women in management positions, they do indicate a widespread
trend within South African markets, where younger people are experience age related bias
and possibly discrimination than do older people.

The younger participants in the study generally shared that they have experienced more
dissent from subordinates than their older counterparts. In those instances, when subordinates
refuse or are reluctant to accept the management of younger women, the overall performance
of that department is affected and affects the manner in which the manner is appraised. A
negative appraisal can present itself as career limiting, in that, they may not be deemed
suitable for a higher position. Another reason, age may be career limit is associated with the
extent to which age bias is institutionalised in the particular organisation. Superficial
observations of the organisational structure revealed that most managers and executives were
older in age, this, however, does not conclusively prove that age bias is institutionalised with
this organisation.

The organisation that was chosen for research strictly advocates for the education of their
employees. Employees are given the chance to further their education through a variety of
sources. It is therefore, not surprising that many felt that the one barrier that stops an
individual is the lack of ability and willingness to take on additional educational
responsibilities. This is particularly true in that, most positions require an individual to have a
certain level of education, thus, not having the requisite education can effectively prevent one
from advancement.

This sentiment has been expressed in a number of research studies, with many finding that
there is a relationship between ability, willingness to perform and career progression
(O’Reilly & Chatman, 1994). Thus, it is not surprising that the results of the current study
suggest that a lack of willingness and ability to perform can be a career barrier to many
women in management positions
The concepts of self-esteem and self-concept have been written about extensively throughout
the years. Of particular interest is the impact these concepts have on the career development
and advancement of individuals. Research conducted by Rogers, Smith and Coleman found
that self-concept was related to academic achievement in some cases (Rogers, Smith &
Coleman, 1978). As such, it was expected that self-concept within the context of this
research, would affect the career advancement of women. Although many women stated and
acknowledged the impact environmental factors has on their behaviour, a great majority
stated that the greatest barriers they face in their own career development is tied to how much
they believe in their own abilities to manage and perform on the job. Many stated that having
a strong sense of self-esteem shapes how they approach their jobs and any obstacles that they
face on the job. Furthermore, the participants linked the lack of self-esteem to the propensity
to quit when faced with work related difficulties.

Moreover, the concepts of self-esteem and self-concepts were closely associated with the
manner in which women present themselves in the workplace. Presentation of self, in this
instance hugely relates to displaying traits or characteristics that are deemed appropriate for a
certain position. Thus, when one struggles with self-esteem, it becomes increasingly difficult
to manage an image that is considered desirable.

These two factors present as career barriers as they greatly affect the manner in which women
are perceived, that is inclusive of assumed abilities and capabilities. If a women is seen as
lacking the belief in her own abilities, that has a trickling down effect, people around her will
feel the same. Possible promotions and advancements are based upon the perception of what
one can do.

The final theme to emerge from this research was that of the impact on family responsibility
on career advancement of women. The results of the current study greatly correspond to the
literature presented throughout the paper. Literature presented in this paper showed that the
effect children have on the career advancement of women, it was demonstrated through
surveys that around 83% of women voluntarily take on fewer responsibilities at work to care
for their children (Beauregard, 2007).

These findings were reflected in the findings of the current study, where all women in the
sample were mothers. The women who had progressed to higher management positions
stated that their career progression escalated after they were above child rearing ages and
younger managers admitted to taking on fewer responsibilities to accommodate their home
schedule.

There are organisational implications to taking on fewer responsibilities; again, it affects the
manner in which women are seen. Women who take on fewer responsibilities are seen as
being less committed to the organisation. This effect, tends to affect women as a group as
opposed to am individuals, Weyer (2007) stated that gender stereotyped are formed and
applied to all people belonging to that group. Therefore, one woman’s decision to prioritise
the family might have negative implications on women as a group. Again, that assertion is in
line with what has been previously published concerning women in the workplace, it is
shown that organisations often operate on the belief that all women will want to have more
time for caring for their children and thus will want less responsibilities (Beauregard, 2007).
Limitations of the Study

As mentioned previously, three of the ten participants were interviewed electronically; this
was due to time constraints on the behalf of the participants. Although the participants gave
the researcher full permission to engage further based on the answers given, certain subjects
were of a sensitive nature and could not be fully communicated through email. Such was
evident in the short responses to the political interference questions. Another limitation that
was due to electronic interviews was that the researcher could not use non-verbal cues from
participants. That meant that for three participants, only written information was used for
analysis.
Recommendations

Throughout the interview processes, two themes were prevalent. First, it was observed that
the interviewees were consistent in offering ways in which each of them overcame barriers
they have or are currently facing. Thus for future research it is suggested that the coping
mechanisms employed by women facing career barriers are explored. Furthermore, analysis
of the results revealed a trend, there existed the belief in the personal characteristics and
dispositions of the participants being central to existing and surviving in a political
environment. Therefore, another area of interest could include looking at the correlation
between the personality types and coping mechanisms employed in an attempt to circumvent
career barriers.

