MBC 233.

1 [Organic Chemistry]

ALCOHOL
Dr. Hamilton Opurum
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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• The learning objectives aim to provide students
with a comprehensive understanding of the
properties, reactions, and applications of
alcohols in organic chemistry, enabling them to
apply this knowledge to solve problems and
make connections to broader chemical
concepts.
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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Structure and Classification:
• Nomenclature:
• Physical Properties:
• Chemical Reactions:
• Acidity and Basicity:
• Synthesis and Functional Group Interconversion:
• Spectroscopic Analysis:
• Applications:
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 Introduction to Alcohols:
• Alcohols are organic compounds characterized
by the presence of a hydroxyl functional group
(-OH) bonded to a carbon atom.
• They are among the most common and
important functional groups in organic
chemistry.
• The general formula for an alcohol is R-OH,
where R represents an alkyl or aryl group.
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 For example, the following compounds are all alcohols:

 If the hydroxyl group were substituted for a hydrogen on an

unsaturated carbon, an alcohol would not form.
 For example, substituting the hydroxyl group for a terminal
hydrogen of 1‐propene gives an unstable enol that
tautomerizes to a ketone.

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 Nomenclature
 You can use both the common and IUPAC systems to name
alcohols.
 In the common system, you name an alcohol by listing the
alkyl group and adding the word alcohol.
 Following are some examples of alcohols and their common
names:

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 In the IUPAC system, use the following series
of rules to name alcohols:
1. Pick out the longest continuous chain to which the hydroxyl
group is directly attached.
1. The parent name of the alcohol comes from the
alkane name for the same chain length.
2. Drop the ‐e ending and add ‐ol.
2. Number the parent chain so that the carbon bearing the
hydroxyl group has the lowest possible number.
1. Place the number in front of the parent name.
3. Locate and name substituents other than the hydroxyl
group.
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 The following examples show how you apply
these rules:

 You may classify alcohols as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or

tertiary (3°), based on the class of carbon to which the hydroxyl
group (R-OH) is directly bonded.
 For example,
1‐propanol is a 1° alcohol, 2‐propanol is a 2° alcohol, and
2‐methyl‐2‐propanol is a 3° alcohol.
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 Classification of Alcohols:
• Alcohols are classified based on the
number of carbon atoms bonded to
the carbon bearing the hydroxyl
group.
• This carbon is called the alpha
carbon.
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 There are three main types of alcohols:
• Primary Alcohol: A primary alcohol has one alkyl group
bonded to the alpha carbon.
– Example: Ethanol (CH3CH2-OH)
• Secondary Alcohol: A secondary alcohol has two alkyl
groups bonded to the alpha carbon.
– Example: Isopropanol (CH3CHOHCH3)
• Tertiary Alcohol: A tertiary alcohol has three alkyl groups
bonded to the alpha carbon.
– Example: Tert-butanol (CH3)3COH
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 Physical Properties:
• Alcohols exhibit unique physical properties due to the presence of
the hydroxyl group:
 Alcohols contain both a polar —OH group and a nonpolar alkyl group.
 As a result of this composition, alcohols that have small alkyl chains tend
to be water soluble.
 As alkyl chain length increases, water solubility decreases.
 Through the OH group, alcohols are capable of forming hydrogen bonds to
themselves, other alcohols, neutral molecules, and anions.
 This bond formation leads to abnormally high boiling points compared to
other organic molecules of similar carbon chain length.
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 Boiling Point:
• Alcohols generally have higher boiling
points compared to hydrocarbons of
similar molecular weight.
• This is because alcohols can form
hydrogen bonds between molecules,
leading to stronger intermolecular
forces. 12
 Solubility:
• Small alcohols (up to 4 carbons) are
soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding
between alcohol molecules and water
molecules.
• However, as the carbon chain length
increases, solubility decreases.
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 Chemical Reactions:
• Alcohols participate in a variety of chemical
reactions:
• Dehydration:
–Alcohols can undergo dehydration reactions to
form alkenes in the presence of heat and an acid
catalyst.
–This involves the elimination of water from the
alcohol molecule.
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 Alcohols can undergo dehydration
reactions
• Dehydration reactions of alcohols involve the
removal of a water molecule (H2O) from the
alcohol molecule, resulting in the formation of
an alkene.
• This reaction is typically catalyzed by an acid,
such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or phosphoric
acid (H3PO4).
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• The general reaction for the dehydration of
an alcohol is:
–Alcohol→Alkene+WaterAlcohol→Alkene+Water
–For example, the dehydration of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH) can be represented as follows:
• CH3CH2OH→CH2=CH2+H2OCH3CH2OH→CH2=CH2+H2O
–In this reaction, ethanol loses a water molecule to
form ethylene (ethene) as the alkene product.

