Intellectual Giftedness and Multidimensional Perfectionism: A Meta-Analytic Review

Educational Psychology Review (2020) 32:391–414
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09504-1
META-ANALYSIS
Intellectual Giftedness and Multidimensional

Perfectionism: a Meta-Analytic Review
Johannes Stricker 1 2 1
& Susanne Buecker & Michael Schneider & Franzis Preckel
1
Published online: 12 September 2019

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
There are different views on whether perfectionism is a characteristic of intellectually gifted
students. Over the last decades, comparative studies of intellectually gifted and non-gifted
students have produced inconsistent results. This heterogeneity in findings might be explained
by underpowered studies and the multidimensional nature of perfectionism, comprising two
broader dimensions: perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfection-
istic concerns are clearly maladaptive, perfectionistic strivings frequently positively relate to
academic and psychological adjustment. We meta-analytically aggregated 32 effect sizes from
10 comparative studies (N = 4340) to investigate to what extent intellectually gifted and non-
gifted students differ in perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings. Intellectually
gifted students displayed equal levels of perfectionistic concerns compared to non-gifted
students (g = − 0.117, 95% CI [− 0.337, 0.103], p = .252) but displayed elevated levels of
perfectionistic strivings (g = 0.332, 95% CI [0.092, 0.572], p = .012). The magnitude of the
effect sizes indicates that perfectionism is not a core characteristic of giftedness. In particular,
giftedness is not related to inherently maladaptive forms of perfectionism.
Keywords Perfectionism . Giftedness . Research synthesis . Meta-analysis
Introduction
There is some disagreement whether intellectual giftedness is associated with increased levels
of perfectionism. Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition that is charac-
terized by striving for exceedingly high personal standards combined with overly critical self-
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-

09504-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
* Johannes Stricker
stricker@uni-trier.de
1
Department of Psychology, University of Trier, Universitaetsring 15, 54286 Trier, Germany
2
Psychology Department, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
392 Educational Psychology Review (2020) 32:391–414
evaluations (Hewitt and Flett 1991). Guidebooks for parents, counselors, and teachers fre-
quently highlight perfectionism as a core characteristic of intellectually gifted students (e.g.,
Callard-Szulgit 2012; Henderson 2009; Porter 2005; Silverman 2013; Sisk 2009). Thus,
unsurprisingly, perfectionism is described as “one of the most common concerns of parents
and teachers of gifted children” (Wilson and Adelson 2018, p. 8). Scientific perspectives are
more heterogeneous with some authors describing perfectionism as closely associated with
giftedness (e.g., Allen 2017; Blaas 2014; M. Maxwell 2007; Silverman 2007) and others
concluding that there is insufficient evidence to assume higher perfectionism in intellectually
gifted students (e.g., Mendaglio 2007; Speirs Neumeister 2018). The debate whether
giftedness is associated with perfectionism is particularly controversial because associating a
group of individuals with potentially maladaptive personality characteristics may evoke
stigmatization, negative self-fulfilling expectations (Jussim et al. 1996), and negative stereo-
typic role behavior (Coleman and Cross 1988). Yet, perfectionism plays a central role in
understanding psychological maladjustment in intellectually gifted students (e.g., Chan 2012).
Thus, identifying a robust link between giftedness and maladaptive forms of perfectionism
may facilitate the development and implementation of prevention and intervention programs
for intellectually gifted students.
In addition to the well-known problem of underpowered studies (e.g., Maxwell 2004), the
current disagreement regarding the relation of intellectual giftedness and perfectionism might
evolve from inconsistencies in the conceptualization of perfectionism (see Rice and Ray 2018).
Whereas perfectionism was initially viewed as a unidimensional and entirely dysfunctional
construct (Burns 1980; Horney 1950), there is now a growing consensus that perfectionism is
a multidimensional construct comprising two broader dimensions: perfectionistic concerns and
perfectionistic strivings (e.g., Stoeber and Otto 2006). These dimensions of perfectionism
frequently display opposing relations with relevant external criteria (e.g., Hill and Curran 2016;
Madigan 2019; Sirois et al. 2017) and broader personality characteristics (Smith et al. 2019;
Stricker et al. 2019). Thus, the two-dimensional approach to perfectionism is also essential to
understand perfectionism in gifted populations (Speirs Neumeister 2018; Rice and Ray 2018).
The aim of the current study was to clarify the relation between giftedness and multidimensional
perfectionism by quantitatively synthesizing existing studies comparing mean levels of multidi-
mensional perfectionism between intellectually gifted students and non-gifted students.
Multidimensional Perfectionism
Factor analytic evidence (e.g., Bieling et al. 2004; Frost et al. 1993) suggests that there are two
broader dimensions underlying the various existing measures of perfectionism: perfectionistic
concerns and perfectionistic strivings. Even in a measure initially designed to capture unidi-
mensional perfectionism, there was evidence for an underlying two-dimensional structure
reflecting perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings (Dickie et al. 2012; Stoeber
and Damian 2014). The two-dimensional conceptualization is widely applied when synthe-