Secondly, it was noted that the family responsibility was one of the more significant barriers
in the career development of women. Thus it is recommended that a more comprehensive
research study is conducted on the effect home responsibilities have on the career functioning
and progression of women.

With regards to the study, municipalities could have workshops addressing the internal
factors that most commonly affect women. For example, as part of the development process
of a manager, there could be workshop around positively asserting oneself or the importance
of managing one’s image. Such development initiatives could address some of the internal
barriers women in managerial positions face within a politically charged environment.
Conclusion

A thorough analysis of the themes and the results, it was found that although the women
identified some barriers as being environmental, none felt the environmental barriers were
enough to keep them from achieving what they had planned. However, the barriers that the
participants mostly identified with were intrapersonal, which are beliefs about one’s own
beliefs, ability one has to perform and prioritising between work and home.

Thus, in can be concluded that the barriers with the most negative impact on the career
development of women in management positions are more personal than environmental. That
being said, the impact of the environment cannot be discounted.
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Appendix 1

Biographical Questionnaire

(Sample Description)

Please fill in the form and tick where it is appropriate.

Race: _________________

Age: __________________

Highest Qualification: Matric Diploma Degree Post Graduate Degree

Other (Specify): ___________________

Marital Status: Single Married Divorced Widow

Do you have any children? Yes No

If yes, how many? _____________________

Position occupied currently: __________________________

Length in service to the organisation: ____________________

Appendix 2

Interview Schedule

Thank you for participating in my study. If you feel uncomfortable at any point during the
interview, please inform me and please feel free to ask any questions that you may have.

Self

1. What career/job position do you currently occupy in your organisation?

2. Please explain the hierarchy in your organisation including your position in that
hierarchy.
3. What are your career aspirations?
4. What can you tell me about your colleagues, superiors and well as subordinates?
5. What is your organisation’s stance or approach to employment equity?
6. How many people report to you?
7. How many supervisors do you report to? And how many of them are women?

Career Development

Please answer the following questions with regard to your career development.

1. Is your career developing at the pace you had anticipated? (please explain)
2. Are you experiencing any interruptions in your career?
3. If yes, what is the nature of those interruptions?
4. How can you address this matter? Are there proper channels through which this can be
addressed? If yes, please explain
5. What aspects of your career development are within your control and which are
beyond your control?
6. What measures (if any) have to you taken to ensure that you grow in your career?
(Please be specific)

Career Barriers

1. Have you faced any obstacles in your career?

2. Have you faced any obstacles in your current position?
3. What type of obstacles have you faced?
 4. Within your current position, are you allowed the space to exercise your authority
freely?
5. Do you feel valued and recognised?
6. Do you feel the organisation gives women and men in management positions the
freedom to oversee their departments without any influence?
7. Have you been overlooked for a job you for which you are qualified?
8. If you are married, in a long term partnership, how do you maintain balance?
9. How many children do you have? How do you juggle motherhood and work?
10. Do you think you cope well with both roles?

Thank you for participating in my research. It is greatly appreciated.

Appendix 3

Consent Form

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

This document serves to confirm my voluntary participation in the research of Palesa

Moeketsane, entitled “Exploring the career barriers of women managers in municipal
authorities in South Africa”. The nature and objectives of the research have been explained to
me.

I understand that my participation will consist of talking about my experiences in an

interview to be held at a place and time convenient to me. I know that after the interviews
have been written up and the study has been completed, the data will not be used for any
other reason. I am aware that the researcher will keep copies of the transcripts in a secure
location in a password locked computer that only the researcher has access to and that any
details that may identify me will be omitted from these transcripts. I am aware that my
participation will also be known to Palesa Moeketsane’s supervisor, Dr. Calvin Gwandure of
the Department of Psychology at Wits University.

I understand that I do not have to answer any questions I do not wish to and that I can
withdraw from the research at any point without detriment to myself. I understand that my
participation is entirely voluntary and that my confidentiality will be protected by omitting
any details that may identify. I also give my consent for the results of the research to be
published and to be presented at conferences and other professional public fora. I understand
that there will be no benefits or rewards. I understand what is being asked of me and am
willing to participate in this project.

I understand that a summary of the results will be made available to me on request.