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• Dehydration reactions are important in
organic synthesis for the production of
alkenes, which are valuable
intermediates in the synthesis of
various organic compounds.
• They are also significant in industrial
processes, such as the production of
gasoline from ethanol. 17
 Chemical Reactions:
• Oxidation:
–Alcohols can be oxidized to form carbonyl
compounds such as aldehydes or
ketones, depending on the structure of the
alcohol and the oxidizing agent used.

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General overview of the oxidation reactions of alcohols:
• Primary Alcohols:
–Primary alcohols can be oxidized to form
aldehydes or further oxidized to carboxylic
acids.
–The oxidation of a primary alcohol stops at the
aldehyde stage under controlled conditions,
while stronger oxidizing agents or harsher
conditions may lead to further oxidation to the
carboxylic acid. 20
• Example:
– Primary Alcohol→Mild/Organic Oxidizing Agent
[PCC, (CrO3/H2SO4CrO3/H2SO4)
AldehydePrimary AlcoholPCC, CrO3​Mild/Organic Oxidizing Agen
t​] Aldehyde
– Primary Alcohol→Strong Oxidizing Agent[KMnO4,H2CrO4Carb
oxylic AcidPrimary AlcoholKMnO4​,H2​CrO4​
Strong Oxidizing Agent​] Carboxylic Acid
– COMMON OXIDIZING AGENTS
• potassium permanganate (KMnO4KMnO4),
• chromium trioxide (CrO3CrO3),
• potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7K2Cr2O7),
• Jones reagent (CrO3/H2SO4CrO3/H2SO4) for primary alcohols;
• pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) for mild oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes.
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• Secondary Alcohols:
–Secondary alcohols are oxidized to form
ketones, since they lack a hydrogen atom
attached directly to the carbon bearing the
hydroxyl group.
• Example:
–Secondary Alcohol→Mild/Organic Oxidizing Agent
PCC, CrO3Ketone Secondary Alcohol
PCC, CrO3​Mild/Organic Oxidizing Agent​ Ketone
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• Tertiary Alcohols:
–Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation
reactions under normal conditions since they lack
a hydrogen atom bonded to the carbon bearing
the hydroxyl group.
–Example:
• Tertiary Alcohol→No Reaction No Oxidation

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• Common oxidizing agents used in these reactions include
– potassium permanganate (KMnO4KMnO4),
– chromium trioxide (CrO3CrO3),
– potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7K2Cr2O7), and
– Jones reagent (CrO3/H2SO4CrO3/H2SO4) for primary alcohols;
– pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) for mild oxidation of primary
alcohols to aldehydes.
• These oxidation reactions are widely used in organic
synthesis to introduce carbonyl functionalities into
molecules, enabling the preparation of a wide range of
important organic compounds.
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 Chemical Reactions:
• Substitution Reactions:
–Alcohols can undergo substitution
reactions where the hydroxyl group is
replaced by another functional group.
–This often involves the use of reagents
such as hydrogen halides or phosphorus
halides.
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 Synthesis:
•Alcohols can be
synthesized through
various methods.
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Hydration of Alkenes:
Addition of water to an alkene in the presence
of a catalyst such as sulfuric acid to form an
alcohol.

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 Hydration of alkenes
 The elements of water can be added to the
double‐bonded carbons of an alkene in either a
Markovnikov's or an anti‐Markovnikov's manner.
 As shown in the following figure, a hydrogen ion
catalyzes the Markovnikov's addition.

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 The anti‐Markovnikov's addition results from a
hydroboration‐oxidation reaction.

 Reduction of aldehydes and ketones

 An aldehyde has a structural formula of

 while the structural formula of a ketone is

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In these formulas, the R or R′ group may be
either an aliphatic or aromatic group.
In a ketone, the R and R′ groups may
represent the same group or different
groups.
These types of compounds are best reduced
by complex metal hydrides, such as lithium
aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) or sodium
borohydride (NaBH4).
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 Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds
• Reduction of aldehydes or
ketones using reducing agents
like sodium borohydride
(NaBH4) or lithium aluminum
hydride (LiAlH4).
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 Nucleophilic Substitution:
•Nucleophilic substitution of
alkyl halides with certain
nucleophiles such as water or
hydroxide ions can yield
alcohols.
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 Two examples of complex metal reductions:

Lithium aluminum hydride is a very strong reducing agent that will

reduce many functional groups in addition to aldehydes and
ketones.
Sodium borohydride is a much weaker reducing agent that basically
will reduce only aldehydes and ketones to alcohols.

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o The reduction of cyclohexanone by hydrogen
gas with a platinum catalyst produces
cyclohexanol in good yield.

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o You can also catalytically reduce aldehydes
and ketones to produce 1° and 2° alcohols.
o Reduction conditions are very similar to
those used to reduce alkene double bonds.
o If a molecule possesses both a double bond
and an aldehyde or ketone functional group,
reduction of the aldehyde or ketone group is
best carried out using sodium borohydride.
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 Reduction of carboxylic acids
o The reduction of a carboxylic acid:

o leads to the formation of a primary alcohol:

o This reduction requires a very strong reducing agent, and lithium aluminum
hydride is the standard choice.

