Lesson 3: Baking Ingredients

Major Ingredients in Baking

Flour
Flour provides the structure in baked goods. Wheat flour contains proteins that
interact with each other when mixed with water, forming gluten. It is this elastic
gluten framework which stretches to contain the expanding leavening gases during
rising. The protein content of a flour affects the strength of a dough. The different
wheat flour types contain varying amounts of the gluten forming proteins. Hard
wheat, mainly grown in the mid-west of the U.S. has high protein content. Soft
wheat, grown in southern U.S. has less protein. In yeast breads, a strong gluten
framework is desirable, but in cakes, quick breads and pastries, high protein flour
makes a tough product.

Types of Flour:
1. Bread flour is hard wheat flour with about 12 percent protein Bread flour is
used for yeast raised bread because the dough it produces has more gluten
than dough made with other flours Sufficient gluten produces a light loaf with
good volume. Slices hold together, rather than crumble.
2. Cake flour is soft wheat flour that is 7.5 percent protein. The lower gluten
content causes products to have a tender, more crumbly texture that is
desirable in cake.
3. All-purpose flour is blended during milling to achieve a protein content of
10.5 percent. This medium protein flour can be used for all baking purposes. If
using all-purpose flour in place of cake flour in a recipe, substitute 1 cup
minus 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour for 1 cup cake flour.
4. Whole wheat flour may be substituted for part of the white flour in yeast and
quick bread recipes, but the volume of the finished product will be reduced.
Whole wheat flour contains the nutritious germ and bran as well as the
endosperm of the wheat kernel. Bran particles cut through the gluten during
mixing and kneading of bread dough, resulting in a smaller, heavier loaf. If

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 substituting a very coarsely ground whole wheat flour for all-purpose flour, use
1 cup plus 2 tablespoons whole wheat flour for every cup of all-purpose flour.
To substitute whole wheat flour in a white bread recipe, use half whole wheat
and half bread flour for best results.
5. Rye flour is often used in combination with wheat flour for bread. Light rye
flour can be successfully substituted for 40 percent of wheat flour in a recipe
without loss of volume. Medium and dark rye flours should be limited to 30
percent and 20 percent, respectively, of the total flour amount
6. Triticale flour is a hybrid of wheat and rye It has an average protein content
higher than that of wheat flour. In yeast bread dough, triticale flour has better
handling properties than rye flour because it will form gluten, but does not
handle as well as wheat dough. For a good quality dough, ferment yeast
dough made with Triticale flour for a shorter period than wheat flour dough.
7. Oat flour has a relatively high protein content, 17 percent, but does not form
gluten. Oat flour can be substituted for as much as 3 of wheat flour in bread.
8. Corn meal/ Corn flour is coarsely ground dried corn. Corn flour is more finely
ground corn. Both corn flour and corn meal contain 7-8 percent protein on a
dry basis. Neither corn meal nor corn flour will form gluten. A grainy texture in
cornbread can be avoided by mixing the cornmeal with the liquid from the
recipe, bringing to a boil, and cooling before mixing with the other ingredients.
9. Rice flour has about 6.5-7 protein and does not form gluten. For people who
do not tolerate gluten, rice flour is an acceptable substitute for wheat, barley,
rye or oat flours. In baked products 7/8 cup of non-waxy rice flour can be used
in place of 1 cup all-purpose wheat flour.
10. Potato starch flour, another non-gluten forming flour is usually used in
combination with other flours. It has a mild potato taste. For substitutions, 5/8
cup of potato flour can be used for 1 cup of all-purpose flour.
11. Soy flour contains 50 percent protein and is used primarily to boost the
protein content of baked goods. Soy flour cannot form gluten and does not
contain starch. Its use in large amounts affects the taste of baked goods and
causes them to brown quickly. An acceptable substitution is to take 2
tablespoons flour out of each cup of flour in a recipe and add 2 tablespoons
soy flour.

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Flour consists of the following elements on average:

STARCH 64% -71%, provides main body structure through gelatinisation bursts
(through heat) and swell.
•Starch is broken down by enzymes into simple sugars, which are to be used by
yeast as food.

