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WAPITI.
NATURAL HISTORY

BY THE

Rev. J. G. WOOD, M.A. F.L.S.

AUTHOR OF “THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY,”

“ANECDOTES OF ANIMALS,” ETC.

WITH FOUR HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ORIGINAL

DESIGNS BY WILLIAM HARVEY

EIGHTEENTH EDITION.

LONDON
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, Limited
BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL

GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK

1891
Richard Clay and Son.*, L I.UITKD,

LONDON AND BUNGAY

I
 P H EFAO E.

Although the number of works on Natural History might

deter any new writer from venturing on so extensively handled a
subject, there is at present no work of a really popular character
in which accuracy of information and systematic arrangement
are united with brevity and simplicity of treatment.
All the best-known popular works on Natural History are
liable to many objections, among which may be named a want of
correct classification, the absence of explanations of the meanings
and derivations of scientific words, the strange inaccuracy of
many of the accompanying illustrations^ and of the accounts of
many animals. Nor do the conventional anecdotes chronicled
in their pages evince that personal experience of the animal race
which alone can repress romance and prevent inaccuracy. These
deficiencies, it is hoped, are at all events partly supplied in the
present work.
The present volume, although exceeding the limits originally
contemplated, is but a brief digest of a large mass of materials,
derived either from personal experience, from the most recent
zoological writers, or from the kindness of many friends, who are
familiar with almost every portion of the world, and to whom
my best thanks are due. My original intention was to carry the
IV PREFACE.

work as far as the Zoophytes, but it grew so rapidly, especially in

the first two classes, the Mammals and Birds, that it was found
necessary to conclude at the Insects, and even then to give but
an exceedingly short and meagre account of them. This was
much regretted by me, as my experience had lain so much in the
practical entomological part of Natural History, that during the
earlier stages of the work I looked forward with some pleasure
to giving a very much fuller account of the British Insects than
will be found in the last few pages of this volume.
In arrangement, the order of the Catalogue of the British
Museum has been followed, with the view of rendering it a
useful companion to that most valuable collection, especially for
young visitors. In accordance with that catalogue, the volume
commences with a short sketch of mankind and of the theories
respecting the different races of humanity; and at the same time
i few of the distinctions are mentioned which so widely separate
man from any other inhabitant of the earth.
As for the Illustrations, they will best speak for themselves.
It will, however, be well to observe that they have all been de¬
signed expressly for the present work, and that the combined
abilities of Messrs. Harvey and Dalziel, as artist and engravers,
are a guarantee for their accuracy and perfect execution. For the
anatomical and microscopical vignettes, I am myseff answerable,
as well as for several of the later drawings, such as the Thorny
Woodcock-shell, the Leaf Insect, the Rove Beetle, together with
parts of a few others, all of which were drawn from actual
specimens.
It has been an object with me in the accounts of each animal,
to give as far as possible anecdotes. In many cases, the
anecdotes related have never been published before, and in many
 PREFACE. v

more, they have been extracted from works which, either from
their scarcity, their cost, or their nature, would be very unlikely
to be placed in the hands of general readers.
I dismiss these pages with almost a feeling of regret, that a task
which has to me been a labour of love, has come to an end. Indeed,
the only drawback experienced during its progress was its neces¬
sary brevity, which constrained me to omit many creatures, not
only beautiful and wonderful in form, but interesting in habits.
I was also compelled to describe many others so briefly, as to
render the account little more than a formal announcement of
their name, country, and food.
If, however, the perusal of the following pages should induce
any one to look upon the great plan of Creation more as a whole
than merely as an aggregation of separate parts, or to notice how
wonderfully each creature is adapted for its peculiar station, by
ilim who has appointed to each its proper position, and assigned
to each its own duties, which could not be performed so well by
any other creature, or even by the same animal in another place,
my end will be attained.
Perhaps, also, this volume may cause some who have hitherto
been troubled with a causeless abhorrence of certain creatures
against which they have nourished early prejudices, to examine
them with a more indulgent—I should perhaps say, a more
reverent eye. I say reverent, because it has long given me deep
pain when I have heard others stigmatizing as ugly, horrid, or
frightful, those beings whom their Maker saw at the I eginning
of the world, and declared very good. A naturalist will see
as much beauty in a snake, spider, or toad, as in any of those
animals which we are accustomed to consider models of beauty;
and so will those who have before feared or despised them, if

b
VI PREFACE.

