CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Airborne geophysical surveying is the process of measuring the variation of different physical or

geochemical parameters of the earth such as distribution of magnetic minerals, density, electric

conductivity and radioactive element concentration. The methods used to measure these kinds of

parameters are magnetic, electromagnetic, and gamma-ray spectrometry respectively.

The capability of modern airborne magnetic anomaly mapping, as one of severals geophysical

tools available to assist the geological of largely concealed terrains, has been addressed

repeatedly, underlining the high degree of sophistication achieved by technology in recent years

(Reeves et al.,1997;Gunn, 1997;Reeves, 1998).

Aeromagnetic survey is one of the common types of geophysical survey carried out using a

magnetometer aboard or towed behind an aircraft. The principle is similar to a magnetic survey

carried out with a hand-held magnetometer but allows much larger areas of the earth’s surface to

be covered quickly for regional reconnaissance. The aircraft typically flies in grid-like pattern

with height and line spacing determining the resolution of the data (and survey of the cost per

unit area).

As the aircraft flies, the magnetometer records tiny variations in the intensity of the ambient

magnetic field due to the temporal effects of the constantly varying solar wind and spatial

variations in the earth’s magnetic field, the latter being due to both the regional magnetic fields

and the local effect of magnetic minerals in the earth’s crust. From regional aeromagnetic data

sets, information such as tectonic frame of the upper crust can be obtained. The patterns and

amplitude of anomalies reflect the depth and magnetic character of crystalline basement, the
distribution and volume of intrusive and extrusive volcanic rocks and the nature of boundaries

between magnetic terrains (R.G.Allis, 1990).

The data obtained from aeromagnetic survey are normally presented in the form of maps which

allows the use of mathematical techniques (quantitative interpretation) to obtain positions and

depth to magnetic sources (Salawu, 2016).

The quantitative interpretation of huge amounts of data obtained from the survey can be aided by

automatic interpretation techniques such as Euler Deconvolution (Cooper and Derrheim 1997).

The Euler Deconvolution technique is an interpretation tool in potential field for locating

anomalous sources and the determination of their depths by Deconvolution using Euler’s

homogeneity relation (Reid et al., 1990). The technique has become a popular choice because the

method assumes no particular geological model and has quick means of turning magnetic field

measurements into estimates of magnetic source body location and depth. Application of Euler

Deconvolution on total magnetic field data has been defined by many researchers ( Nabighian et

al., 2005; Thompson, 1982). Its application begins with the work of Thompson (1982) that

proposed a scheme for analyzing magnetic profiles based on Euler’s relation for homogeneous

functions. The procedure uses first-order x, y and z derivatives to determine location and depth

for various idealized targets (sphere, cylinder, thin dike, contact), each characterized by a

specific structural index (Nwankwo et al., 2016).

The earth subsurface has been of great concern to geoscientists, who seek to investigate it using

diverse means, some for the purpose of having knowledge about the terrain they are, others do it
for exploration of economic resources such as minerals and hydrocarbons which lie concealed

beneath the earth surface, some for engineering investigation, while some for archaeological

studies. The presence and magnitude of these anomalies in the subsurface can only be

ascertained by geophysical investigations of the subsurface geologic structures in the study area

(Adagunodo, et al., 2015).

Geophysical methods may be applied to a wide range of investigations from studies of the entire

Earth to exploration of a localized region of the upper crust for engineering or other purposes

(Kearey, et al., 2004).

Geophysical methods are capable of detecting and delineating local features of potential

interest such as discontinuities, faults, joints and other basement structures.

Geophysical forward modelling creates a hypothetical geologic model and calculated a

geophysical response to that earth model. The modelling process is non-linear and the results

are non-unique, thus it is the task of the interpreter to evaluate the “geologic reasonableness” of

any model (Whitehead, 2007).

Ground magnetic survey has not been given much attention in the past; especially in developing

country like Nigeria. Aeromagnetic data cannot give details of magnetic structures of small

dimension. Hence, the use of ground magnetic survey method to delineate the subsurface

structure is important (Seyi 2015).

Magnetic survey sets out to investigate subsurface geology on the basis of anomalies causing

magnetic field to result from magnetic properties of the underlying rocks (Kearey, et al., 2004).

It is also used in mapping geological boundaries between magnetically contrasting lithologies

including faults (Telford et al., 2001). A magnetic anomaly originates as a result of the
magnetization contrast between rocks with different magnetic properties. Most rocks contain

some magnetite, hematite or other magnetic material and will produce disturbances in the local

magnetic field. Because of this, most soils and much man - made objects that contain nickel or

iron have magnetic properties detectable by a sensitive magnetometer because they create local

or regional anomalies in the earth’s main field. Anomalies are revealed by systematic

measurement of the variation in magnetic field strength with position.

Seyi (2015) discussed that total magnetic intensity, which traverses over an area, can aid

understanding of the underlying geology and, in the case of iron ore deposits, can indicate very

clearly their locations.