sizing research on perfectionism (e.g., Hill and Curran 2016; Hill et al. 2018; Madigan 2019;
Sirois et al. 2017; Smith et al. 2019; Stricker et al. 2019).
Perfectionistic concerns (also labeled evaluative concerns perfectionism) comprise worries
over making mistakes (Frost et al. 1990; Hill et al. 2004), doubts about one’s competencies and
actions (Frost et al. 1990), the perception of others as demanding perfection of oneself (Hewitt
and Flett 1991), and the perception of a discrepancy between one’s standards and actual
performance (Slaney et al. 2001). Meta-analytic evidence reveals that perfectionistic concerns
Educational Psychology Review (2020) 32:391–414 393
are primarily associated with neuroticism (Smith et al. 2019; Stricker et al. 2019), indicators of
academic maladjustment such as procrastination (Sirois et al. 2017) or low academic achievement
(Madigan 2019), and indicators of psychological maladjustment such as burnout (Hill and Curran
2016) or suicide attempts (Smith et al. 2018). In gifted students, facets of perfectionistic concerns
are negatively related to academic efficacy, grade point average (GPA), life satisfaction (Wang
et al. 2012), and happiness (Chan 2012). Additionally, perfectionistic concerns are negatively
related to intrinsic motivation, which may lead to underachievement in gifted students (Fletcher
and Speirs Neumeister 2012).
Perfectionistic strivings (also labeled personal standards perfectionism) comprise high
personal standards and the belief that it is important for oneself to meet these standards
(Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991; Hill et al. 2004; Slaney et al. 2001). Perfectionistic
strivings are primarily related to conscientiousness (Smith et al. 2019; Stricker et al. 2019) and
indicators of psychological and academic adjustment such as low procrastination (Sirois et al.
2017), low burnout (Hill and Curran 2016), academic achievement (Madigan 2019), positive
affect (e.g., Damian et al. 2014), and life satisfaction (e.g., Gilman and Ashby 2003). In gifted
students, facets of perfectionistic strivings are positively related to academic efficacy, GPA,
and life satisfaction (Wang et al. 2012).
In sum, perfectionistic concerns robustly relate to various indicators of psychological
maladjustment inside and outside of educational contexts. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings
are associated with different desirable psychological and educational outcomes. Thus, there is
common agreement that perfectionistic concerns reflect the more maladaptive aspects of
perfectionism compared to perfectionistic strivings (e.g., Frost et al. 1993).
Intellectual Giftedness
Giftedness can be defined as the manifestation of potential and performance that is clearly at
the upper end of a distribution in a talent domain (Subotnik et al. 2011). Accordingly, gifted
individuals can be defined as those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as
an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or
achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured
area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of
sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports; National Association for Gifted Children n.d.,
para. 5). Intellectual giftedness, in turn, refers to the manifestation of potential and perfor-
mance in academic-intellectual achievement domains.
The conceptualization of giftedness has evolved continuously during the last 100 years, and
currently different paradigms and models of giftedness coexist (for an overview see Dai 2018).
The assumption that perfectionism is a characteristic associated with giftedness can be found in
different paradigms (e.g., the gifted child paradigm: Silverman 2009; the talent development
paradigm: Bloom 1985). In this regard, it has to be taken into account that giftedness is a construct
that not only lacks unity in its meanings (Dai 2009) but also is a value-laden construct with many
myths and, in part, contradictory assumptions associated to it (Treffinger 2009). For example,
there are two contrasting hypotheses about gifted students: the harmony vs. the disharmony
hypothesis. The harmony hypothesis suggests that gifted students not only exhibit superior
intellectual ability but also are more socially competent, better adjusted, and better at adapting
to new circumstances (Persson 1998). The disharmony hypothesis, which dates back to the mad
genius stereotype (Becker 1978), states that high intellectual ability comes at a cost for gifted
students, resulting in socio-emotional deficiencies and behavioral difficulties (Gallagher 1990).
Empirical findings do not support the disharmony hypotheses (Martin et al. 2010; Wirthwein et al.
2019; for an overview see Neihart et al. 2016). However, the image of the intellectually
outstanding yet socially awkward and emotionally unstable individual still prevails in the media
(e.g., in movies like “A Beautiful Mind”), laypersons’ conceptions (Baudson 2016), and teachers’
conceptions of gifted students (Matheis et al. 2018).
Despite the diversity in giftedness paradigms and models, cognitive ability measures,
standardized achievement tests, students’ academic achievement, and teacher recommenda-
tions are the most frequently applied criteria to identify intellectual giftedness in research and
applied contexts (Carman 2013; Hodges et al. 2018). The weighting and the precise cut-off
criteria of these or other indicators differ between studies and educational contexts (Worrell
et al. 2019). Thus, any synthesis of studies with intellectually gifted students likely combines
samples of students who have been identified in slightly different ways (Hodges et al. 2018).
Multidimensional Perfectionism and Intellectual Giftedness
To date, there is disagreement whether perfectionism is a characteristic of intellectual gifted-