they can only persuade themselves to examine them with an

unprejudiced eye.
In those three creatures mentioned a few lines above, there is
great beauty even on a superficial examination. The movements
of the snake are most graceful, and the changing colours of its
varied scales leave the imitations of art far behind. The spiders
too are beautiful, even in colour ; some are bright crimson, some
pale pink, some entirely yellow, some banded with broad streaks
of alternately velvety black and silvery white ; while the eye of
the toad is a living gem of beauty. But when we come to look
closer,—to watch their habits—to note their instincts—or, by
the use of the microscope, to lay open to our view some of the
details of their organization,—then indeed are we lost in wonder
and amaze at the vastness of creation, which, even in one little,
apparently insignificant animal, presents to our eyes innumerable
marvels—marvels which increase in number and beauty as our
power for perceiving them increases.

Merton College, Oxford,

December 16, 1852.

 PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The unexpectedly rapid sale of this work, five thousand

copies having been sold in little more than eighteen months,
has induced Messrs. Routledge to publish a second edition. In
the present edition very great pains have been taken to render
the book more worthy of the public notice. At least one-
third more matter has been introduced, and between thirty and
forty new illustrations will be found in its pages. The entire
work has been carefully revised, and the trifling errors which
existed in the first edition have been corrected. The price has
also been considerably lowered from the sum at which the
volume was originally published.

I may be excused for giving a short account of the reasons

that led to the production of this book.

It was with considerable reluctance that I first undertook

a work that necessarily involved so much labour, and it was not
without much misgiving on my part, that it first made its
public appearance. No one could be more sensible of its
deficiencies than myself; added to which, 1 was fully aware of
the impossibility of condensing the requisite amount of infor-
Vlll PREFACE.

mation into so small a compass. It was therefore no lesc

gratifying than unexpected, to find that my fears were ground -
less, and that my labours were not in vain.

From my earliest childhood, the study of Natural History

was my favourite pursuit, and in the prosecution of this study,
I was invariably disappointed by the character of the books
that are generally considered as standard works on the subject.
In none of them is there any systematic order, and much less
is there any attempt to explain the arrangement of the various
links in the chain of animated nature. For this reason the
scientific names always appeared to be little but a collection
j>f cacophonous and unmeaning syllables, hardly more intel¬
ligible to the unclassical reader than Abracadabra or Aldibo-
rontiphoskiphorniosticos.

Moreover, very little practical acquaintance with the subject

was required, to perceive that, in almost every case, the work
was nothing but a compilation from various authors, the compiler
having thrown together truth and error with perfect impartiality.
For example, in one of the best of these works, the panther,
the ocelot, and the ounce, are asserted to be varieties of the
leopard; while the chimpansee and the orang-outan are considered
as the same animal, although their formation, their colour, their
habits and their country are all different.
%/
The one has a
small, rather smooth skull, while the skull of the other is large,
and heavily ridged; the fur of one is black, that of the othei
reddish brown ; the one lives at the foot of trees, the other in
their branches ; the one inhabits Western Africa, while the
other is confined to Borneo and Sumatra.
 PREFACE. IX

My object, therefore, in undertaking this work, was to produce

a book which would be comparatively free from these defects,
and to afford to the young inquirer that assistance which I myself
had so often sought in vain. That I should perfectly succeed
in so arduous a task could not possibly be expected; but that I
have at all events partially succeeded, is evident from the large
sale of the work in so short a time.

There was also another object that I endeavoured to attain.

In the preface to the first edition, I mentioned that the book
was intended as a companion to the British Museum. For that
purpose it has been used, and has been found to answer as well
as so superficial a work could be expected to do.

It is my sincere wish that this new edition may be found to

approach nearer to my original plan, and to carry out my design
better than the first.

Mekton Collegs, GxtfOUD,

 pttmatit §nflt*.

Division I. VERTEBRATA. Felis. Domestica, Cat.