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o Diborane, B2H6, also reduces carboxylic
acids to alcohols.

o Catalytic hydrogenation gives very poor yields

and is not usually used for this type of
reaction.
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 Reduction of esters
 Esters, like carboxylic acids, are normally reduced with lithium
aluminum hydride.
 In these reactions, two alcohols are formed. An example is the
reduction of methyl benzoate to benzyl alcohol and methanol.

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Grignard reaction with aldehydes & ketones
 The Grignard reaction is the only simple method available that is
capable of producing primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
 To produce a primary alcohol, the Grignard reagent is reacted
with formaldehyde.

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 Reacting a Grignard reagent with any other aldehyde will lead
to a secondary alcohol.

 Finally, reacting a Grignard reagent with a ketone will

generate a tertiary alcohol.

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Reactions
of
Alcohols43

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 Alcohols are capable of being converted
to:
 metal salts,
 alkyl halides,
 esters,
 aldehydes,
 ketones,
 carboxylic acids. 44

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 Metal salt formation
• Alcohols are only slightly weaker acids than water, with
a Ka value of approximately 1×10−16.
• The reaction of ethanol with sodium metal (a base)
produces sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas.

This reaction is identical to the reaction of sodium metal

with water.

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 However, the latter reaction occurs faster because of the
increased acidity of water (K a value of 1 × 10 −15).
 Likewise, similar reactions occur with potassium metal.
 The acidity of alcohols decreases while going from primary to
secondary to tertiary.
 This decrease in acidity is due to two factors:
 an increase of electron density on the oxygen atom of
the more highly‐substituted alcohol, and
 steric hindrance (because of the alkyl groups, which
inhibit solvation of the resulting alkoxide ion).
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Both of these situations increase the activation
energy for proton removal.
The basicity of alkoxide ions increases while
going from primary to tertiary.
This increase in basicity occurs because the
conjugate base of a weak acid is strong.
The weaker the acid, the stronger the conjugate
base. 47

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 Alkyl halide formation
 Alcohols are converted to alkyl halides by S N1
and S N2 reactions with halogen acids.

Primary alcohols favor S N2 substitutions while S N1 substitutions

occur mainly with tertiary alcohols.
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 A more efficient method of preparing alkyl halides from
alcohols involves reactions with thionyl chloride
(SOCl 2).

 This reaction is rapid and produces few side reaction

products.
 In addition, the sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride
formed as byproducts are gasses and therefore easily
removed from the reaction.
 Mechanistically, the alcohol initially reacts to form an
inorganic ester.
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 The chloride ion produced by this reaction, acting as a nucleophile, attacks
the ester in an S N2 fashion to yield molecules of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
chloride, and an alkyl halide.

Because the reaction proceeds mainly by an S N2 mechanism, the alkyl halide

produced from an optically active alcohol will have the opposite relative
configuration from the alcohol from which it was formed.

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Because thionyl bromide is relatively unstable, alkyl bromides are
normally prepared by reacting the alcohol with phosphorous tribromide
(PBr 3).

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This reaction proceeds via a two‐step mechanism.
In the first step, the alcohol reacts with the phosphorous tribromide.

The second step is an S N1 or S N2 substitution in which the

bromide ion displaces the dibromophosphorous group.

In a similar manner, alkyl iodides are prepared by

reacting an alcohol with phosphorous triiodide.
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 Ester formation
 Esters are compounds that are commonly formed by the
reaction of oxygen‐containing acids with alcohols.
 The ester functional group is the

 Alcohols can be converted to esters by means of the Fischer Esterification Process.

 In this method, an alcohol is reacted with a carboxylic acid in the presence of an
inorganic acid catalyst.

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 Because the reaction is an equilibrium reaction, in
order to receive a good yield, one of the products must
be removed as it forms.
 Doing this drives the equilibrium to the product side.

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• The mechanism for this type of reaction takes place in
seven steps:
• 1. The mechanism begins with the protonation of the
acetic acid.

The π electrons of the carboxyl group, , migrate to pick up

the positive charge.

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3. The oxygen of the alcohol molecule attacks the carbocation.

4. The oxonium ion that forms loses a proton.

5. One of the hydroxyl groups is protonated to form an oxonium ion.

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6. An unshared pair of electrons on another hydroxy group re-
establishes the carbonyl group, with the loss of a water molecule.

7. The oxonium ion loses a proton, which leads to the production of the
ester.

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 Alkyl sulfonate formation.
 Alcohols may be converted to alkyl sulfonates,
which are sulfonic acid esters.
 These esters are formed by reacting an alcohol
with an appropriate sulfonic acid.
 For example, methyl tosylate, a typical sulfonate,
is formed by reacting methyl alcohol with tosyl
chloride.

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• Other sulfonyl halides that form alkyl sulfonates include:

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 These groups are much better leaving groups
than the hydroxyl group because they are
resonance stabilized.
 Alcohol molecules that are going to be reacted
by S N1 or S N2 mechanisms are often first
converted to their sulfonate esters to improve
both the rate and yield of the reactions.