ness (e.g., Rice and Ray 2018). Several reasons have been proposed why different forms of
perfectionism might be elevated or reduced in intellectually gifted students. First, giftedness
might generally be associated with perfectionism because, compared to non-gifted students,
intellectually gifted students have a greater ability to achieve the highest academic standards
(e.g., Mofield and Parker Peters 2018). Second, gifted children receive frequent positive
feedback regarding their abilities. This might lead to contingent self-worth based on meeting
others’ highest expectations (Speirs Neumeister 2018; also see Sowa et al. 1994), thereby
promoting perfectionistic concerns. In addition, intellectually gifted students were hypothe-
sized to equate personal worth with personal success (Delisle 1990). The assumption that
perfectionistic concerns are elevated in intellectually gifted students is also in line with the
finding that gifted students are more likely to react negatively to failure than non-gifted
students (Roberts and Lovett 1994) and with the assumption that academic comparisons with
peers might be elevated in gifted populations (Wang et al. 2012). Third, little challenge in early
educational experiences might produce the expectation to always achieve the highest possible
grades (e.g., Speirs Neumeister 2004), thereby promoting perfectionistic strivings. In addition,
gifted students might set higher standards for themselves but experience less distress and
concerns over failing to meet these standards (e.g., LoCicero and Ashby 2000). Thus,
perfectionistic strivings might be elevated and perfectionistic concerns might be reduced in
intellectually gifted students. This assumption dovetails with an assumed higher flexibility of
intellectually gifted students for accommodating imperfection (LoCicero and Ashby 2000). In
sum, to date, there are conflicting assumptions regarding the relation between giftedness and
multidimensional perfectionism.
The empirical literature on the relation between multidimensional perfectionism and
giftedness is equally inconsistent. Table 1 provides an overview of all studies comparing mean
levels of multidimensional perfectionism between intellectually gifted and non-gifted students
that were identified in the systematic literature search for this meta-analytic review (details
about the literature search process are provided in the “Method” section). Two studies (Bull
1997; Parker and Mills 1996) found elevated levels of facets of perfectionistic concerns in
intellectually gifted students compared to non-gifted students. However, three studies identi-
fied lower levels of facets of perfectionistic concerns in intellectually gifted students compared
to non-gifted students (Chan 2010; LoCicero and Ashby 2000; Parker et al. 2001). Five studies
Table 1 Overview of studies that compared levels of perfectionistic concerns (PC) and/or perfectionistic strivings (PS) between intellectually gifted students and non-gifted students
(n = 12)
Study Intellectually gifted students Non-gifted students Perfectionistic concerns Perfectionistic strivings
Mofield and Parker Middle school students from Middle school students from No significant differences in concern Higher personal standards in
Peters (2018) pullout classes for gifted non-advanced classes (n = 86) over mistakes and doubts about gifted students
students (n = 264) actions; higher concern over mistakes
in gifted students after controlling for
mindset beliefs
Schneider et al. High-school students from gifted High-school students from regular No significant differences in concern over No significant difference in
(2012) classes (n = 257 at T1 and classes (n = 584 at T1 and mistakes and doubts about actions at personal standards at T1 and T2
n = 289 at T2) n = 630 at T2) T1. Lower concern over mistakes in
gifted students but no significant
difference in doubts about actions at T2
Guignard et al. Intellectually gifted 6th Sample 1: non-gifted 6th graders No significant differences in Higher self-oriented
(2012) graders (n = 61) (n = 51) socially-prescribed perfectionism perfectionism in gifted 6th graders
Sample 2: non-gifted 5th graders compared to non-gifted 6th
(n = 20) graders but not compared to
non-gifted 5th graders
Chan (2010) School students (Grades 2 to 6) Unidentified school students lower discrepancy in gifted students Higher standards in gifted students
from a summer gifted program (Grades 2 to 6; n = 882)
(n = 320)
Stornelli et al. (2009) School students from gifted School students from regular No significant differences in socially No significant differences in
programs (n = 86) programs (n = 162) and prescribed perfectionisma self-oriented perfectionisma
fine-arts programs (n = 33)
Kornblum and Students that participated in Students that did not participate in No significant differences in concern over Higher personal standards
Ainley programs for highly-able stu- in programs for highly-able mistakes and doubts (as combined in gifted studentsa
(2005) dents (n = 367) students (n = 245) scale)a
Parker et al. (2001) Male (n = 105) and female (n = 37) Male (n = 50) and female (n = 27) Lower concern over mistakes in gifted No significant differences in
secondary school students from typical secondary school students, no significant differences in personal standards
a program for the students doubts about actions
mathematically gifted
Asher (2000) Middle school band students from Middle school band students with No significant differences in concern Higher personal standards
gifted programs (parent report; no participation in a gifted over mistakes and doubts about actions in gifted students
n = 110) program (n = 92)
395
Table 1 (continued)
396
Study Intellectually gifted students Non-gifted students Perfectionistic concerns Perfectionistic strivings
LoCicero and Ashby Middle school students in a gifted Non-gifted middle school students Lower discrepancy in gifted students Higher standards in gifted
(2000) program (n = 73) (n = 99) students
Bull (1997) Middle school students with an Middle school students with an IQ Higher socially-prescribed perfectionism Higher self-oriented perfectionism
IQ ≥ 130 (n = 23) from 85 to 120 and a GPA from in gifted students in gifted students
2.0 to 3.0 (n = 63)
Parker and Mills Sixth grade students identified as Non-gifted student sample: Higher doubts about actions in gifted No significant difference in
(1996) gifted in a national talent search Unidentified sixth graders students; no significant differences personal standards
(n = 600) (n = 418) in concern over mistakes
Roberts and Lovett Junior high school students from a Non-gifted junior high school No significant differences in socially Higher self-oriented perfectionism
(1994) pull-out program for gifted students (excluding honor prescribed perfectionisma in gifted students
students (n = 20) students; n = 20)
a The relevant statistical values were neither reported in the manuscript nor provided via e-mail and could, therefore, not be included in the quantitative meta-analysis
(Asher 2000; Guignard et al. 2012; Kornblum and Ainley 2005; Roberts and Lovett 1994;
Stornelli et al. 2009) found no significant differences between intellectually gifted students and
non-gifted students in facets of perfectionistic concerns and two studies reported mixed results
(Mofield and Parker Peters 2018; Schneider et al. 2012). Regarding facets of perfectionistic
strivings, six studies identified elevated levels in intellectually gifted students compared to
non-gifted students (Asher 2000; Chan 2010; Kornblum and Ainley 2005; LoCicero and
Ashby 2000; Mofield and Parker Peters 2018; Roberts and Lovett 1994). Four studies found
no significant differences in facets of perfectionistic strivings (Parker et al. 2001; Parker and
Mills 1996; Schneider et al. 2012; Stornelli et al. 2009), and one study reported mixed results
(Guignard et al. 2012). Overall, the empirical findings display a large degree of inconsistency.
Thus, a qualitative integration is insufficient to conclude whether multidimensional perfec-
tionism is characteristic for intellectually gifted students, highlighting the need for a quantita-
tive synthesis. The procedures for the identification of intellectual giftedness differed between
studies (see Table S1), which might add to the heterogeneity in findings.
Of note, differences in perfectionism dimensions between intellectually gifted students and
non-gifted students have also been studied based on the frequency distribution of different
perfectionism clusters (“typologies”; e.g., non-perfectionists, healthy perfectionists, and dys-
functional perfectionists; Parker and Mills 1996). There are several reasons why cluster
solutions are difficult to aggregate. First, the number and the nature of perfectionism clusters
differ between studies. Whereas some studies identified three clusters (Parker 1997; Parker and
Mills 1996), other studies identified four clusters (Dixon et al. 2004). Second, the boundary
scores to determine cluster membership differ between studies (Mofield and Parker Peters
2015). Thus, individuals with identical perfectionism levels might be assigned to different
clusters in different studies. Third, the number of perfectionism clusters changes over time
(Portešová and Urbánek 2013). Fourth, different classification procedures yield different
results regarding the frequency of different perfectionism types (Chan 2010). Thus, in this
meta-analysis, we compared mean levels of perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic striv-
ings instead of patterns of cluster membership.
The Present Study
Despite decades of research, it remains an open question to what extent intellectually gifted
students and non-gifted students differ in their perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic
strivings. Findings are inconsistent and a quantitative synthesis of the available empirical
evidence is lacking. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to address this open question
by meta-analytically aggregating available studies comparing mean levels of perfectionistic
concerns and perfectionistic strivings between intellectually gifted students and non-gifted
students. Our data and R scripts are available via the Open Science Framework: https://osf.
io/47pez/?view_only=68257e602fa748e599f9e7f4eacb66f3
Method
Search Procedure and Inclusion Criteria
We conducted a standardized literature search in PsycINFO and ERIC in November 2018