1.1 Background of Study

A fault is a fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant

displacement along the fractures as a result of earth movement. It is a break or fracture in the

earth‘s crust along which rock on one side has moved relative to rock on the other in response to

stress. Faults may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle. It ranges in length from a few

centimeters to many hundreds of kilometers. Faults are ubiquitous throughout the Earth’s crust,

the majority are silent for decades to centuries until they suddenly rupture and produce

earthquakes. These unusual faults slowly creep for long period of time and produce many small

earthquakes. The presence of fault creep and the related micro-seismicity helps illuminate fault

that might not otherwise be located in fine detail, but there is also the question of how creeping

faults contribute to seismic hazard. It appears that well recorded creeping fault earthquakes of

magnitude 6.6 that have occurred in shallow continental regions produce similar fault. Surface

rupture areas and similar peak around shaking as their locked fault counterparts of the same

earthquake magnitude. Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the liquid

state of the rock; the ductile lower crust and mantle accumulate deformation gradually via

shearing, whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture - instantaneous stress release -

resulting in motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when

the strain rate is too great. Earthquake is a strong ground motion, it is a complex natural

phenomenon associated with abrupt energy release during fault rupture. Earthquakes have posed

one of the most severe hazard in the world. Globally, one M > 8 earthquake, a dozen M > 7

earthquakes and hundreds of M > 6 2 earthquakes occur each year on average as reported Lay

and Wallace (1995). Some of the earthquakes are shallow and cause more devastating damage to

properties and human lives especially when they occur close to populated areas because surface

waves are enhanced and attenuation is greater. Recent destructive earthquakes include the 2010

Haiti earthquake (Mw 7.0) ,which caused 222,570 people death, the eastern Sichuan, China

earthquake (Mw7.9) with 87,587 people killed, the 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia earthquake (Mw

9.1) with 227,898 people killed, the 2005 Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake (Mw 7.6) with a death

toll of 86,000 people. (http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php). On

the global scale, most earthquake events have their epicenters on the ocean; Pacific ocean, India

ocean, Atlantic ocean etc. Some of these earthquakes generate sea waves (tsunami) which is very

destructive especially to lives in the coastal areas. Understanding earthquakes can make all the

difference between life and death. Until half a century ago, the cause of earthquake was not

known, statistical seismology had played a major role in earthquake research that revealed some

regularity and examined some phenomenon that are statistically associated with the occurrence

(Aki et al, 1975). And with the development of Solid Earth Science from the late 1960s; the

knowledge of earthquake phenomenon has increased significantly. Nigeria is not situated on any

known seismic belt, yet between 1933 and 2000 Nigeria experienced 15 Earth tremors, three of

which occurred in one year. The first recorded Earth tremor in Nigeria occurred in Warri in
1933. This was followed by the tremor that shook Lagos and its environs. The most severe of the

tremors occurred in 1984 around Ijebu Ode (Ajakaiye, 1989). These tremors show that Nigeria

may not be as a seismic as previously thought. The intensities of these events ranged from III to

VI, based on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. Of these events, only the 3 1984 tremor at

Ijebu Ode, the 1990 at Ibadan, and 2000 at Jushi-Kwari were instrumentally recorded, they had a

body wave magnitudes ranging from 4.3 to 4.5, local magnitudes between 3.7 to 3.9 (Akpan and

Yakubu, 2010). As a result of history of tremors in Nigeria, this work was carried out to

determine the possibility of earthquake occurrence in Osi and its environs, Kwara state, Nigeria

using aeromagnetic approach.

1.2 Scope of Study

The study aims at delineating the fault distribution of the Osi and its environs, north-central

Nigeria using aeromagnetic data.

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem

Earthquake occurrences in some parts of Nigeria especially in the southwestern part of the

country, such as Kwara, Oyo, Ibadan, Lagos, Akure, Ijebu-Ode, Okitipupa, Abuja ,Omu-Aran,

Kano and Yola are predominantly. Hence, the need for investigation of Osi in southwestern part

of Nigeria.

1.4 Location of the Study Area

The study area is located on the host state Kwara in North-central Nigeria. The area of study had

a size of about 228.1 Km 2 between longitudes 5°05ʹ E to 5°30ʹE and latitudes 8°00ʹN and

8°30ʹN.
1.5 Aim and Specific Objectives of Research

This research aims at carrying out geophysical studies with the use of aeromagnetic data to

delineate fault distributions in Osi and its environs, North central Nigeria. The specific objectives

of the study are to:

(a) Determine the sedimentary thickness and the basement morphology of the study area;

(b) Delineate faults and their depths of occurrence within the study area; and

(c) Produce a structural map of the fault distributions within the study area.