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 Formation of aldehydes and ketones.
 The oxidation of alcohols can lead to the formation of
aldehydes and ketones.
 Aldehydes are formed from primary alcohols, while
ketones are formed from secondary alcohols.
 Because you can easily further oxidize aldehydes to
carboxylic acids, you can only employ mild oxidizing
agents and conditions in the formation of aldehydes.
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• Typical mild oxidizing agents include manganese
dioxide (MnO2), Sarett‐Collins reagent
(CrO3(C 5H 5N) 2), and pyridinium chlorochromate
(PCC).

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• Examples of the oxidation of primary alcohols:

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Because ketones are more resistant to further
oxidation than aldehydes, stronger oxidizing agents
and higher temperatures may be employed.
Secondary alcohols are normally converted to
ketones by reaction with potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7), potassium permanganate (KMnO4), or
chromium trioxide in acetic acid (CrO3/CH3COOH).

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• Examples of the oxidation of secondary alcohols

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 Carboxylic acid formation.

Upon oxidation with strong oxidizing agents and high

temperatures, primary alcohols completely oxidize to
form carboxylic acids.
The common oxidizing agents used for these
conversions are concentrated potassium
permanganate or concentrated potassium dichromate.

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• Examples of this type of oxidation:

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 The Alcohol Reaction Map
Ether formation via substitution reactions
Elimination of alcohols to form alkenes
Conversion of alcohols to alkyl halides via
substitution reactions
Cleavage of ethers
Opening of epoxides
Reactions of thiols 69
70
Uses of Alcohol In
Daily Life,
Medicines,
Pharmacy
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 Uses of Alcohol:
• There are different types of alcohol with different
uses.
• The various types of alcohols and their uses range
in applications from medicine to cooking.
• During the coronavirus pandemic, sanitisers and
masks rose to fame overnight.
• Hand sanitizers contain 99.5% alcohol.
• The alcohol present in sanitizers is isopropyl
alcohol. 72
METHANOL

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 Methanol (CH3OH)
1. As a Chemical Feedstock
• Methanol is widely used as a chemical feedstock in the production of
methanal or formaldehyde by catalytic oxidation.
• It is also used in the manufacture of acetic acid.
• Formaldehyde or HCHOHCHO is used in the manufacture of plastics, paints,
explosives, textiles and cosmetics.
2. As a Solvent
• Methanol is used as a solvent for inks, adhesives, resins and dyes.
• Methanol is often added to ethanol to discourage overconsumption of
alcohol.
• It is also used as a solvent in the pharmaceutical industry.
• It is used in antifreeze for automotive radiators and screen-wash.
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3. As a Fuel
• Methanol is used as an additive in petrol to improve combustion.
• It can be used as a fuel in several internal combustion engines.
• The equation for the combustion of methanol is given by-
2CH3OH+3O2→4H2O+2CO22CH3OH+3O2→4H2O+2CO2
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils with methanol.
• The main product is a methyl ester of a long-chain fatty acid, which is used
as biodiesel.
• Glycerol is produced as a by-product in the reaction.
• Biodiesel can be used as a replacement fuel in most modern diesel engines.

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Advantages:
• Methanol can be stored easily compared to hydrogen gas or natural gas.
• It is biodegradable and has a very short half-life in groundwater.
• Methanol easily blends with gasoline/diesel and has the potential to
substitute them altogether.
• Methanol as fuel is cleaner than gasoline or LPG. Hence, methanol cook-
stoves can help in achieving the objective of access to clean cooking fuels.
Disadvantages:
• Methanol tends to corrode aluminum and some other metals.
• Its energy density is approximately half of the energy density offered by
gasoline.

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Ethanol (C2H5OH)

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1. As an Ingredient in Alcoholic Beverages
• Ethanol (or ethyl alcohol) is the type of alcohol
that over two billion people drink every day.
• This type of alcohol is produced by the
fermentation of yeast, sugars, and starch.
• The human liver can metabolise ethanol, but
only in limited quantities.
• There are two categories of alcoholic
beverages:
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1. Distilled alcohol:
• Distillation converts a fermented substance into another
substance with an even higher concentration of alcohol.
• It concentrates alcohol by separating it from the water
and other components of a fermented substance.
• Liquors and spirits are distilled alcoholic beverages.
• They contain more alcohol by volume than undistilled
drinks.
• In general, a distilled alcoholic beverage will have a
higher alcohol proof.

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b. Un-distilled alcohol:
• Un-distilled alcohols are also called fermented drinks.
• Fermentation is the process by which bacteria or yeast
chemically converts sugar into ethanol.
• Wine and beer are both fermented, un-distilled
alcoholic beverages.
• Wineries ferment grapes to make wine, and breweries
ferment barley, wheat, and other grains to make beer.