Caracal. Melanotis, Caracal.
Class I. MAMMALIA. Lyncus. Canadensis, Canada
Order I. PRIMATES. Lynx.
Family I. Hominidae. Gueparda. Jubata, Chetah.
Sub-fam. b. Hy cenma.
Genus I. Homo. Sapiens, Man. Hy.kna. Striata,Striped Hycena.
Fam. II. Simiadae. Sub-fam. c. Viverrina.
Tkogiodytes. Niger, Chim- Viverra. Civetta, Civet Cat.
pansee. Ginetta. Vulgaris, Genet.
Sim ia. Satyrus, Orang-Outan. Herpestes. Ichneumon, Egyp¬
Hylobates. Agilis, Agile Gib¬ tian Ichneumon.
bon. Sub-fam. d. Canina.
Presbytes. Larvatus, Kahau. Canis. Familiaris, Dog.
- Entellus,£»/<e//MS. - Lupus, Wolf.
Cynocephalus. Mormon, Man¬ - Aureus, Jackal.
drill. Vulpes. Vulgaris, Fox.
Sub-fam. e. Mustelina.
Fam. III. Cebidae. Martes. Abietum, Pine Mar¬
Atelks. Paniscus, Coaita Spi¬ ten.
der Monkey. - Zibellina, Sable.
Mycetes. Ursinus, Ursine Putorius. Foetidus, Polecat.
Howler. Mustela. Erminea, Stoat.
Callithrix. Torquatus, Col¬ -Vulgaris, Weasel.
lared Tee Tee. Meli.ivora. Rately Honey Via¬
Jacchus. Vulgaris, Marmoset. tel.
Gulo. Luscus, Glutton.
Fam. IV. Lemuridae. Meles. Vulgaris, Badger.
Lemur. Macaco, Ruffled Le¬ Lutra. Vulgaris, Otter.
mur.
Loris. Gracilis, Slender Loris. Fam. II. Ursidae.
Sub-fam. a. Ursina.
Fam. V. Vespertilionidae. Ursus. Arctos, Bear.
Sub-fam. a. Phyllostomina.
- Horribilis, Grizzly
Vampirus. Spectrum, Vampire.
Bear.
Sub-fam. c. Vespertilionina.
Thalarctos. Maritimus, Po¬
Plecotus. Auritus, Long-eared lar Bear.
Bat. Sub-fam. c. Procyonina.
Order II. FERjE. Procyon. Lotor, Racoon.
Sub-tam. d. Cercoleptina.
Fam. I. Felidae. Nasua. Fusca, Coati-mondi.
Sub. fam. a. Felina. Cercoleptes. Caudivolvulu*,
Leo. Barbarus, Lion. Kinkajou.
Tigris. Kegalis, Tiger.
Leopardus. Varius, Leopard. Fam. III. Talpidae.
-Uncia, Ounce. Sub-fam. a. Talpina.
■-Onca, Jaguar. Tai.pa. Europaea, Mole.
-Concolor, Puma. Sub-fam. d. Erinacina.
- Pardalis, Ocelot. Sorex. Araneus, Shrew.
x ii SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Ckossopu8. Fodiens, Water Sub-fam. c. Dipina.

Shrew. Dipus. ASgyptius, Jerboa.
Erinaceus. Europaeus, Hedge¬ Sub-fam. d. Myoxina.
hog. Myoxus. Avellanarius, Dor¬
mouse.
Fam. IV. Macropidae. Sub-fam. e. Sciurina.
Sub-fam. b. Macropina. Sciurus. Europaeus, Squirrel.
Macropus. Major, Kangaroo. Pteromys. Alpinus, Flying
Sub-fam. e. Didelphina. Squirrel.
Didelphys. Virginiana, Opos¬ Arctomys. Marmotta, Mar met
sum.

Fam. V. Phocidae. Order V. UNGULATA.