1.6 Justification of the Research

This study will help produce a structural map of fault distributions in Osi and its environs,

North-central Nigeria which will be of assistance to the researchers in the field of earthquake

seismology; as it will reveal areas prone to occurrence of natural disasters in the nearest future.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Regional geological settings

The study area is underlain by rock groups of the crystalline Basement Complex of Precambrian

(fig 2.1). The lithological units of crystalline Basement Complex are grouped as: Migmatite-

Gneiss Complex, Metasedimentary/Metavolcanic Complex and Older Granite Series (Pan

African). Migmatite-Gneiss Complex is composed of high grade metamorphic rocks. The

gneisses and migmatites are intimately associated in the field. The migmatite is a group of rocks,

made up essentially of gneisses and schist as paleosome and granitic rocks, pegmatite and aplite

as neosome. The gneisses and migmatites are characterized by intricate folded and banded fabric

complicated by quartzo-feldspathic intrusion and quartz rodding’s. Relicts of quartzite, marble

and calc-silicate rocks occur within the migmatite-gneiss complex.

Metasedimentary/Metavolcanic Complex are referred to as supracrustal rocks believed to have

been in folded into the basement of gneisses and migmatites. The schistose rocks consist of low

to medium grade metamorphic rocks, composed of pelitic schist, quartz schist, banded iron

formation, marble and calc-silicates plus subordinate amount of ultramafic rocks, amphibolites,

metadiorites, and talc schist. Apart from the pelitic schists, psamitic rocks are abundant in the

zone. The Older Granite Series form the most conspicuous geomorphic features in the

southwestern Nigeria, outcropping as batholiths, conical hills, thickly forested highlands. The

Older Granites were emplaced in the Precambrian basement gneisses and metasediments.

Lithologically, the Older Granites consist of coarse porphyritic biotite and biotite-hornblende

granites, fine to medium-grained granites in addition to foliated and migmatitic types, syenites
and grandiorites. However, the most widespread of the series are the coarse porphyritic types,

which are characterized by large feldspar crystals (Rahman, 1988).

Figure 2.1: Geological map of Nigeria showing the study area

2.2 Previous Work

Aeromagnetic method has been previously used to locate faults or minerals having unusual

magnetic properties which reveal themselves as anomalies in the intensity of the earth’s

magnetic field.

Aeromagnetic survey was used to investigate the possible extension of Ifewara fault zone beyond

Ilesa area, south-western Nigeria. This investigation revealed the fault distribution in this region

and confirmed the continuation of the Ifewara fault. Linear features are clearly discernible on

aeromagnetic maps and often indicate the form and position of individual folds, faults, joints,

veins, lithologic contacts, and other geologic features that may lead to the location of individual

mineral deposits. They often indicate the general geometry of subsurface structures of an area

thereby providing a regional structural pattern (Onyewuchi et al., 2012).

It has been used extensively in basement mapping and subsurface geological structures such as

rock contacts, rock boundaries, fractures and faulted zones (Alagbe etal., 2010). The

aeromagnetic method has also been applied in th e investigation of the faults distribution around

the Bida Basin and also for the investigation of possible continuation of the Ifewara fault. From

the maps generated in both studies, the faults distributions where clearly seen (Ajama et al,

2017).

Ibrahim et al. (2012) using HRAD mapped buried faults in the Riyadh region, Saudi Arabia,

using filtering techniques such as butterworth filter, tilt derivative, source edge detection (SED)

and Euler deconvolution (ED). It was found that the area is dissected by a number of deep-seated

faults that aligned mainly along north-northwest (NNW) and north-northeast (NNE) directions.
These 10 faults divided the study area into three main tectonic zones. The edges of these

structural zones were delineated clearly using SED techniques.

Ndougsa-Mbarga et al. (2012) using horizontal gradient, analytic signal techniques and 3D Euler

Deconvolution, interpreted aeromagnetic data to locate buried faults in South-East Cameroon.

The production of a structural map showing the fault systems for the survey area was achieved

by determining the maxima of the horizontal gradient and the analytic signal of the total

magnetic intensity field reduced to the equator (TMI-RTE) in addition to the main contacts

deduced by Euler solutions. Lineament trends were delineated based on some criteria as recorded

in Philips (2000).

Selemo and Akaolisa (2010) applied spectral analysis on the aeromagnetic data over Okigwe to

interpret the tectonic features associated with the area. Their results indicated that the study area

is 11 characterized by low positive and negative anomaly amplitudes, smooth contours, magnetic

lineaments as well as the existence of charcot fault zone trending in the NE-SW within this

region.

Okereke et al. (2012) generated a regional magnetic field intensity map from aeromagnetic data

of partly lower Benue trough and Niger delta and produced a regional map displaying prominent

features and major tectonic trends lineaments in the NE-SW direction which when compared

with those indicated on the tectonic map of Africa suggested a linear extension of the chain and

charcot fracture zones into the continental part of Nigeria.

ElKhedr Ibrahim et al (2012) applied Filtering techniques such as Butterworth filter, tilt

derivative, source edge detection (SED) and Euler deconvolution (ED) to map the structural

lineamentsin the Riyadh region, Saudi Arabia. The interpretation of the magnetic anomaly maps

indicates that the area is dissected by a number of deep-seated faults that aligned mainly along
north-northwest (NNW) and north-northeast (NNE). These faults divided the study area into

three main zones of variable depth, width and pattern. To the northwest, there is an elongated

high magnetic anomaly that indicates possible basement uplift, where a wide low magnetic

anomaly dominates the western side of the area, with three local and circular low magnetic

anomalies. The edges of the interpreted structural zones are delineated clearly using SED

techniques and the average depth to the magnetic sources ranged from ~5300 to ~ 1300 m.