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2. To Produce Methylated Spirit (meth)
• To discourage the over-consumption of alcohol, ethanol is
often mixed with methanol.
• This process is known as Denaturing of ethanol.
• The resulting mixture is also called methylated spirit, which
is poisonous, making ethanol unfit for consumption.
• Methylated spirit is combustible; hence it can be used in
lamps and stoves made for camping.
• Methylated spirit is used to remove ink from various kinds of
surfaces, such as metals and plastics.
• Methylated spirit is used as a component of household
cleaning products, usually glass cleaners.
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3. As a Solvent
• Ethanol is used as a solvent to dissolve many organic compounds
that are insoluble in water.
• It is used in perfumes, cosmetics, paints, detergents and inks.
• Ethanol has antibacterial properties as it slows or stops the growth
of micro-organisms (germs).
• It alters the shapes of proteins in the micro-organisms preventing
them from functioning effectively.
• The denaturation of proteins happens when the bonds that hold
the protein together to maintain its specific shape are broken.
• For this reason, ethanol is used in hand sanitisers and hand wipes.

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• Ethanol (in concentrations ranging from 1% to 25%) is
used as a solvent for some analgesics and
mouthwashes.
• Since it has a melting point of –114.1oC, ethanol is used
as an ingredient in cooling baths in several laboratories.
• It also serves as the active fluid in many spirit
thermometers.

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4. Used as a Fuel
• Ethanol acts as a clean fuel because it undergoes complete
combustion. It burns with a clean, smokeless flame to produce
carbon dioxide and water.
• 2C2H5OH+6O2→6H2O+4CO22C2H5OH+6O2→6H2O+4CO2
• Ethanol is usually mixed with gasoline to produce ‘gasohol”,
which is about 10% ethanol.
• Using ethanol as a fuel reduces our dependency on natural fossil fuels such as
petrol. In countries like Brazil with limited natural oil supplies, sugar cane is grown
on a large scale. Fermentation of sugar cane is carried out to produce ethanol. The
ethanol produced by fermentation is used as an alternative source of fuel.
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• Using ethanol as a fuel reduces our dependency on natural
fossil fuels such as petrol.
• In countries like Brazil with limited natural oil supplies, sugar
cane is grown on a large scale.
• Fermentation of sugar cane is carried out to produce ethanol.
• The ethanol produced by fermentation is used as an
alternative source of fuel.
• Ethanol combustion produces carbon dioxide that returns to
the atmosphere and is used by the green plants to produce
glucose necessary for ethanol fermentation.

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 Disadvantages of Bioethanol
• The demand for biofuel crops means greater demand on
rainforest land.
• This leads to clearing rainforests into agricultural land,
which may not consume carbon dioxide as efficiently as
rainforests do.
• The conditions required for growing biofuel crops may
not be adequate in many parts of the world.
• This discrepancy would not satisfy the demand for fuel.
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 Disadvantages of Bioethanol cont’d
• Modern petrol engines cannot use biofuels. Therefore,
modification in petrol engines would lead to additional
manufacturing costs.
• Although biofuels are theoretically carbon-neutral, this does
not account for the carbon dioxide emissions associated with
growing, harvesting and transporting the crops or producing
ethanol.
• Therefore, overall, more carbon dioxide is emitted than is
absorbed, which means that it contributes to global warming.
• Using food crops to produce fuels, could cause food shortages
or increases in food prices.

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 Propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH)
• Propanol is short-chain alcohol with three C atoms.
• 11-propanol (nn-propyl alcohol, 11-propyl alcohol, or nn-
propanol ) has a linear structure, whereas 22-propanol or
isopropanol are branched.
• Due to their properties (high volatility, rapid effect, and low
toxicity), both 11-propanol and 22-propanol are often used in
hand disinfectants because of their have excellent
bactericidal activity.

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1. As a Solvent / Intermediate
• Propanol is used as a solvent to produce other solvents such as
antifreeze, lacquer formulations, soaps, dye solutions, window
cleaner and more.
• Propanol like isopropanol or isopropyl alcohol is most
commonly used in the printing industry, especially flexographic
ink.
• It is used as a cleansing agent in floor polishes and metal
degreasers.
• Propanol acts as a chemical intermediate in the process of
creating halides, propyl amines and propyl acetate.

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2. Medical Use
• Propanol exhibits antibacterial properties.
• Rubbing alcohol and sanitisers contain isopropyl alcohol.
• It is also used as a depressant or pain reliever.
• It is found in alcoholic beverages as a by-product of fermentation.
3. Cosmetics
• Propanol is used in different cosmetics, e.g. acetate is used as a
remover for acrylic nails and fingernail polish. It is also used in
perfumes.
4. As a Fuel
• Propanol has a high octane number and is quite suitable for engine
fuel usage. However, its manufacturing process is not economical.