PROTEINS Soluble: 9-14%

•Gluten is formed when insoluble proteins (Glutenin and Gliadin) are hydrated with
moisture, normally water.
•The combination of these two proteins allows the flour to take up' water and hold the
moisture within the gluten structure. When this gluten is developed it becomes tough
and elastic allowing bread dough to expand and hold gas produced during
fermentation

In unleavened dough like pastry this gluten structure allows for it to be stretched out
over a large area without breaking.

•It is grey, tasteless and is tough and slightly elastic.

•Glutenin - gives strength.
•Gliadin- provides elasticity.

SOLUBLE PROTEINS: 1%-2%, Albumin, Globulin and Protease.

SUGAR
Sucrose 2-4%: all plant material naturally contains sugar. 1.5-2% is sufficient for gas
production up to 5 hours (Bulk Ferment Time) plus glucose, plus dextrose (inversion
of cane sugar).
If flour is low in these sugars, malt can be added to formulae, to allow longer Bulk
Fermentation Times. (BFT)

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MOISTURE 11-15%
The natural proportion of water depends on conditions of growth, storage and milling.
Wheat is a hard grain and needs to be soaked in water to aid the milling process.
There are laws pertaining to the amount of moisture allowed in flour. In Australia it
cannot be more than 15%.

FAT 1-2%; this contains carotene, the colouring pigment of flour.

ENZYMES
Diastatic - Amylase change starch in sugars.
Proteolytic - Conditions the proteins
Responsible to soften the gluten, dough tolerance is reduced and could cause
collapsing of the bread, especially in whole meal products.

Factors influencing flour behavior:

Quantity and quality of gluten

Diastatic capacity, the ability to change starch into sugars to provide food for the
yeast to ferment through enzymatic activity.

Properties and Characteristics of Flour

1. Whitish color
Flour color is important because it affects the brilliancy of the finished
products. Although it is generally thought that whiteness in flour means
quality, this is not always true.
2. Strength
is the ability of flour to produce a large loaf brought about by the presence of
protein of sufficient quantity and quality to retain the gas and sufficient
diastatic activity to produce sugar for uniform gas production.
3. Tolerance

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 Tolerance of bread flour means its ability to withstand any processing abuse
brought about by mixing, fermentation, make up and all other baking
processes and still produce satisfactory results. Tolerance is often correlated
with the quality of the gluten.
4. High absorption
is the ability of a flour to carry the maximum amount of moisture in the dough
and still produce a quality loaf of bread.
5. Uniformity
uniform quality of every flour shipment is a bakers dream. It will be too
cumbersome for the baker to keep changing his formulation and process
every time a new flour shipment arrives.

Fats/Shortening

Different Types of Shortening

1. Fats
in the form of solid shortening, margarine, or butter; or in the liquid form of oil
contributes tenderness, moistness, and a smooth mouth feel to baked goods.
Fats enhance the flavors of other ingredients as well as contributes its own
flavor, as in the case of butter. In baked goods such as muffins, reducing the
amount of fat in a recipe result in a tougher product because gluten develops
more freely. Another tenderizing agent such as sugar can be added or
increased to tenderize in place of the fat. A small amount of fat in a yeast
dough helps the gluten to stretch, yielding a loaf with greater volume.
2. Shortening
Shortening is 100 percent fat and is solid at room temperature it is often made
of hydrogenated (solidified by adding hydrogen) vegetable oils, but sometimes
contains animal fats. The flakiness of pastry comes from solid fat such as
shortening or lard rolled in layers with flour. In some recipes for cookies or
cake, shortening is creamed with sugar to trap air, a lighter product will result.
There are emulsifiers in shortening to help emulsify shortening and liquid. This
means that oil and water stay mixed together, creating an even distribution of
flavors and a consistent texture in batters and dough.

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 a. Butter is made from cream and has a fat content of at least 80 percent.
The remaining 20 percent is water with some milk solids. Butter imparts
a good flavor without a greasy mouth feel to baked goods because it
melts at body temperature
b. Margarine is made from fat or oil that is partially hydrogenated. water,
milk solids, and salt. Vitamins and coloring are usually added also. The
fat or oil can be of animal or vegetable origin Margarine has the same
ratio of fat to non-fat ingredients as butter (80:20), and can be used
interchangeably with butter Reduced fat substitutes have less than 80
percent fat. These do not work the same as butter or margarine in
baked goods, though some specially formulated recipes can be found
on the packages of these products. Fat-free margarines also are
available and contain no fat. These margarines are best used as
spreads.
c. Oil is used in some muffin, bread and cake recipes. Oil pastry is mealy
rather than flaky. To substitute oil for butter or margarine, use 7/8 cup
oil for 1 cup butter or margarine. If oil is used in place of a solid fat for
some cake recipes, the texture will be heavier unless the sugar and
egg are increased.