Sub-fam. b. Phocina. Fam. I Bovid®.
Phoca. Vitulina, Seal. Sub-fam. a. Bovina.
Morunga. Proboscidea, Ele¬ Bos. Taurus, Bull.
phant Seal. -- -Zebu.
Sub-fam. c. Trichecina. Bubalus. Buffelus, Buffalo.
Trichecus. Rosmarus, Walrus.
-Caffer, Cape Buffalo.
Bison. Americanus, Bison.
Order III. CETE. Poephagus. Grunniens, Yak.
Ovibos. Moschatus, Musk Ox.
Fam. I. Balaenidae. Catoblepas. Gnu, Gnoo.
Bal^na. Mysticetus, Whale. Port ax. Picta, Nylghau.
Physeter. Macrocephalus, Strepsiceros. Kudu, Koodoo.
Cachalot. Boselaphus. Oreas, Eland.
Fam. II. Delphinidae. Oryx. Leucoryx, Oryx.
Gazella. Euchore, Springbok.
Delphinus. Delphis, Dolphin.
Phocina. Communis, Por -- Ariel, Gazelle.
Rupicapra. Tragus, Chamois.
poise.
Monodon. Monoceros, Nar¬ Capra. Ibex, Ibex.
whal. - Hircus, Goat.
Ovis. Aries, Ram.
Order IV. GLIRES. Sub-fam. b. Camelopardina.
Camelopardalis. Giraffa, Gi¬
Fam. I. Murid®. raffe.
8ub-fam. a. Murina. Sub-fam. c. Camelina.
Mue. Decumanus, Rat. Camelus. Arabicus, Camel.
- Musculus, Moute. - Bactrianus,#ac<ri«fl
Mzcromys. Minutus, Harvest Camel.
Mouse. Ll ama. Pacos, Llama.
Sub-fam. b. Arvicolina. Sub-fam. d. Moschina.
CaicETUS. Frumentarius, Ham¬ Moschus. Moschiferus, Musk-
ster. deer.
Arvicola. Amphibius, Water Sub-fam. e. Cervina.
Rat. Cervus. Capreolus, Roebuck.
Sub-fam. d. Castorina. - Elaphus, Stag.
Castor. Fiber, Beaver. - Canadensis, Wapiti.
Fam. II. Hystricidae. Axis. Maculata, Axis.
Sub-fam. a. Hystricina. Dama. Vulgaris, Fallow-deer.
Hystrix. Cristata. Porcupine. Rangifer. Tarandus, Rein¬
Sub-fam. c. Dasyproctina. deer.
Dasyprocta. Aguti, Agouti. Alces, Palmatus, Elk.
Sub-fam. d. Hydrochcerina.
Fam. II. Equidae.
Hydrocharus. Capybara, Ca-
Eauus. Caballus, Horse.
pybara.
Asinus. Vulgaris, Ass.
Fam. III. Leporidae. -- Dzigguetai, Dzijgue-
Lepus. Timidus, Hare. tai.
- Variabilis .AlpineHare. - Zebra, Zebra.
■-- Cuniculus, Rabbit. -- Quagga Quagga.

Fam. IV. Jerboidae. Fam III. Elephantid®.

Sub-fam. a. Chinchillina. Sub-fam. a. Elepliantina
Chinchilla. Laniger, Chin¬ Elefhar. Indicus, Indian
chilla Elephant.
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XU1

Ri.c phis. Africanus, African Sub-fam. d. Milrinw.