applying the search string “((gifted* or “high-ability” or talent* or “high achieve*” or “high
potential*”) and perfect*)” in abstract and title. No limits regarding study type or date were set.
We additionally conducted an exploratory literature search by entering our key words in
Google Scholar. Moreover, we requested unpublished data sets from the corresponding authors
of all included studies via e-mail.
We applied the following inclusion criteria: (1) The study includes at least one
indicator of perfectionistic concerns or perfectionistic strivings. There is no consensus
regarding the scales used as indicators of perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic
strivings (e.g., Stoeber 2018). Thus, we confined the inclusion to the best-established
and most frequently applied instruments, which are Frost et al.’s (1990) Multidimen-
sional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS), Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional Perfec-
tionism Scale (HFMPS), the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R, Slaney et al. 2001),
and the Perfectionism Inventory (PI, Hill et al. 2004). Indicators of perfectionistic
concerns were the concern over mistakes scale and the doubts about actions scale from
the FMPS (Frost et al. 1990), the socially prescribed perfectionism scale from the
HFMPS (Hewitt and Flett 1991), the discrepancy scale from the APS-R (Slaney et al.
2001), and the concern over mistakes scale from the PI (Hill et al. 2004). Indicators of
perfectionistic strivings were the personal standards scale from the FMPS (Frost et al.
1990), the self-oriented perfectionism scale from the HFMPS (Hewitt and Flett 1991),
the high standards scale from the APS-R (Slaney et al. 2001), and the striving for
excellence scale from the PI (Hill et al. 2004). We also included short forms, transla-
tions, combinations, and adaptations of these scales. (2) The study assessed the mean
levels of facets of perfectionistic concerns or perfectionistic strivings in at least one
sample of students that were identified as intellectually gifted and in at least one sample
of non-gifted students (see Table S1 for an overview of the giftedness identification
procedures in the included studies). As non-gifted samples, we included student samples
that were not assembled based on high academic achievement, high academic ability, or
high intelligence. (3) The study reports sufficient statistical information to calculate the
standardized mean difference between the intellectually gifted student sample and the
non-gifted student sample and the sample sizes.
Study Selection and Coding Procedure
Study eligibility was determined in two steps. In Step 1, the first author and the second
author carefully read the titles and abstracts of all articles that were identified in the
literature search to assess their relevance for the meta-analysis (n = 453). Twenty-one
articles were selected for further evaluation. In Step 2, the full texts of these articles were
inspected and then coded as either included (n = 10) or excluded (n = 11). Six studies were
excluded because they did not contain a gifted or a non-gifted sample (Fong and Yuen
2009; Miller and Speirs Neumeister 2017; Orange 1997; Shaunessy et al. 2011; Speirs
Neumeister and Finch 2006; Stumpf and Parker 2000), one study was excluded because
perfectionism was not assessed (Esparza et al. 2014), one study used a self-developed
perfectionism scale that could not be classified as an indicator of perfectionistic concerns
or perfectionistic strivings (Baker 1996), and one study reporting findings from an Iranian
sample could not be obtained in English (Jamshidi et al. 2009). Additionally, two studies
(Kornblum and Ainley 2005; Stornelli et al. 2009) had to be excluded from the meta-
analytic synthesis because the relevant statistical information were neither reported nor
provided via e-mail.
Both raters coded the statistical values required to calculate standardized mean differences
between the intellectually gifted and the non-gifted student samples. Both raters further coded
the study characteristics (i.e., the measures of multidimensional perfectionism, the country of
data collection, the sample size, the percentage of female participants, the mean age, and
Cronbach’s α). Interrater agreement (number of consistently coded studies / number of all
double coded studies) was 99.99% for inclusion in Step 1, 100.00% for inclusion in in Step 2,
96.15% for the relevant statistical values, and 93.46% for other sample characteristics.
Disagreements were resolved by consulting the original manuscripts. The final database
comprised 10 studies of which eight studies (six journal articles, two dissertations) were
identified in the standardized literature search and two studies (journal articles) were identified
in the exploratory search. Figure 1 displays the details of the study selection process.
Identification
PsycINFO ERIC Exploratory literature