Generally, it is necessary to carry out geophysical survey, which will reveal the geomagnetic

pattern in the study area in other to have a pre-knowledge of the impending danger, natural

occurrences such as earthquake, tremor, and groundwater potential associated with the area of

investigation.

Grauch and Ruleman (2013) using Aeromagnetic, Gravity and Light Detection and Ranging

(LiDAR) data identified buried segments of active faults in the Northern Rio Grande Rift. The

interpretation revised and extended mapped fault traces, confirmed tectonic versus fluvial origins

of steep stream banks, and gained additional information on the nature of active and potentially

active, and partially and totally buried faults.

2.3 Theory and Principle of Magnetic Field

The magnetic prospecting, one of the oldest method of geophysical exploration, is used to

explore for both oil and minerals. Magnetic survey is a well-known technique to delineate

subsurface structures and has been extensively used in many parts of the world (Al-Garni, 2004a,

b, 2005; AlGarni et al., 2005; Al-Garni et al., 2006; Al-Garni, 2009 and Al-Garni, 2010).

Magnetic surveying investigates the subsurface geology of an area by detecting magnetic

anomalies within the Earth’s magnetic field, which are caused by the magnetic properties of the

underlying rocks. Most rockforming minerals are nonmagnetic but a few rock types contain
sufficient amounts of magnetic minerals, which can impart magnetism to their host rocks and

thus produce detectable magnetic anomalies. Rock magnetism has both magnitude and direction,

the latter being determined by the host rocks position relative to the past and present magnetic

poles of the Earth. (Okwueze, 2000)

2.4 Basic Magnetic Theory

In a simple way, the Earth can be described as a large magnet with the North Pole pointing south

(that is why the needle on your compass points north because it is attracted by a magnetic pole of

opposite sign). Figure 2.2 illustrates the magnetic field of the Earth. The Earth’s field at any

given point on the Earth is vector, in that it has a preferred orientation (direction) and amplitude

(intensity). The inclination and declination describe the local orientation of the Earth’s magnetic

field vector.
Figure 2.2: Typical Anomalous Signature

Figure 2.3: The Magnetic Field of the Earth

The orientation and intensity of the Earth’s field is quite well known. The magnetic field

intensity is usually expressed in gammas or nanoTeslas. NanoTesla is the preferred SI

nomenclature; however, one nT equals a gamma. The values of the Earth’s magnetic field that

you will typically observe should vary from 25,000 nTto 70,000 nT

Magnetometers use fundamental properties of either caesium or hydrogen atoms to measure the

scalar amplitude of the magnetic field vector. The predominant magnetic field is that of the

Earth’s (shown by the vector F in the figure). A local magnetic disturbance has its own magnetic

field (represented by the vector T in the figure). This local vector adds to the Earth’s field vector

to produce a total field vector F + T. What these magnetometers measure is the projected

amplitude of the total field T in the direction of the dominant Earth’s field F. This is displayed as

the intensity in nanoTeslas by the instrument. (Scintrex, 1996). No directional information

concerning the field of the local magnetic disturbance can be inferred from a total field intensity

measurement.
Figure 2.4: The Earth’s magnetic field interacting with a magnetisable body. (Scintrex, 1996) 15
2.5 The Geomagnetic Field

The geomagnetic field at or near the surface of the Earth originates largely from within and

around the Earth‘s core. The geomagnetic field and its variations over time are our most direct

ways to study the dynamics of the core. The variations with time of the geomagnetic field, the

secular variations, are the basis for the science of paleo-magnetism, and several major

discoveries in the late fifties gave important new impulses to the concept of plate tectonics.

Currents external to the Earth in the ionosphere and magnetosphere associated with the Van

Allen radiation belts, currents induced in the earth by external field variations and the . Studies of

the geomagnetic field have a long history, in particular because of its importance for navigation.

As a result of these studies, it has been established that the geomagnetic field of the earth is

composed of three main parts: the main field, a small external field; and spatial variations for the

main field.
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials

The Total Field map of OSI (Sheet 224) was acquired. The geomagnetic gradient was then

removed from the map using the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) of 32000nT.

This research work, made use of OASIS MONTAJ 6.4 software in the production of the total

magnetic field intensity (TMI) map which was further subjected to different methods of

filtrations to enhance the map and define the features that were difficult to detect before the

filtering process. The filtering steps used are

i. The Total Magnetic Field map was reduced to equator in other to remove the

dependency of the magnetic field on the angle of inclination.

ii. Performing vertical derivative of the resulting map to enhance shallow geological

features and horizontal derivative e in both x and y directions to identify geological

boundaries in the profile map.