Effects of Fat:
 Improves slicing
 Softer crumb
 Shorter eating crumb
 softer crust
 Better keeping qualities
 Increases volume
 Shorter eating crust
 Emulsified fats retard crumb
 Enhances firmness.

Eggs

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 Eggs serve many functions in baked goods. They add flavor and color,
contribute to structure, incorporate air when beaten, provide liquid, fat, and protein,
and emulsify fat with liquid ingredients. Reducing or omitting egg yolks can result in
less tenderness. Reducing or omitting egg whites can result in less volume Cakes
made without the emulsifying action from the egg yolk may not have a uniform flavor
and texture. If a low fat, low cholesterol baked product is desired, use two (2) egg
whites for one (1) whole egg; the white has very little fat or cholesterol. When a
recipe calls for an egg, the best size to use is a two oz. Grade A large egg.

Effects of eggs:
 Moistening
 Enriching due to fat in the yolk
 Increased nutritional value
 Emulsifying, due to lecithin in the yolk, therefore better keeping qualities
 aid’s structure, due to the proteins, which coagulate at 65 to 70°C
 Better color and appearance to baked product
 Better eating qualities

Liquid
a. Water/Liquids are necessary in baked goods for hydrating protein, starch
and leavening agents. When hydration occurs, water is absorbed and the
chemical changes necessary for structure and texture development can take
place. Liquids contribute moistness to the texture and improve the mouth feel
of baked products. When water vaporizes in a batter or dough, the steam
expands the air cells, increasing the final volume of the product.

Effects of Liquid:
 Hydrates gluten forming proteins (Gliadin and Glutenin)
 Dissolves and disperses salt and sugars and carries sugars to the yeast
which it can only use in liquid form

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  Provides moisture for yeast to grow
 Hydrates dry yeast and disperses both dry and compressed
 Controls dough temperature
 Controls dough consistency
 Wets and swells starch during baking (gelatinisation) - makes it available to
analyse enzymes
 Controls enzyme activity (enzymes are active only in liquid or semi liquid
mediums)
 Increases shelf life
 Contributes to eating qualities.

b. Milk contributes water and valuable nutrients to baked goods. It helps

browning to occur and adds flavor. When making yeast dough, milk should be
scalded and cooled before adding to other ingredients. This is done to
improve the quality of the dough and the volume of the bread.
c. Juice may be used as the liquid in a recipe. Because fruit juices are acidic,
they are probably best used in baked products which have baking soda as an
ingredient.

Leavening Agent

There are three types of leavening:

1. Physical Leaveners.
Air and water vapor or steam are physical leaveners as well as manipulation
of the flour mixtures such as creaming butter and sugar together. Cutting in or
folding ingredients as in sponge and chiffon cakes leaven the batter by
incorporating air into it. Steaming causes some leavening effect.
2. Biological Leaveners. Yeast as a tiny one-celled plant that is present all
around us. Yeast celled feed on sugars and starches. They change the starch
of bread dough into sugar, which they then digest. As they do this, they do

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 give off carbon dioxide as a waste product. This chemical change is called
fermentation. Tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide are trapped by the strands of
gluten in the dough. The gas blows the gluten into bigger and bigger bubbles
makes the bread rise.

Yeast is the first and most important leavening agent. Breads leavened by yeast
are called yeast breads.

In the early days of baking, the chief source of yeast was the form that bubbled
on top of vats in which ale or beer was brewing. This liquid yeast was called barn.
Today in dry form, it is known as brewer's yeast.

Commercial yeast is marketed in two forms:

a. Dry or granular
dry yeast is dormant yeast. The yeast is alive but in inactive form. The
addition of water activates it, so it should always be kept in a cool, dry place
with the container tightly closed.
b. Cake compressed or fresh the yeast is in an active state in moist mixture
with starch. The presence of moisture makes the yeast perishable, hence the
need for refrigeration.