(n = 299) (n = 228) search (n = 10)
Step 1: Screening
Records after dublicates removed

(n = 453)
Abstracts screened Abstracts excluded

(n = 453) (n = 432)
Full-text articles assessed Articles excluded (n = 11)

for eligibility
• No sample of gifted students
(n = 21)
and/or no sample of non-gifted
Step 2: Eligibility
students (n = 6)
• No measurement of
perfectionism (n = 1)
• No suitable measurement of
perfectionism (n = 1)
• Study could not be obtained in
English (n = 1)
• Relevant statistical information
neither reported in the article nor
provided via e-mail (n = 2)
Inclusion
Studies included
in meta-analyses
(n = 10)
Fig. 1 Flow diagram of the study search and inclusion process

Statistical Analyses
Effect Size Calculation
First, we computed Cohen’s d as the standardized mean difference using the following
−X 2
formula: d ¼ XS1within , where X1 denotes the sample mean in the intellectually gifted student
sample and X2 denotes the sample mean in the non-gifted student sample. Swithin denotes the
within-sample SD pooled across the intellectually gifted student sample and the non-gifted
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðn1 −1ÞS 21 þðn2 −1ÞS 22
student sample; it was calculated as S within ¼ n1 −n2 −2 , where n1 is the sample size
of the intellectually gifted student sample, n2 is the sample size of the non-gifted student
sample, S1 is the SD in the intellectually gifted student sample, and S2 is the SD in the non-
gifted student sample. Second, we corrected for small-sample bias by converting Cohen’s d to
Hedges’ g by applying the correction factor J (g = J × d). J is formulized as
J ¼ 1− 4ðn1 þn
3
2 −2Þ−1
, where n1 is the sample size in the intellectually gifted student sample
and n2 is the sample size in the non-gifted student sample (Borenstein et al. 2009). The

variance of Hedges’ g is given by V g ¼ J 2 nntrttrt þn d2
nctrl þ 2ðntrt þnctrl Þ , where again n1 is the
ctrl
sample size in the intellectually gifted student sample and n2 is the sample size in the non-
gifted student sample (Borenstein et al. 2009).
Meta-Analytic Aggregation
We conducted two meta-analyses (one for perfectionistic concerns and one for perfectionistic
strivings) using robust variance estimation (RVE) in the robumeta package (Fisher et al. 2017)
in R (R Core Team 2018). In many cases, multiple effect sizes from the same studies were
included in one of the meta-analyses (e.g., when two indicators of perfectionistic concerns were
applied in the same study). In these cases, the effect sizes were statistically dependent. RVE
accounts for non-independence of effect sizes without knowledge of the effect size covariance
structure (Hedges et al. 2010) permitting the inclusion of multiple effect sizes from one study
(Tanner-Smith and Tipton 2014; Tanner-Smith et al. 2016). We used random effects models and
a weighted least squares approach for the estimation of the mean effect sizes and model
parameters (see Hedges et al. 2010; Tanner-Smith and Tipton 2014). Publication bias was
assessed with the R packages metafor (Viechtbauer 2010) and robumeta (Fisher et al. 2017).
Heterogeneity and Publication Bias
Heterogeneity was assessed with τ2 which represents the magnitude of variation between the
study-average effects (between-study variance; Deeks et al. 2008) and with I2 indicating the
proportion of variance due to variability in true effects rather than sampling error (Borenstein
et al. 2017; Higgins and Thompson 2002). To assess publication bias, we used contour-
enhanced funnel plots (Peters et al. 2008), trim-and-fill analyses (Duval and Tweedie 2000),
and an RVE approach to Egger’s regression test (Egger et al. 1997). For the contour-enhanced
funnel plots and trim-and-fill analyses, we aggregated effect sizes at the study level. Trim-and-
fill analyses impute studies if the distribution of included studies is skewed. Inspection of
imputed studies from the trim-and-fill analyses in contour-enhanced funnel plots reveals
whether their distribution differs from the included studies (e.g., whether most imputed studies
fall into the category of non-significant results, whereas most included studies yield significant
results). For Egger’s regression tests, we predicted the effect sizes by their standard errors in
meta-regression RVE models. In these models, a slope coefficient that significantly differs
from zero suggests that the results from studies with low precision differ from studies with
high precision, indicating the presence of publication bias.
Results
Study Characteristics
Overall, findings from 10 studies reporting 32 effect sizes from 11 intellectually gifted student
samples (N = 1902) and 12 non-gifted student samples (N = 2438) were meta-analytically
aggregated (overall N = 4340). Nine studies (describing 19 effect sizes) were included in the
meta-analysis of perfectionistic concerns, and 10 studies (describing 13 effect sizes) studies
were included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic strivings. The median sample size was
105 for intellectually gifted students and 74.50 for non-gifted students indicating that the
majority of studies had a low statistical power to detect group differences. The sample mean
age ranged from 10.25 to 13.50 (M = 11.71, SD = 1.33) in the intellectually gifted student
samples and from 10.19 to 13.50 (M = 11.76, SD = 1.17) in the non-gifted student samples.
The mean proportion of females ranged from 0 to 100% (M = 45.93, SD = 25.42) in the
intellectually gifted student samples and from 0 to 100% (M = 49.84, SD = 23.88) in the
non-gifted student samples. Six studies were conducted in the USA, three studies were
conducted in European countries, and one study was conducted in Hong Kong. In 7 out of
the 10 included studies, intellectually gifted students were from special gifted programs. In one
study, they were identified in a talent search program. Thus, most intellectually gifted students
in the included studies were aware of their giftedness status. Not all studies reported full
demographic details of the samples (see Tables 2 and 3). Table 2 displays the study charac-
teristics and Hedge’s g of all studies included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic concerns.
Table 3 displays the study characteristics and Hedge’s g of all studies included in the meta-
analysis of perfectionistic strivings.
Differences in Perfectionism Levels Between Gifted Students and Non-Gifted