Two methods of depth analysis were employed in this research work which also involves the use

of OASIS MONTAJ software and visual interpretations. They are

i. Analytical signal method which measures the amplitude response using the results from

the horizontal derivatives in x, y and z directions.

ii. Source Parameter Imaging method which uses the first and second order derivatives of

the Analytical signal to compute depth response of an anomaly.

The detailed procedures and theories used for this research work are as follows

3.1 Acquisition of Data

As part of a nationwide high resolution airborne geophysical survey aimed at assisting and

promoting mineral exploration in Nigeria, aeromagnetic data were acquired between 2004 and

2008 by Fugro Airborne Survey Limited for the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA).

The survey was carried out by fixed wing Cessna Caravan aircraft with a flight spacing of 500

meters and a terrain clearance of 80 meters. The flight direction was NW-SE with tie-line

spacing of 5000 meters and tie-line direction of NE-SW. In the survey program, the high

resolution aeromagnetic survey over Kwara State was conducted in 2007 and published by the

Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA). The study area is covered by the aeromagnetic

map sheet 224 (Osi). The data, in grid format were given in the Universal Transverse Mercator

(UTM) projection of coordinate system WGS84/UTM Zone 32N and were extracted using

GEOSOFT Oasis Montaj software as the data were in GEOSOFT grid file format. The

coordinates of the total magnetic intensity data were re-projected from the UTM zone 32N to

UTM zone 31N of the Greenwich Mercator since Kwara State is located within UTM zone 31N

for the coordinates of the data to correspond to their actual locations. The aeromagnetic data had

the regional geomagnetic field and the effects of diurnal magnetic variations removed during the

on-board processing.

3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

3.2.1 Production of TMI map

TMI map was produced using computer software package called Oasis Montaj with assistance

from the project supervisor. The software is an interactive computer program which places
magnetic data according to their longitude and latitude bearing and gives a magnetic intensity

map which is in colour aggregate

3.2.2 Fourier Filtering of the magnetic data

Magnetic data filtration is an important process that must be carried out for analysis and

interpretation. The objective of the filter is to condition the data set and to render the resulting

presentation in such a way as to make it is easier to interpret the significance of anomalies in

terms of their geological sources (Dale Bird, 1997). Therefore, the most effective way to filter

the data is with an understanding of the geologic control and the desired filtered results. Several

filtering techniques can be performed in the frequency domain. However, in this study, Fourier

filtering method is used.

Generally, Fourier filters fall within one of the following groups:

1. Sharpening filter that enhances the shorter wavelength features in the data. These include

high-pass filters, downward continuations and vertical and horizontal derivatives. Such

filters are normally used to enhance information from shallow geologic features.

2. Smoothing filters that enhance longer wavelength features in the data, normally by

removing or attenuating the shorter wavelengths features. These include low-pas filters,

upward continuation and integrations. Smoothing filters are normally used to remove

short-wavelength noise in data or to remove the effects of shallow geologic features.

3. Geophysical transformation that convert data from one physical form to another. These

include reduction to the pole for magnetic data and the calculation of apparent magnetic

susceptibility apparent density.

Smoothing and sharpening filters are often combined to meet the needs of a specific problem.

For example, a vertical derivative (sharpening filter that enhances near-surface geology) might

be combined with an upward continuation (smoothing filter that reduces the effect of noise in the

data). Filter can further be described as geophysical filters – those whose outcome has a

geophysical basis or mathematical – those that have a mathematical definition only. Since

geophysical filters are based on the physics of potential filed, they are ideally suited to gravity

and magnetic data whereas mathematical filters can be applied to any kind of data.

Examples of geophysical filters are vertical continuations, vertical derivative or integration,

reduction to the pole and apparent magnetic susceptibility or density. Mathematical filters

include horizontal derivative and the high and low pass filters – Butterworth, Gaussian, cosine

and simple high and low pass cutoff filters.

In addition to filter, power spectra are often required. The montaj geophysics system enable us to

create a power spectrum of the data and to place the real and imaginary components of the

Fourier transform into channels of the database.

Below are brief description of the theory, algorithm and analytical processes that facilitate the

basic interpretation help us achieve the objectives itemized above.

3.2.3 Reduction to Pole

The vector nature of magnetic field, the superposition of multiple magnetic sources and presence

of geological and cultural noises (such as noises due to pipe lines, power lines, railroads and etc)

increases the complexity of anomalies from magnetic rocks, as a result, the interpretation of

magnetic field data at low magnetic latitude is difficult. Furthermore an observed anomaly has

asymmetric shape whenever magnetization occurs in anywhere rather than magnetic poles. To

harness this problem, the best approach is to reduce the data to the magnetic pole where the
presumably vertical magnetization vector will simplify observed anomalies. The aim of

Reduction to the Pole is to take an observed total magnetic field map and reproduce a magnetic

map that would have been observed if the survey had been conducted in the magnetic pole and

changes the asymmetric form of observed anomalies to the symmetric form. This reduces the

complexity of the observed anomalies. Data observed in low latitudes require some special

treatment of North-South features due to high amplitude corrections needed for these features.