Yeast is a unicellular organism yet each microscopic cell contains a multitude of

enzymes capable of carrying out the most intricate series of chemical reactions.
Because it is a living organism, baker's yeast is very perishable and must have
optimum storage conditions.

•Compressed yeast should be stored in dark and cool conditions; it is best used for
up to two weeks after manufacture, as it slowly loses its strength.
•Yeast produces carbon dioxide and Ethyl alcohol, by changing sugars.
•The activity of yeast is destroyed at temperatures above 55°C. and may be severely
impaired at temperatures over 45°C.

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Available Forms of Yeast:
 Compressed
 Dried
 Creamed or liquid

Rate of Fermentation and Yeast Activity

These are controlled by the following:

Sugar quantity:
 Up to 5.0% speeds up fermentation
 Over 50% slows down or retards fermentation

Water added to the dough:

 More water makes softer doughs - faster rate
 Less water makes tighter doughs - slower rate

Dough temperature:
 The warmer the dough temperature, faster rate of fermentation
 The cooler the dough temperature the slower the rate of fermentation

Yeast Quantity:
 Lower quantities of yeast will result in longer proof.
 Amounts of salt and fat also inhibit the rate of fermentation or the activity of
yeast.
Remember:
yeast is a living thing. It needs to be cared for and used properly.

3. The Chemical Leavening Agents

There are two common types of chemical leavening agents used for baking:
A. Baking Soda
Sodium bicarbonate of soda, and baking soda, is one and the same. Baking
soda liberates carbon dioxide, but to the process, a residue of washing soda

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 remains in the cake which imparts a dark color and unpleasant taste to the
cake. Some acid ingredients are used to counter act this, so that lemon juice,
vinegar and molasses, or honey are used in some recipes when baking soda
is used, as the leavening agent.

B. Baking Powder
is the leavening agent produced by mixing soda and acid salt. Flour or starch
is used to stabilize the mixture. The types of the baking powder according to
the speed of action are:
a. Fast acting or tart rate type
It has tartaric acid and cream of tartar or potassium and tartrate. It releases
gas tart rate during mixing the dough or the batter.
b. Intermediate acting or phosphate type
It has calcium acid phosphate type. Gas is released partly during mixing and
the rest during baking.

Uses of leavening agent in baked products.

a. to make baked product light and easy to chew.
b. to facilitate digestion of baked product.
c. to make the baked product more palatable and appetizing.

Sugar/Sweetening Ingredients
The sweet soluble crystalline compound belonging to carbohydrates group of
food:
1. Granulated sugar or refined sugar
2. Confectionary sugar or powdered sugar. It contains about 3% of cornstarch to
control lumping or crystallization. It is primarily used in icing or frosting of
cakes.
3. Brown sugar contains some caramel mineral matter, and moisture. It contains
some amount of molasses. This is used in baked products where the flavor
and color of brown sugar is desired.

Effect of Sugar on Baked Products:

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 a. Gives a richer color of the crust.
b. Improves flavor, aroma, and nutrition.
c. Not a softening agent but by developing crust color quickly.
d. Increases the development of the dough.
e. Sweetens

Minor Ingredients in Baking

Flavoring in Baking - ingredients used in a small amount

1. Salt- used for bake product should be clean and refined.
a. It makes food taste good.
b. It accentuates the flavor of other ingredients.
c. It helps in preventing the growth of the bacteria in yeast-leavened
dough
d. It removes the flatness of other dough.

Functions of Salt are:

 Controls fermentation
 Toughens gluten (stabilizing it)
 Increases volume
 Enhances flavors in bread and provides product with its characteristic flavor
 Controls dough - lack of salt results in dough's which are sticky and are
difficult to handle
 Increases shelf life: acts as an antiseptic - suppresses activity of bacteria, is
hydroscopic - attracts moisture
 Improves crust color.

2. Flavor-extract from the base fruits and flowers used to add the pleasant odor
of baked product.
3. Cocoa, chocolate, and coffee - used in baking cake, pies, and cookies.
4. Seeds and spices, root crops, fruits, and other vegetables are used
especially in cakes to provide variety of flavor and improve the appearance of
baked products.

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