Students
There was no difference in perfectionistic concerns between intellectually gifted students and non-
gifted students, g = − 0.117, 95% CI [− 0.337, 0.103], p = .252. Perfectionistic strivings were
stronger in intellectually gifted students compared to non-gifted students, g = 0.332, 95% CI
[0.092, 0.572], p = .012. Figure 2 displays the effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals for all
studies included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic concerns. Figure 3 displays the effect sizes
and 95% confidence intervals for all studies included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic strivings.
τ2 was .072 for perfectionistic concerns and .084 for perfectionistic strivings. I2 was 86.10% for
perfectionistic concerns and 86.71% for perfectionistic strivings indicating substantial heterogeneity.
Figures S1 and S2 display the contour-enhanced funnel plots. There was no indication of
publication bias. No studies were imputed in the trim-and-fill analyses. Egger’s test for funnel
plot asymmetry did not reach significance for perfectionistic concerns (b = 1.15, 95% CI
[− 2.85, 5.15], p = .486) or perfectionistic strivings (b = 1.13, 95% CI [− 4.32, 6.57], p = .605).
402
Table 2 Study characteristics and Hedge’s g for all studies included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic concerns
Study Scale Subscale Country Gifted student samples Non-gifted student samples α g
N % female Age/age group N % female Age/age group
Mofield and Parker Peters GWHSa Concern over mistakes USA 264 49.00 Grades 6 to 8 86 46.50 Grades 6 to 8 .85 .35
(2018) Doubts about actions USA 264 49.00 Grades 6 to 8 86 46.50 Grades 6 to 8 .69 .02
Schneider et al. (2012) FMPSb Concern over mistakes Germany 256 34.63 10.60 584 44.86 11.01 .84 − .18
Doubts about actions Germany 256 34.63 10.60 584 44.86 11.01 .59 − .14
Concern over mistakes Germany 289 34.26 11.59 630 42.54 11.99 .84 − .12
Doubts about actions Germany 289 34.26 11.59 630 42.54 11.99 .63 − .13
Guignard et al. (2012) CAPSc Socially prescribed perfectionism France 61 35.30 10.95 51 59.70 11.59 .84 .28
Socially prescribed perfectionism France 61 35.30 10.95 20 34.80 11.03 .84 − .07
Chan (2010) APS-Rd Discrepancy Hong Kong 320 39.69 10.25 882 45.69 10.19 .88 − .54
Parker et al. (2001) FMPSe Concern over mistakes Czech Republic 105 0.00 15.80 (overall) 50 0.00 15.80 (overall) – − .35
Doubts about actions Czech Republic 105 0.00 15.80 (overall) 50 0.00 15.80 (overall) – .02
Concern over mistakes Czech Republic 37 100.00 15.80 (overall) 27 100 15.80 (overall) – − .80
Doubts about actions Czech Republic 37 100.00 15.80 (overall) 27 100 15.80 (overall) – − .40
Asher (2000) FMPS Concern over mistakes USA 110 58.18 Grades 6 to 8 92 60.87 Grades 6 to 8 .88 .18
Doubts about actions USA 110 58.18 Grades 6 to 8 92 60.87 Grades 6 to 8 .77 − .04
LoCicero and Ashby (2000) APS-R Discrepancy USA 73 59.00 13.00 99 62.50 13.00 .96 − .39
Bull (1997) HFMPS Socially prescribed perfectionism USA 23 – Grade 7 63 – Grade 7 .84 .28
Parker and Mills (1996) FMPS Concern over mistakes USA 600 33.50 11.98 418 43.30 11.97 – .00
Doubts about actions USA 600 33.50 11.98 418 43.30 11.97 – − .15
A positive Hedge’s g value indicates increased mean levels for intellectually gifted students compared to non-gifted students
GWHS Goals and Work Habits Survey (Schuler 1994), FMPS Frost et al.’s (1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism scale, CAPS Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (Flett et al.
2016), APS-R Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (Slaney et al. 2001), HFMPS Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
a An adaptation of the FMPS (Schuler 1994)
b German version (Stöber 1995)
c An adaptation of the HFMPS (Hewitt & Flett 1991), French version (Guignard et al. 2012)
d Chinese version (Chan 2010)
e Czech version (Parker et al. 2001)
Table 3 Study characteristics and Hedge’s g for all studies included in the meta-analysis of perfectionistic strivings
Study Scale Subscale Country Gifted student samples Regular student samples α g
N % female Age/age group N % female Age/age group
Mofield and Parker Peters GWHSa Personal standards USA 264 49.00 Grades 6 to 8 86 46.50 Grades 6 to 8 .76 .66
(2018)
Schneider et al. (2012) FMPSb Personal standards Germany 257 34.63 10.60 584 44.86 11.01 .77 − .02
Personal standards Germany 289 34.26 11.59 630 42.54 11.99 .77 .04
Guignard et al. (2012) CAPSc Self-oriented perfectionism France 61 35.30 10.95 51 59.70 11.59 .82 .45
Self-oriented perfectionism France 61 35.30 10.95 20 34.80 11.03 .82 − .27
Chan (2010) APS-Rd High standards Hong Kong 320 39.69 10.25 882 45.69 10.19 .86 .58
Parker et al. (2001) FMPSe Personal standards Czech Republic 105 0.00 15.80 (overall) 50 0.00 15.80 (overall) − .15
Personal standards Czech Republic 37 100.00 15.80 (overall) 27 100.00 15.80 (overall) − .25
Asher (2000) FMPS Personal standards USA 110 58.18 Grades 6 to 8 92 60.87 Grades 6 to 8 .83 .41
LoCicero and Ashby (2000) APSR High standards USA 73 59.00 13.00 99 62.50 13.00 .91 .37
Bull (1997) HFMPS Self-oriented perfectionism USA 23 – Grade 7 63 – Grade 7 .86 .36
Parker and Mills (1996) FMPS Personal standards USA 600 33.50 11.98 418 43.30 11.97 – .11
Roberts and Lovett (1994) HMPS Self-oriented perfectionism USA 20 50.00 13.5 20 50.00 13.50 – 1.31
A positive Hedge’s g value indicates increased mean levels for intellectually gifted students compared to non-gifted students
GWHS Goals and Work Habits Survey (Schuler 1994), FMPS Frost et al.’s (1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism scale, CAPS Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (Flett et al.
2016), APS-R Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (Slaney et al. 2001), HFMPS Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
a An adaptation of the FMPS (Schuler 1994)
b German version (Stöber 1995)
c An adaptation of the HFMPS (Hewitt & Flett 1991), French version (Guignard et al. 2012)
d Chinese version (Chan 2010)
e Czech version (Parker et al. 2001)
403
Fig. 2 Effect sizes (Hedge’s g) and 95% confidence intervals for all studies included in the meta-analysis of
perfectionistic concerns
Discussion
It is often assumed that perfectionism is a core characteristic of intellectually gifted students.