Assuming induced magnetization of all magnetic sources, pole reduction can be calculated in the

frequency domain using the following operator (Grant and Dodds, 1972):

1
L(θ) = 2 (3.1)
[ sin ( I ) +icos ( I ) cos ( D−θ ) ]

Where:

θ is the wave number direction

I is the magnetic inclination

D is the magnetic declination.

The amplitude component is represented by the sin (I) term while the phase component is given

by the icos (I) cos (D – 0 ) term.

However, implementation of this method in the frequency domain causes some problems; It is

unstable in low latitude, for body with unknown remanent magnetization it gives incorrect

results, induces synthetic noise to the data and lastly, frequency domain implementation of this

technique, demands that the inclination and declination values should be fixed entire the survey

area. From (1), it can be seen that as I approaches 0 (the magnetic equator) and (D-θ) approaches

π /2 (a North – South feature), the operator approaches infinity (Mendonca and Silver,
1993).This effect as illustrated by figure 3.1, compares the magnetic anomalies over an East-

West and North-South vertically dipping dyke-like body.

 South-to-North profile West-to-East profile
Over an East-West dyke Over an North-South dyke

Figure 3.1: the shape of total magnetic field profiles over a vertically dipping dyke-like

body
For the East-West striking dyke, the amplitude remains constant while the phase changes(shape).

For the North-South striking dyke, the anomaly shape remains the same at all latitudes but the

amplitude varies for different latitude. Reduction to pole involves correcting the shape of East-

west features and correcting the amplitude of North-South features to produce the same profile as

would be observed at an inclination of 90° .

At low attitude, the amplitude disappears, thus amplitude must be corrected. In the process of

correcting the amplitude of this North-South feature, noise component and magnetic effects from

bodies magnetized in the directions different from the induced field will be amplified. Many

author have addressed the noise problem of which the simplest and most effective technique is

that developed by Fraser Grant and Jack Dodds.

Grant and Dodds (1972) addressed this problem by introducing a second inclination (I’) that is

used to control the amplitude of the filter near the equator:

1
L(θ) = 2 (3.2)
[ sin ( I ’ )+icos ( I ) cos ( D−θ ) ]

Where I ’ is inclination for amplitude correction

In practice, (I’) is set to an inclination greater than the true inclination of the magnetic field.

Anomaly shapes will be properly reduced to the pole by using the true inclination (I) in the

complex term of equation (3.2). But by setting I’ ¿ I, unreasonably large amplitude corrections

are avoided. Controlling the operator now becomes a matter of choosing the smallest I’ that will

give the acceptable results.

Although the amplitude correction of the reduction to pole can be easily corrected using equation

(3.2), it is only valid for induced magnetized bodies and remains invalid for remanently
magnetized bodies. It would be preferable to produce a result that simply provides a measure of

the amount of magnetization regardless of direction.

3.2.4 Reduction to Magnetic Equator

Reduction to the equator is used in low magnetic latitudes to centre the peaks of magnetic

anomalies over their sources. This can make the data easier to interpret while not losing any

geophysical meaning. Reducing the data to the equator (RTE) does much the same thing, but at

low latitudes, a separate amplitude correction is usually required to prevent North-South signal in

the data from dominating the results. To reduce magnetic data to equator we apply the equation,

[ sin( I )−i .cos ( I ) .cos( D−θ)]2 X (−cos2 ( D−θ ) )

L(θ )= , if (|I a|)<(|I|), I a =I
[ sin ( I ) +cos ( I ) . cos ( D−θ ) ] X [ sin ( I ) +cos ( I ) . cos ( D−θ ) ]
2
a
2
a
2 2 2 2

(3.3)

Where

I = geomagnetic inclination

Ia = inclination for amplitude correction

D = geomagnetic declination

Sin (I) is the amplitude component while icos(I)cos(D-θ) is the phase component

This is a method of removing the dependence of magnetic data on the angle of magnetic

inclination. This filter converts data which have been recorded in the inclined earth’s magnetic

field at the equator to what the data would look like if magnetic field had been vertical.

3.2.5 Upward Continuation

Upward continuation is considered a clean filter because it produces almost no side effects that

may require the application of other filters or processes to correct. It removes noise without
changing data physical significance unlike Low-pass filter6. Because of this, it is often used to

remove or minimize the effects of shallow sources and noise in grids. In addition, you can

interpret upward continued data numerically and with modelling programs. This is not the case

for many other filter processes. L(r)=e-hr…………………………………………………………………(*)

The expression for r is given as r= √ u 2+ v 2−2 πk ………………………………(**)

[*,**] where h is the new height, u and v are the wave numbers in the fourier domain and k is

cycles/unit. Upward continuation is considered a clean filter due to the fact that it produces 3.2

almost no side effect that may require application of other correctional filters. It is devoid of

ringing artifact or Gibbs phenomena, which occurs on the anomaly map where the amplitude of

the data is rapidly changing. Because of this, it is often used to minimize the effects of shallow

sources which may constitute noise in grid

3.2.6 First Vertical Derivative (1VD)

Spatial resolution can also be achieved using the vertical derivative filter. The first vertical

derivative filter computes the vertical rate change in the magnetic field. A first derivative tends

to sharpen the edges of anomalies and enhance shallow features. The vertical derivative map is

much more responsive to local influence than to broad or regional effect and therefore tends to

give sharper picture than the map of the total field.