Elephant. Pern is. Apivorus, Honey
Sub-Cam b. Tapirina. Buzzard.
Tapirus. Terrestris, Tapir. Milvus. Regalis, Kite.
Sub-fam. c. Suina. Elanoides. Furcatus, Sw*l
Sus. Scrofa, Boar. low-tailed Falcon.
- Babyroussa, Babyronssa. Sub-fam e. Falconince.
Dicotyles. Tajagu, Peccary. Falco. Gyrfalco, Gyrfalcon.
Sub-fam. d. Rhinoeeriva. - Peregrinus, Peregrine
Rhinoceros. Unicornis, Rhi¬ Falcon.
noceros. Hypotriorchis. Subbuteo,
-- Bicornis, Rhi- Hobby.
naster. -A5 salon, Mer¬
Sub-fam. e. Hippopotamina. lin.
Hi ppopotamus. Amphibius, Tinnunculus. Alaudarius,
Hippopotamus. Kestrel.
Sub-fam./. Accipilrince.
Fam. IV. Bradypidae. Astur. Palumbarius, Goshawk.
Bradypus. Tridactylus, Sloth. Accipiter. Nisus, Sparrow
Hawk.
Fam. V. Dasypidae.
Sub-fam. g. Circince.
Sub-fam. a. Manina.
Serpentaricjs. Reptilivorus,
Manis. Tetradactyla, Phatagin.
Secretary Bird
- Pentadactyla, Short-
Circus. Cyaneus, Hen-Harrier.
tailed Mavis.
Sub-fam. b. Dasypina. Sub-order II. Accipitres-nocturni.
Dasvpus. Sexcinctus, Arma¬ Fam. I. Strigidae.
dillo. Sub-fam. a. Surninas.
Sub-fam. c. Myrmecophagina. Surnia. Ulula, Hawk Owl.
Mvrmecopiiaga. Jubata, Ant- Nyctea. Nivea, Snowy Owl.
eater. Athene. Cunicularia, Burrow¬
Tamandua. Tetradactyla, Mid¬ ing Owl.
dle Ant-eater. Sub-fam. b. Bubonince.
Cyclothurus. Didactyla, Ephialtes. Scops, Scops-eared
Little Ant-eater. Owl.
Sub-fam. d. Ornithorhynehina. Bubo. Maximus, Great-eared
Ornithorhynchus. Paradox¬ Owl.
us, Ornithorhynchus. Sub-fam. d. Strigince.
Strix. Flammea, Barn Owl.
ass II. AVES.
Order II. PASSERES.
Order I. ACCIPITRES.
Tribe I. FISSIROSTP ES.
Sub-order I. Accipitres-diurni.
Sub-tribe I. Fissirostres-noo-
Fam. I. Gypaetidae. TURN®.
Gypaetus. Barbatus, Ldmrner- Fam. I. Caprimulgidae.
geyer. Sub-fam. a. Caprimulgince.
Caprimulgus. Europaeua,
Fam. II. Sarcorhamphidas.
Goatsuch er.
Sarcorhamphos. Gryphon,
Condor. Sub-tribe II. Fissirostres-ds-

-Papa, King DKN®.

Vulture. Fam. II. Hirundinidae.
Sub-fam a. Cypselince.
Fam. III. Vulturidae. Cypselus. Melba, Alpine-
Sub-fam. a. Vullurina.
Swift.
Gyps. Fulvus, Griffin Vulture. -Apus, Swift.
Fam. IV. Falconidie. Sub-fam. b. Hirundinince.
Sub-fam. a. Aquilince. Hjrundo. Rustica, Chimney)
Aquila. Chrysaetos, Golden Martin.
Eagle. Cotile. Riparia, Sand Mar¬
Pandion. Haliaetus, Osprey. tin.
Chelidon. Urbica, Martin
Haliastus. Leucocephalus,
White-headed Eagle. Fam. III. Coraciidae.
Sub-fam. c. Buteonince. Sub-fam. a. Coraciivm.
Buteo. Vulgaris, Buzzard. Coracias. Garrula, Roller
'/ SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

?am. IV. Trogonid®. Sub-fam. d. Parince.