To test this assumption, we meta-analytically aggregated the available empirical evidence on
differences in perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings between intellectually gifted
students and non-gifted students. Both groups did not differ significantly in perfectionistic
concerns. For perfectionistic strivings, there was a significant small to medium group
Fig. 3 Effect sizes (Hedge’s g) and 95% confidence intervals for all studies included in the meta-analysis of
perfectionistic strivings
difference indicating that intellectually gifted students hold stronger perfectionistic strivings
than non-gifted students do.
Multidimensional Perfectionism and Giftedness
The investigation of perfectionism in the context of giftedness was initially characterized by a

pathological view (e.g., Adderholdt-Elliott 1991). However, the results of the present meta-
analysis do not support the view that a pathologic or inherently maladaptive form of
perfectionism characterizes intellectually gifted students. Instead, the results indicate that
intellectually gifted students do not differ from non-gifted students in their worries about the
consequences of failing to meet the highest standards (i.e., perfectionistic concerns). Gifted-
ness does not seem to predispose students to overly critical self-evaluations of one’s perfor-
mance. This is in line with previous findings indicating that intellectual giftedness is not
associated with deficiencies in achievement-related self-perceptions such as academic self-
concept (McCoach and Siegle 2003; Preckel et al. 2008; Pyryt and Mendaglio 1994),
perceived competence (Vallerand et al. 1994), or school satisfaction (Ash and Huebner 1998).
The meta-analysis of perfectionistic strivings showed that intellectually gifted students have
a stronger tendency to set the highest standards for their performance and more strongly
endorse the belief that being perfect is important for themselves compared to non-gifted
students. There are two potential theoretical explanations for this finding. First, intellectual
giftedness might predispose for higher levels of perfectionistic strivings because of an
increased ability to achieve the highest academic standards or because of insufficient challenge
in early educational experiences (Speirs Neumeister 2004). The finding that academic achieve-
ment longitudinally predicts perfectionistic strivings beyond baseline (Damian et al. 2017)
supports this assumption. Thus, academic achievement might mediate the relation of intellec-
tual giftedness with perfectionistic strivings: Intellectually gifted students display elevated
academic achievement, which might increase their self-imposed standards as a result of a
general motivational tendency to surpass one’s past performance (cf. social-cognitive theory;
Bandura 1977). Second, high perfectionistic strivings might increase the likelihood to be
identified as intellectually gifted due to elevated commitment to learning or effort in perfor-
mance situations, which dovetails with the finding that perfectionistic strivings are related to
performance in aptitude tests (Stoeber and Kersting 2007).
Independent of the underlying processes, the mean level difference in perfectionistic
strivings between intellectually gifted students and non-gifted students must be interpreted
with great caution. According to Cohen’s (1988) definition of effect sizes (which also applies
to Hedge’s g; Ellis 2010), the difference in perfectionistic strivings between intellectually
gifted students and regular students is small to medium in size. Cohen’s (1988) thresholds were
determined with intervention studies in mind, and they may not apply to the identification of
subpopulations (Winkler and Voight 2016). The identified effect size of g = .332 indicates an
overlap of almost 80% between the groups of intellectually gifted students and non-gifted
students (Cohen 1988). Hence, the tendency to aim for the highest personal standards and the
belief that it is important for oneself to be perfect might be pronounced in some, but not in all
intellectually gifted students. The magnitude of the meta-analytic effect size does not suffi-
ciently support the conclusion that perfectionistic strivings are a core characteristic of the entire
group of intellectually gifted students.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
First, the number of available studies was too low for reliable moderator analyses. Thus, the
robustness of our findings across age groups, genders, countries, and gifted education programs
(e.g., pull-out programs or separate gifted classes) is unclear. This problem is aggravated by the
lack of studies from various geographic regions (i.e., there was only one included study that was
not conducted in the USA or Europe). Second, despite a high similarity in demographic
characteristics (see Tables 2 and 3), potentially relevant background variables (e.g., parental
education aspirations) may differ between the intellectually gifted samples and non-gifted
samples included in this meta-analysis. Thus, future studies controlling for a wide array of
demographic, socio-economic, and psychological background variables are needed to validate
our meta-analytic results. Third, the available studies relied exclusively on self-report measures of
multidimensional perfectionism. Gifted students might be especially sensitive to social desirabil-
ity (Gross 1998). For achievement-related constructs, this tendency might be particularly pro-
nounced because academic achievement plays an important role for gifted students’ self-concept
(e.g., Plucker and Stocking 2001). Hence, an important future research direction is the application
of multimethod and multi-rater instruments to overcome the limitations of self-report. Fourth, the
measurement invariance of perfectionism scales between gifted and non-gifted students has
seldom been tested (Rice and Ray 2018). To our knowledge, there is no study that tested scalar
measurement invariance of perfectionism measures between intellectually gifted students and
non-gifted students, which is required to compare factor means. Consequently, perfectionism
scales might capture different underlying constructs in intellectually gifted students and non-
gifted students. However, measurement invariance between intellectually gifted and non-gifted
students has been established for various other personality constructs (e.g., Preckel et al. 2017;
Van den Broeck et al. 2014). Future qualitative research might contribute to clarifying the
questions whether intellectually gifted students and non-gifted students interpret perfectionism
measures differently and whether self-presentation distorts quantitative comparisons between
these populations. Fifth, we did not compare the percentages of intellectually gifted students and
non-gifted students in different perfectionism clusters (e.g., non-perfectionists, healthy perfec-
tionists, and dysfunctional perfectionists; Parker and Mills 1996) because cluster solutions were
inconsistent and, therefore, not feasible to aggregate. Yet, cluster analysis provides relevant
information regarding the distribution of multidimensional perfectionism beyond sample means
and standard deviations. Thus, future research applying statistical techniques that test the
robustness and replicability of perfectionism clusters is needed (e.g., confirmatory latent class
analysis; Schmiege et al. 2018).
Practical Implications
This meta-analytic review has practical implications for the perception of the label “gifted,” the
identification of intellectual giftedness, and school intervention programs targeting perfection-
ism. A considerable number of empirical studies investigated differences in personality and
adjustment between intellectually gifted and non-gifted students. In sum, the empirical evi-
dence does not support the assumption that intellectually gifted students show a specific set of
maladaptive personality characteristics (Neihart and See Yeo 2018; Zeidner and Shani-
Zinovich 2011) or a higher risk for psychological disorders (for a meta-analysis, see Martin
et al. 2010) compared to non-gifted students. Nevertheless, in the public and among teachers,
there are various stereotypes regarding the personality of gifted individuals (e.g., Baudson
2016; Baudson and Preckel 2013; Preckel et al. 2015). This is problematic for gifted students
because teachers’ expectations towards specific groups may be self-fulfilling (Jussim et al.
1996; Matheis et al. 2019). Associating gifted students with specific, potentially maladaptive,
personality characteristics may also give rise to stigmatization and adaptation of stereotypic
role behavior (see Coleman and Cross 1988). To date, gifted students are confronted with
unfounded assumptions regarding their allegedly increased perfectionistic concerns. These
assumptions may shape both their self-concept and their perception by others. For instance,
high aspirations of intellectually gifted students may be misinterpreted as maladaptive perfec-
tionistic tendencies. Thus, it is important for teachers, counselors, and parents to communicate
that intellectual giftedness is not systematically associated with maladaptive forms of