Vertical derivative

L ( r )=r n (3.4)

Where n is the order of differentiation. And r is the wave number (radians/ground unit) Note: r =

2 π k where k is cycles/ground unit. Ground unit is the survey ground units used in the grid (e.g
meter, feet etc.).The vertical derivative is commonly applied to total magnetic field data to

enhance the shallowest geologic sources in the data. As with other filters that enhance the high-

wave number components of the spectrum, low-pass filters is apply to remove high-wave

number noise.

3.2.7 Horizontal Derivatives

The vertical derivative tends to sharpen the edge of anomalies and enhance shallow features. The

resultant map is much more responsive to local influence than to bread or regional deep seated

anomalies.

Derivative in the X direction is given by the algorithm,

L ( μ)=( μii ) n (3.5)

n is the order of differentiation, and µ represents the X component of the wavenumber and ii =

While the horizontal derivative in the Y direction is given by

L ( V )= ( Vi ) n (3.6i)

Where n is the order of differentiation V represents the Y component of the wavenumber and

∂f
i= (3.6ii)
∂x

Total horizontal derivative is a good edge detector because it computes the maxima over the

edges of the structures.

Total Horizontal derivative is given as;

 √
2 2
THDR = [ ∂T ] +[ ∂T ] (3.7)
∂x ∂y

The horizontal gradient method measures the rate of change in magnetic susceptibility in the x

and y directions and produces a resultant grid. The gradients are all positive making this

derivative easy to map.

3.3 Depth analysis

Two methods have been employed for the analysis of depth to basement rocks within the study

area, these are analytical method and Source Parameter Imaging (SPI), and these two are briefly

discussed.

3.3.1 Analytical signal

The analytical method gives the amplitude response of an anomaly. This filter applied to

magnetic data is aimed at simplifying the fact that magnetic bodies usually have positive and

negative peak associated with it, which may make it difficult to determine the exact location of

causative body. For two dimensional bodies a bell shaped symmetrical function is derived and

for a three dimensional bodies the function is amplified of analytical signal. This function and it

derivatives are independent of strike, dip, magnetic declination, inclination and remanent

magnetization (Debeglia and Corpel 1997).

The analytic signal or total gradient is formed through the combination of the horizontal and

vertical gradients of the magnetic anomaly. The analytic signal has a form over causative body

that depends on the locations of the body (horizontal coordinate and depth) but not on its

magnetization direction. This quantity is defined as a complex function that its real component is

horizontal gradient and its imaginary component is vertical gradient. Nabighian, (1972,1984)

was able to prove that the imaginary component is Hilbert transform of real component.
Consider M(x, z) be 2-D Magnetic field that measured along x-axis, then the analytical signal,

a(x,z) can be expressed in terms of vertical and horizontal gradient of M(x, z) with respect to x

and z direction in Cartesian coordinate as followed (Blakely, 1995)

∂M ∂M
a(x,z)= +i (3.8)
∂x ∂z

∂M ∂M
where and are Hilbert transform pair. The amplitude for the 2D signal is giving by
∂x ∂z

|A(x,z)| = (√ ∂∂Mx ) ²+( ∂∂Mz ) ² (3.9)

For the 3-D case, the analytic signal is given by

∂ M ∂M ∂ M
a(x,z)= + +i (3.10)
∂x ∂ y ∂z

The amplitude of the analytic signal in the 3-D case given by:

|A(x,z)| = (√ ∂∂Mx ) ²+( ∂∂My ) ²+( ∂∂Mz )² (3.11)

Where M = magnetic field

The analytical signal can be calculated with commonly available computer software. The x and y

derivatives can be calculated directly from total magnetic field grid using a simple 3×3 filter, and

the vertical gradient is routinely calculated using FFT techniques.

Some of the properties of the analytic signal are

i. Its absolute value is symmetric it is independent to body magnetization direction and

ambient geomagnetic field and only is relevant to body location.

ii. This quantity can be employed to causative body depth estimation.

iii. Its maximum value lies over body directly

3.3.2 Source Parameter Imaging

The source parameter imaging method uses the local wave number from an analytical signal to

calculate depth to magnetic rocks. The SPI function is a quick, easy, and powerful method for

calculating the depth of magnetic sources. SPI has the advantage of producing a more complete

set of coherent solution points and it is easier to use. The resulting images of SPI method can be

easily interpreted by someone who is an expert in the local geology (Thurston and Smith, 1997).

(Thurston and Smith, 1997) estimates the depth from the local wave number of the analytical

signal.