Trogon. Resplendens, Re¬ Parus. Major, Great Tit¬
splendent Trogon. mouse.
- Coeruleus, Blue Tit¬
Fam V. Alccdinid®.
mouse.
Sub-fam. a. Alcedinince.
- Caudatus, Long-tailed
Alcedo. Ilispida,King-fisher.
Titmouse.
Fam. VI. Meropid®. Sub-fam. e. Motacillince.
Sub-fam. a. Meropinae. Motacilla. Yarrellii, Pied
Merops. Apiaster, Bee-eater. Wagtail.
-- Flava, Yellow
Trfbell. TENUIROSTRES.
Wagtail.
Fam. I. Upupid®. Anthus. Pratensis, Meadow
Sub-fam. a. Upupince. Pipit.
UruPA. Epops, Hoopoe.
Fam. II. Turdid®.
Fam. II. Trochilid®. Sub fam. a. Formicarince.
Trochilus. Colubris, Ruby- Hydrobata. Cinclus, Dippe*
throated Humming-bird. Sub-fam. b. Turdince.
Ornismya. Gouldii, Gould's Turdus. Viscivorus, Missel-
Humming-b ird. toe Thrush.
-Sappho, Bar-tailed - Pilaris, Fieldfare.
Humming-bird. - Musicus. Song-
---- Cora, Cora Hum¬ Thrush.
ming-bird. - iliacus, Redwing.
- Chrysolopha, Dou¬ -- Torquatus, Ring-
ble-crested Humming-bird. Ouzel.
- Merula, Blackbird.
Fam. III. Certhid®.
Orpheus. Polyglottus,Mock¬
Sub-fam. a. Certhince.
ing Bird.
Certhia. Fainiliaris,Creeper.
Sub-fam. c. Oriolince.
Sub-fam. b. Sittince.
Orioles. Galbula.
Sitta. Europ®a, Nuthatch.
Sub-fam. c. Menurince. Fam. III. Muscicapid®.
Troglodytes. Parvulus, Sub-fam. a. Muscicapince.
Wren. Muscicapa. Grisola, Spotted
Fly-catcher.
Tribe III. DENTIROSTRES.
fam. I. Luscinid®. Fam. IV. Ampelid®.
Sub-fam. a. Luscinince. Sub-fam. a. Ampelince.
Calamodyta. Locustella, Ampelis. Garrulus, Bohe¬
Grasshopper Warbler. mian Wax-wing.
Luscinia. Philomela, Night¬ Fam. V. Lanid®.
ingale. Sub-fam. a. Laninae.
Sylvia. Undata, Dartford Lanius. Excubitor, Great
Warbler. Grey Shrike.
--- CAneTea,Whitelhrnat. - Coliurio, Red-backsd
-— Atricapilla, Black¬ Shrike.
cap Warbler.
- Ilortensis, Petti- Tribe IV. CONIROSTRES.
chaps. Fam. I. Corvid®.
-- Rufa, Clnff-chaff. Sub-fam. a. Garrulinrp.
- Trochilus, Willow Garrulus. Glandarius, Jay.
W ren. Sub-fam. b. Corvince.
Regulus. Cristatus, Golden- Nucifraga. Caryocatactes,
crested Wren. Nutcracker.
Sub-fam. b. Erythacinee. Pica. Caudata, Magpie.
Saxicola. (Enanthe, Wheat- Corvus. Corax, Raven.
ear. -- Frugilegus, Rook.
Ruticilla. Phaenicura, Red¬ - Monedula, J sck-
start. daw.
Erythacus. Rubecula, Red¬ - Corone, Crow.
breast. - Cornix, Hooded
Sub-fam. c. Acccntorincp Crow.
Accentor. Modiuarius, Sub-tam- c. Pyrrhocoracince.
Hedge Accentor. Coraoia. Garacula, Chough
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XV