perfectionism.
Also in the field of giftedness research, some authors have assumed that intellectual
giftedness is associated with a specific set of personality traits (“gifted personality”; e.g.,
Wellisch and Brown 2013) and personality characteristics such as perfectionism or
overexcitabilities (i.e., over-reaction to external and internal stimuli) were proposed as indica-
tors for the identification of intellectual giftedness (Ackerman 1997; Silverman et al. 1986). Our
study adds to debunking the myth of a specific maladaptive “gifted personality” by providing
reliable meta-analytic evidence demonstrating that perfectionistic concerns are not characteris-
tic for intellectually gifted students and that perfectionistic strivings are only weakly to
moderately elevated. Thus, perfectionism measures are by no means suitable for the identifi-
cation of intellectual giftedness. This is particularly relevant for teachers’ recommendations for
gifted programs, which can be distorted by irrelevant factors that are not systematically
associated with intellectual giftedness (e.g., Rothenbusch et al. 2016; Siegle et al. 2010).
Multidimensional perfectionism is highly relevant for understanding adjustment and mal-
adjustment in intellectually gifted students (for reviews, see Speirs Neumeister 2018; Rice and
Ray 2018) as well as in non-gifted students (e.g., Ashby et al. 2011; Madigan 2019; Stoeber
and Rambow 2007). This meta-analytic review compared the levels of multidimensional
perfectionism in intellectually gifted students and non-gifted students, but did not investigate
consequences of multidimensional perfectionism. Hence, the implication of this meta-analytic
review is to disapprove that higher levels of perfectionism are a core characteristic of
intellectually gifted students, but the implication is not to downplay the role of perfectionism
in the context of giftedness research and education. Therefore, findings on interventions to
reduce maladaptive forms of perfectionism are also relevant for fostering intellectually gifted
students. There are promising results from intervention studies aiming to reduce maladaptive
forms of perfectionism (Arana et al. 2017; Chand et al. 2018; James and Rimes 2018). Some
interventions are specifically designed to target intellectually gifted students (Mofield and
Chakraborti-Ghosh 2010; Zakreski 2016). In the light of our findings, it seems that the
effectiveness and efficiency of these interventions can be enhanced by selecting participants
based on their initial levels of perfectionistic concerns rather than on the assumption that
intellectually gifted students per se display increased levels of perfectionistic concerns.
Conclusion
This meta-analytic review provided preliminary evidence that perfectionistic strivings, but not
perfectionistic concerns, are weakly to moderately elevated in intellectually gifted students.
Thus, intellectually gifted students as a group have a somewhat stronger tendency to set high
personal standards for themselves compared to non-gifted students, but this tendency is not
accompanied by increased concerns over failing to meet these standards. In sum, there is no
empirical basis for the frequently repeated assumption that maladaptive forms of perfectionism
are a core characteristic of intellectually gifted students.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Educational Psychology Review (2020) 32:391–414

Intellectual Giftedness and Multidimensional

Published online: 12 September 2019

Keywords Perfectionism . Giftedness . Research synthesis . Meta-analysis

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Intellectual Giftedness

To date, there is disagreement whether perfectionism is a characteristic of intellectual gifted-

The Present Study

Search Procedure and Inclusion Criteria

We conducted a standardized literature search in PsycINFO and ERIC in November 2018

Study Selection and Coding Procedure

PsycINFO ERIC Exploratory literature

Records after dublicates removed

Abstracts screened Abstracts excluded

Full-text articles assessed Articles excluded (n = 11)

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of the study search and inclusion process

Effect Size Calculation

Heterogeneity and Publication Bias

Differences in Perfectionism Levels Between Gifted Students and Non-Gifted

N % female Age/age group N % female Age/age group

N % female Age/age group N % female Age/age group

It is often assumed that perfectionism is a core characteristic of intellectually gifted students.

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Giftedness

The investigation of perfectionism in the context of giftedness was initially characterized by a

Limitations and Future Research Directions

that intellectual giftedness is not systematically associated with maladaptive forms of

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Ackerman, C. M. (1997). Identifying gifted adolescents using personality characteristics: Dabrowski’s

Proquest Dissertations and Theses database.

giftedness? PLoS One, 7(7), e41043. doi https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041043.

40(4), 194–199. doi https://doi.org/10.1177/001698629604000404.

Bayern und Baden-Württemberg [Evaluation of gifted classes in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg].

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