Should I have any more questions about this research I can contact Palesa Moeketsane at
pmoeketsane@gmail.com or Dr. Calvin Gwandure at calvin.gwandure@wits.ac.za

Participant’s name ________________________________________________________

Participant’s signature _____________________________________________________

Researcher’s signature ____________________________________________________

Date ____________________________
Appendix 4

Cover Letter

SCHOOL OF HUMAN & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND
Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050
Tel: (011) 717 4500
Fax: (011) 717 4559

Dear Sir or Madam

My name is Palesa Moeketsane and I am presently completing my Master’s Degree within

the Department Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand. In the fulfillment of this
degree my area of research is designed to “Explore the career barriers faced by women
managers in municipal authorities in South Africa”. I am inviting you and your employees to
please participate in this research.

Participation is voluntary, and no employee will be advantaged or disadvantaged in any way

for choosing to partake in the interviews.
Given that interviews will be conducted as a method of collecting data, there will be no
anonymity as all participants will be known to the researcher. However, their identity will
only be known to the researcher. However, confidentiality will be guaranteed.

Data can be collected in person in the form of face to face interviews. Your staff will be
provided with demographic questionnaire as well as interview questions. The interview will
take approximately an hour to complete. Participants will all be provided with a covering
letter which outlines all the conditions of participation above. Written informed consent will
be collected from all participants before the interviews are conducted. Your employees will
be able to withdraw from the study should they so desire.
Responses will not be used for any purposes, other than research.
Be assured that data would solely be used for academic purposes. In this regard, I am more
than willing to sign a non-disclosure agreement if the organisation feels that this is necessary.
The results will be presented to the organisation, in a written report, as group trends, which
make it impossible to identify any particular respondent.

The research study is an independent study which will be conducted under the supervision of
an Industrial Psychologist at Wits University. Please contact me should you have any further
questions. If you wish to meet with me for a discussion and/or wish to see a copy of my
interview questions please feel free to contact me and I will meet with you and/or provide
you with the necessary details.

Kind Regards

Palesa Moeketsane
Master’s Candidate
Department of Psychology
University of the Witwatersrand
Email: pmoeketsane@gmail.com
Cell: 082 889 5252

Signature: ______________________________

Supervisor: Dr. Calvin Gwandure

Department of Psychology
University of the Witwatersrand
Email: calvin.gwandure@wits.ac.za

Signature: ____________________________
Appendix 5

Participant Letter

SCHOOL OF HUMAN & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND
Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050
Tel: (011) 717 4500
Fax: (011) 717 4559

Dear Employee
My name is Palesa Moeketsane and I am presently completing my Master’s Degree within
the Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand. In the fulfillment of
this degree my area of research is designed to explore the career barriers faced by women
managers in municipal authorities in South Africa. I am inviting to please participate in this
research.

Responses will not be used for any purposes, other than this research. Written informed
consent will be collected from all participants before the interviews are conducted. You will
be able to withdraw from the study until should you so desire. Please be assured that data
would solely be used for academic purposes.

The results will be presented to the organisation, in a written report and will indicate
group trends only. This will make it impossible to identify any particular respondent.
Further, note that this research has been approved by your organisation.

Participation is voluntary, and you will not be advantaged or disadvantaged in any way for
choosing to complete or not complete the interviews.
Given that interviews will be conducted as a method of collecting data, there will be no
anonymity as all participants will be known to the researcher. However, your identity
will only be known to the researcher. Confidentiality will be guaranteed.

Data can be collected in person. You will be provided with a demographic questionnaire as
well as interview questions for you to answer. The interview will take approximately an hour
to complete. Your participation in this study would be greatly appreciated.

The research study is an independent study which will be conducted under the supervision of
an Industrial Psychologist at Wits University.
Kind Regards

Palesa Moeketsane
Masters candidate
Department of Psychology
University of the Witwatersrand

Signature: ___________________________

Supervisor: Dr. Calvin Gwandure

Signature: ____________________________
Appendix 6

Audio consent form

SCHOOL OF HUMAN & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND
Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050
Tel: (011) 717 4500
Fax: (011) 717 4559

CONSENT TO AUDIO- OR VIDEO RECORDING & TRANSCRIPTION

Exploring the career barriers faced by women managers in municipal authorities in South
Africa

Researcher: Palesa Moeketsane

Master’s candidate

This study involves the audio or video recording of your interview with the researcher.
Neither your name nor any other identifying information will be associated with the audio or
video recording or the transcript. Only the research team will be able to listen (view) to the
recordings. The tapes will be transcribed by the researcher and erased once the transcriptions
are checked for accuracy. Transcripts of your interview may be reproduced in whole or in
part for use in presentations or written products that result from this study. Neither your name
nor any other identifying information (such as your voice or picture) will be used in
presentations or in written products resulting from the study.

By signing this form, I am allowing the researcher to audio or video tape me as part of this
research. I also understand that this consent for recording is effective until the following date:
17-03-2014. On or after that date, the tapes will be destroyed.
Participant’s Signature: ___________________________________________

Date:___________