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 Butanol (CH3CH2CH2CH2OH)
• nn-butanol, also known as 11-butanol, or butyl alcohol, is four-carbon linear chain
alcohol.
• It is produced by petrochemical processes or fermentation of sugars derived from
corn.
1. In the Manufacturing Industry
• Butanol is primarily used to manufacture plastics, polymers, lubricants, brake
fluids, and synthetic rubber.
• Butanol is an environment friendly and powerful solvent for cleaning and
polishing products.|
• Butanol can also be used as a fuel.
• nn-Butanol is present in numerous beverages and food, and it is used as an
artificial food flavouring agent.
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2. In Cosmetic and Laboratory Industry
• Butanol is used as a humectant for cellulose nitrate
• It is used as a chemical feedstock for butyl ethanoate, a synthetic food flavouring
agent in the food and confectionary industry.
• They are used in the cosmetic industry in products such as shampoo, shaving
products and soaps.
• It is used as a chemical intermediate to create other vital compounds such as Glycol
Ether, Acrylate Esters, Amino Resins, Acetates, and Amines.
3. As a Source of Fuel
• nn-butanol has a higher energy content than ethanol.
• It is more compatible with the gasoline structure and does not absorb water from
ambient air.
• Biobutanol can be used as a transportation fuel.
Uses of Alcohols in Pharmacy
• Doctors, nurses and medical practitioners disinfect their hands in alcoholic solutions
before handling patients.
• During surgery, the surgical area is cleaned with alcohol to stem infections.
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How is alcohol used in
life-saving situations
in the medical field.
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 Applications:
• Alcohols have numerous applications in
everyday life and industry:
–Solvents: Many alcohols are used as solvents
for paints, varnishes, and pharmaceuticals due
to their ability to dissolve a wide range of
organic and inorganic substances.
–Fuels: Ethanol, in particular, is used as a
biofuel additive to gasoline. 95
 Applications:
• Pharmaceuticals:
–Alcohols serve as important intermediates in
the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and
medicines.
• Beverages:
–Ethanol is the primary alcohol found in
alcoholic beverages.
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1. Wound Dresser
• Earlier, alcohol was used as an antiseptic, poured over wounds, and
antidote for snake bites.
• In addition, patients were given a drink of whiskey before an operation.
More recently, alcohol is used as a mild sedative.
2. Cough and Cold Remedy
• Alcohols are a popular cough remedy commodity.
• It is believed to clear minor colds and congestion and is found in most
cough syrups.
3. Hand Disinfectant
• It is the most common use of alcohol in recent times.
• Alcohols exhibit antifungal, antibacterial properties.
• It is used as a disinfectant where soap and water are not readily available.

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4. As a Local Rubefacient
• Alcohol is applied to the skin to dilate blood vessels. As a result, the skin area becomes tender and absorbent
to medicinal ointment application.
5. Used as a Diluent
• Alcohols act as a diluent for many drugs, especially in homoeopathy treatment.
• A small number of drugs can be diluted in low quantities of alcohol.
• In these low quantities, alcohol is harmless to the body and increases the drug’s volume.
6. Used as a Solvent
• Alcoholic ethanol is an excellent solvent for many drugs as it increases the concentration of solid drug matter.
• This can also be used for filtration, distillation, and removal of impurities from the drug.
7. Used as a Pain Reliever
• Alcohol is used as a pain reliever to abate acute pain. For example, in cancer patients, alcohol is usually
injected near the affected area to deaden the nerve endings. This leads to pain reduction.
8. As an Antiseptic
• Alcohol is used to sterilise medical equipment like injections needles, surgical blades, forceps, etc.
• Alcohol acts as an antiseptic to clean scratches and mild wounds.
9. As a Preservative
• In the laboratory, plant and animal specimens are usually preserved in alcohol.
• This is because the bactericidal properties of alcohol destroy microbes and other harmful bacteria.

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10. Crystallisation and Extraction
• Alcohol is employed for the extraction of active ingredients from plants and other
specimens.
• The extraction is done by steam distillation. Due to the low boiling point, alcohol quickly
evaporates and then percolates through the solid material.
• Alcohol is also used in the crystallisation of compounds which is an essential step in the
purification process.
11. As a Cleaning Agent
• Alcohol is used as a cleaning agent in hospitals and medical facilities, and cleaning
laboratories to eliminate microbial contamination.
12. Laboratory Staining
• While carrying out experiments on plant tissue and animal tissue, staining of the specimen is
essential. This staining is done with alcohol that helps highlight the specimen under the
microscope.
13. Solvent for Analysis
• Chemistry analytical processes like Chromatography analysis use Ethanol, Methanol, and
Isopropanol as solvent.
• Alcohol plays a vital role in the separation process using these analytical techniques.
14. Lighting Laboratories
• Laboratories use ethanol lamps to light up. Ethanol burns cleanly and does not leave soot.