The analytical signal A(x, z) is defined by Nabighian (1972) as:

∂ M ( x , z) ∂ M (x , z)
A(x,z) = −j (3.12)
∂x ∂z

where M(x, z) is the magnitude of the anomalous total magnetic field, j is the imaginary number,

z and x are Cartesian coordinates for the vertical direction and the horizontal direction

respectively. Nabighian (1972) showed that the horizontal and vertical derivatives comprising

the real and imaginary parts of the 2D analytical signal are Hilbert transformation pair

∂ M ( x , z) ∂ M (x , z)
⇔ (3.13)
∂x ∂z
Where ⇔ denotes a Hilbert transformation pair.

Thurston and Smith (1997) define the local wave number k (in radian per ground unit) for this

analytical signal to be

K= 2 π f0 (3.14)

and

[ ]
∂ M (x , Z )
1 ∂ ∂z
f0 = tan¯ ¹ (3.15)
2π ∂ x ∂ M (x , z)
∂x

where f0 is cycles/ground unit and K is the wave number in radian per ground unit.

[ ]
∂ M (x , Z)
∂ ∂z
K= tan ¯ ¹ (3.16)
∂x ∂ M ( x , z)
∂x

Nabighian (1972) gives the expression for the vertical and horizontal gradient of a sloping

contact model as

∂ M ( x , z) 2 χ M csinβ·xcos (2 I −β−90 °) － hsin(2 I － β － 90 ° )

=
∂z h ²+ x ²

(3.17)

∂ M ( x , z) 2 χ M csinβ·hcos(2 I −β−90° ) － xsin(2 I － β － 90 °)

=
∂x h ²+ x ²

(3.18)
Where χ is the susceptibility contrast at the contact, M is the magnitude of the earth’s magnetic

field (the inducing field), c = 1-cos²isin²α, α is the angle between the positive x-axis and

magnetic north, i is the ambient-field inclination, tan I = sini/cos8, β is the dip (measured from

the positive x-axis), h is the depth to the top of the contact and all trigonometric arguments are in

degrees. The coordinate system has been defined such that the origin of the profile line (x = 0) is

directly over the edge.

Substituting equations 3.17 and 3.18 into 3.16 gives the wave number for a contact profile as

1
Kmax = (3.19)
h

Depth( h )= K 1
max (3.20)

K is wave number of the analytical signal

h is depth to the point of contact

using the concept of Hsu et al. (1996) for an analytic signal comprising second-order derivatives

of the total field, a second wave number can also be generated.

From equation (3.19), it is evidently that wave number is independent of susceptibility contrast,

the dip of the source and the inclination, declination, and the strength of the earth’s magnetic

field.

Equation 3.20 is the basics for SPI method (Adetona and Abu, 2013), it utilizes the relationship

between source depth and the local wavenumber of the observed field, which can be calculated
for any point within a grid of data through horizontal and vertical gradients (Thurston and Smith,

1997). For vertical contacts, the peaks of the local wave number define the inverse of depth. The

depth is displayed as an image (in colour aggregate). Image processing of the source-parameter

grids enhances detail and provides maps that facilitate interpretation by non specialists (Ojoh,

1992).

3.4 Euler deconvolution

The technique automatically provides estimates of source location and depth for various targets

with homogenous sources (such as contacts, dyke, and sphere cylinder), each with a specific

structural index. It is both a boundary detector and a depth estimation method. Euler

deconvolution is commonly employed in magnetic interpretation because it requires only little

prior knowledge about the magnetic source geometry and, more importantly, it requires no

information about the magnetization vector (Thompson 1982; Reid et al. 1990). Euler

deconvolution is based on solving Euler’s homogeneity equation, as follows: [3.13] where B is

the regional value of the total magnetic field; xo, yo, and zo are the positions of the magnetic

source, which produces the total magnetic field M measured at (x, y, z); and N is the structural

index (SI). The most critical parameter in the Euler deconvolution is the structural index, N

(Thompson 1982). It is a homogeneity factor that relates the magnetic field to its decay rate.

Principally, N measures the rate of change of the fields with distance from the source (fall-35 off

rate) and is directly related to the type of magnetic source. Therefore, by changing N, we can

estimate the geometry and depth of the magnetic sources.

3.5 Tilt Derivative

Tilt Derivative is used for mapping shallow basement and mineral exploration targets, Where:
TDR Tilt Derivative amplitude of magnetic signature depends on magnetic field strength and to

some extent the depth of magnetic sources, lower amplitude signature may be suppressed at the

expense of higher amplitudes. For this reason, the edge-detection filters area normally applied

for delineating linear features without necessarily diminishing the long-wavelength anomalies

(Oruc & Selim, 2011; Miller and Singh, 1994). The Tilt derivative filter, TDR (a very good

edge-detection filter) brings out short wavelength and reveals the presence of magnetic

lineaments. Verduzco et al (2004) showed in his work that tilt derivative filter also performs an

automatic-gain-control (AGC) filter which tends to equalize the response from both weak and

strong anomalies. Hence, the filter provides an effective way to trace out along striking

anomalies (Cooper and Cowan, 2006).

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