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 Uses of Alcohol in Medicine and Pharmacology
• Alcohol is an essential ingredient in medicines like cough syrups, respiratory treatment drugs. Pain
relievers also contain a high percentage of alcohol. Here is a list of several drugs that have alcohol as an
essential ingredient.
1. Amoxicillin Trihydrate
• Amoxicillin is used to treat bacterial infection and endocarditis prevention. It treats anthrax prophylaxis,
actinomycosis, and dental abscess. It contains alcohols, isopropanol, and propanediol as active
ingredients.
2. Atazanavir Sulfate
• Atazanavir contains isopropyl alcohol and propylene glycol, which is used in the treatment of HIV
infections.
3. Bupropion Hydrochloride
• Bupropion acts as a miscellaneous antidepressant used in the treatment of depressive disorders.
4. Phentermine Hydrochloride
• Phentermine used in the treatment of obesity contains isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, and propylene
glycol.
5. Temazepam
• Temazepam is used in the treatment of insomnia, and it contains isopropyl alcohol and butyl alcohol.
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6. Tizanidine Hydrochloride
• Tizanidine is a relaxant used in the treatment of muscle spasm. It contains isopropyl
alcohol and butyl alcohol.
7. Zonisamide
• Zonisamide is an inhibitor anticonvulsant that contains isopropyl alcohol and butyl
alcohol. It is used in the treatment of seizures.
• 8. Benadryl
• Benadryl is an antihistamine used to relieve symptoms of allergy, hay fever, and the
common cold. It contains alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol.
• 9. Codimal DM
• Codimal is used to treat symptoms caused by the common cold, flu, allergies, or other
breathing illnesses. It has isopropyl alcohol and butyl alcohol.
• 10. Decaprin
• It is a combination of drug-containing expectorants and nasal decongestants used to
treat cough and nasal congestion. It contains isopropyl alcohol and butyl alcohol.

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11. Vicks Cough 5.0%
• Vicks cough contains alcohol used for the temporary treatment of cough, blocked nose, sinus
pressure caused by infection or other breathing illnesses.
12. Anbesol Gel
• Anbesol Gel contains benzocaine and is used as a local anaesthetic. It blocks nerve endings
and numbs the skin and mouth surface. Anbesol Gel is made of almost 70% alcohol.
13. Dent’s Toothache Drops
• Dent’s Toothache Drops are used to lessen toothache pain. It comprises almost 60% alcohol.
14. Dental Gel
• Corsodyl Dental Gel is used to treat gum disease, control recurring mouth ulcers, prevent
cavities and maintain mouth hygiene. It is made of 7.5% alcohol.
15. Toothache Drops
• Tooth Drops have almost 20% alcohol and Benzocaine.
• It is used for toothache, canker sores, sore gums, throat, mouth, and gum injury.
• It is a local anaesthetic that works by numbing the painful place.

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 Uses of Alcohols and Hydrocarbons
• The major difference between an alcohol and a
hydrocarbon is that alcohol has a hydroxyl
functional group (–OH) bound to a saturated
carbon atom and hydrocarbon is an organic
compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and
carbon.
• Hydrocarbons are the principal constituents of
petroleum and natural gas.
• They serve as fuels and lubricants and are a
precursor to the production of plastics, fibres,
rubbers, solvents, explosives, and industrial
chemicals. 103
 Uses of Alcohols and Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are also found in plants, animals, and their
fossils.
• The familiar plastics polyethylene, polypropylene, and
polystyrene are also hydrocarbons.
• Polymers are large molecules of hydrocarbons made up of
repeating units, referred to as monomers.
• They can be natural such as starch, or synthetic, like
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene.
• Most of these plastics are recycled and reprocessed into
useful products.
• For example, soft drink bottles are melted down and used for
plastic furniture, carpets, or other applications.
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 Uses of Alcohol in the Human Body
• Moderate alcohol use has possible health benefits, but
it is not risk-free.
The potential benefits of alcohol are relatively small and
may not apply to all individuals.
• Therefore, one should not begin drinking alcohol based
on potential health benefits.
• For many people, the possible benefits do not outweigh
the risks and avoiding alcohol is the best course.

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 What do you
think are some
risks associated
with alcohol use?
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 Alcohol Poisoning
• Occurs when drinking large
quantities of alcohol within a
short period of time
• Binge drinking (≥5
drinks/drinking occasion)
• Depresses nerves that control
involuntary actions such as
breathing and the gag reflex.

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DON’T DRINK & DRIVE!!!

DON’T DRINK & STUDY!!!!

DRINK RESPONSIBLY!!!!!!
 MODEL QUESTIONS
• Here are some comprehensive questions to test
understanding of the properties, reactions, and
applications of alcohols in organic chemistry:
• These questions cover various aspects of alcohols in
organic chemistry, testing both theoretical
understanding and practical knowledge of their
properties, reactions, and applications.

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 Properties of Alcohols:
a. Explain the role of hydrogen bonding in
determining the physical properties of alcohols.
b. Compare the boiling points of alcohols with
those of hydrocarbons of similar molecular
weight.
c. Discuss the solubility of alcohols in water and
how it varies with the length of the alkyl chain.
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 Reactions of Alcohols:
a. Describe the mechanism of dehydration of
alcohols to form alkenes.
b. Provide the chemical equations and conditions for
the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to
form aldehydes/ketones and carboxylic acids,
respectively.
c. Explain why tertiary alcohols do not undergo
oxidation reactions under normal conditions.
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 Stereochemistry of Alcohols:
a. Define chirality and explain how chirality arises in
molecules containing an asymmetric carbon atom.
b. Discuss the concept of optical activity and how it
relates to chiral molecules, including alcohols.
c. Draw the enantiomers and diastereomers of a
given chiral alcohol molecule.

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 Synthesis and Interconversion:
a. Outline the synthetic methods for preparing
alcohols from alkenes and carbonyl
compounds.
b. Describe the use of reducing agents in the
conversion of carbonyl compounds to alcohols.
c. Provide examples of functional group
interconversion reactions involving alcohols.
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 Applications of Alcohols:
a. Explain the importance of ethanol as a biofuel
additive and its advantages over conventional fuels.
b. Discuss the role of alcohols as solvents in organic
synthesis and industrial processes.
c. Provide examples of pharmaceuticals or
medicines derived from alcohols and explain their
therapeutic uses.
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 Spectroscopic Analysis:
a. Interpret the characteristic peaks in
the IR spectrum of an alcohol molecule.
b. Analyze the NMR spectrum of an
alcohol molecule and identify the
signals corresponding to different types
of protons.
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 Mechanisms:
a. Describe the mechanism of nucleophilic
substitution of an alcohol with a halide ion to
form an alkyl halide.
b. Explain the mechanism of oxidation of a
primary alcohol to form an aldehyde using a
chromium-based oxidizing agent.

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 Safety and Handling:

a. Discuss the safety precautions that

should be followed when working with
alcohols in the laboratory.
b. Explain the potential hazards associated
with the storage and handling of alcohols.

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 GROUP WORK
• Group work can be an effective way to deepen
understanding of a topic like alcohols in organic chemistry.
• This group activity is aimed at achieving a comprehensive
understanding of the properties, reactions, and
applications of alcohols:
• Course Reps should divide the class to treat the different
topics.
• Each group will make both written and oral presentations
at the appropriate time.
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Activity Title: Exploring Alcohols in Organic Chemistry

• Objective:
–To collaboratively investigate and
discuss the properties, reactions, and
applications of alcohols in organic
chemistry to develop a comprehensive
understanding of the topic.
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 Properties of Alcohols:

• Investigate the physical properties of

alcohols (boiling points, solubility, etc.)
and how they vary with the structure of
the alcohol molecule (e.g., length of the
carbon chain, presence of branching,
presence of functional groups).
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 Synthesis of Alcohols:
• Explore different methods for synthesizing
alcohols, including hydration of alkenes,
reduction of carbonyl compounds, Grignard
reactions, and nucleophilic substitution
reactions.
• Compare and contrast the efficiency, selectivity,
and practical considerations of these methods.
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 Reactions of Alcohols:
• Investigate the various chemical reactions that
alcohols undergo, such as dehydration to form
alkenes, oxidation to form aldehydes/ketones
or carboxylic acids, esterification, and
nucleophilic substitution reactions.
• Discuss the mechanisms involved and factors
influencing reaction rates and selectivity.
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 Spectroscopic Analysis of Alcohols:
• Focus on the interpretation of infrared (IR)
and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectra of alcohol molecules.
• Identify characteristic peaks in the spectra
and discuss how they provide information
about the structure and environment of the
alcohol molecule.
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 Applications of Alcohols:
• Explore the diverse applications of alcohols in
various industries and fields, such as
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food and
beverage, fuel additives, and organic
synthesis.
• Investigate specific examples of alcohol-
based products and their production
processes.
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 Safety and Handling of Alcohols:
• Research the safety considerations
involved in working with alcohols in
laboratory and industrial settings.
• Discuss potential hazards, proper
handling procedures, storage
requirements, and emergency response
protocols.
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 Environmental Impact of Alcohols:
• Examine the environmental implications of
alcohol production and usage, including
energy consumption, waste generation, and
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Discuss sustainable practices and alternative
sources of alcohols with reduced
environmental impact.
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 Biological Role of Alcohols:
• Investigate the biological significance of
alcohols in living organisms, including their
roles as signaling molecules, metabolic
intermediates, and structural components of
biomolecules.
• Explore examples of alcohol-related diseases
and therapeutic applications.
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 Alcohols in Everyday Life:
• Explore the presence of alcohols in everyday
products and activities, such as alcoholic
beverages, cleaning products, personal care
products, and recreational substances.
• Discuss societal attitudes towards alcohol
consumption and related public health issues.

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Recent Advances in Alcohol Chemistry:
• Research recent developments and
breakthroughs in alcohol chemistry, such as
novel synthetic methods, catalytic processes,
and applications in emerging fields (e.g., green
chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology).
• Present case studies or research articles
highlighting these advances.
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THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING
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