Earn. II. Paradiseidae. Picus. Viridis, Green Wood

Paradxsea. Apoda, Emerald pecker.
Bird of Paradise Sub-fam. g. Yuncince.
Fain. III. Sturnidae. Yunx. Torquilla, Wryneck.
Sub-fam. a. Ptilonorhynchince. Fam. IV. Cuculidae.
Ptilonorhynchus. Sericeus, Sub-fam. e. Cuculinw.
Satin Bower-Bird. Cuculus. Cauorus, Cuckoo
Sub-fam. d. Icterince.
Icterus. Baltimorus, Balti¬ Order IV. COLUMBjE.
more Oriole. Fam. I. Columbidas.
Sub-fam. g. Sturnince. Sub-fam. b. Columbines.
Sturnus. Vulgaris, Starling. Columba. Palumbus, Ring
dove.
Fam. IV. Fringillidae.
-GKnas, Stockdove.
Sub-fam. a. Coccothraustinw.
Turtux. Auritus, Turtle¬
Coccothraustes. Vulgaris
dove.
Grosbeak.
Ectopistes. Migratoria, Pas¬
Sub-fam. b. Fringillince.
senger Pigeon.
Fringilla. Ccelebs, Chaf¬
finch. Order V. GALLINJE.
- Carduelis, Gold¬ Fam. III. Phasianidse.
finch. Sub-fam. a. Pavonince.
-Cannabina, Lin¬ Pavo. Cristatus, Peacock.
net. Sub-fam. b. Phasianinae.
•- Spinus, Siskin. Argus. Giganteus, Argus
--- Cbloris, Green¬ Pheasant.
finch. Phasianus. Colcliicus, Phea¬
Carduelis. Canaria, Canary. sant.
Passer. Domesticus, House Sub-fam. c. Gallince.
Sparrow. Gallus. Domesticus, Domes¬
Sub-fam. c. Emberizinw. tic Fowl.
Emberiza. Miliaria, Bunting. Sub-fam. d. Meleagrince.
--- Citrinella, Yellow Meleagris. Gallapavo, Tvr
Bunting. key.
- Hortulana, Ortolan Numida. Meleagris, Guinea
Sub-fam. d. Alaudince. Fowl.
Aiauda. Arvensis, Skylark.
- Arborea, Woodlark. Fam. IV. Tetraonidae.
Sub-fam. e. Pyrrhulince. Sub-fam. a. Perdicince.
Pyrrhula. Rubicilla, Bull¬ Perdix. Cinerea, Partridge.
finch. Coturnix. Communis, Quail.
Sub-fam. /. Loxinae. Sub-fam b. Tetraonince.
Loxia. Curvirostra, Cross¬ Tetrao. Urogallus, Caper
bill. caillie.
-- Tetrix, Black
Fam. VII. Bucerotid®.
Grouse.
Buceros. Rhinoceros, Rhi¬
Lagopus. Scoticus, Red
noceros Hornbill.
Grouse.
Order III. SCANSORES. - Albus, Ptarmigan
Fam. I. Rhamphastidae. Fam. V. Megapodidae.
Sub-fam. a. Rhamphastince. Talegallus. Latham)
Rhamphastos. Toco, Toco Brush Turkey.
Toucan. Megapodius. Tumulus,
Mound-making Megupude.
Fam. II. Psittacida?.
Macrocercus. Ararauna, Order VI. STRV THIONES.
Blue and Yellow Macaw. Fam. I. Struthionidae.
Paljeornis. Torquatus.TOw?- Sub-fam. a. Struthionince.
ed Parrakeet. Struthio. Camelus, Ostrich
Cacatua. Oulphurea, Great Casuarius. Casoar, Casso
Sulphur Cockatoo. wary.
Fam. Ill, Picidae. Dromaius. Novae-Hollandiai,
Sub-fam. c. Picince. Emu.
Picus. Majoi, Great Spotted Sub-fam. h. Apterygivw.
Woodpecksf. Apteryx. Australis, Apteri, t
XVI SYSTEMATIC INDEX

Sub-fam. c. Didince. Order VIII. ANSERES.

Didus. Ineptus, Dodo. Fam. I. Anatid*.
Sub-fam. d. Otinae. Sub-fam. a. PhoenicopterinT.
Otus. Tarda, Bustard. Pkcenicopteros. Rub-a,
Flamingo.
Sub-fam. c. Anserince.
todei VII GRALLJE.
Bernicla. Leucopsis, Ber
Fam. I. Charadridae. nicle Goose.
Sub-fam. a. CEdicnemince. Sub-fam. d. Cggnince.
CEdicnemus. Crepitans Cygnus. Olor, Mute Swan.
Stone Curlew. -Ferus, Whistling Swan
Sub-fam. c. Charadrince. Chenopis. Atrata, Bluet*
Vanellus. Cristatus, Lap Swan.
wing. Sub-fam. e. Anatince.
Anas. Boschas, Mallard.
Fam. II. Ardeid®. Marf.ca. Penelope, Widgeon
Sub-fam. b. Gruince. Qui ruuedula. Crecca, Teal
Gaws. Cinerea. Crane. Sub-fam. f. Fuligulinee.
Sub-fam. c. Ardeirue. Somateria. Mollissima,
Ari>ea. Cinerea, Heron. Eider Duck.'
Antheopoides. Virgo, De¬
moiselle Crane. Fam. II. Colymbidae.
Botaurus. Stellaris, Hit tern. Sub-fam. a. Colymbivce.
Platalea. Leucorodia, White Colymbus. Glacialis, Great
Spoonbill. Northern Diver.
Sub-fam. d. Cicortinee. Sub-fam. b. Podicepince.
Ciconi a. Albo, Stork. Podiceps. Cristatus, Crested
Leptoptilos. Argala, Adju Grebe.
tant. - Minor, Dabchick.
Sub-fam./. Tanlalince.
Ibis. Religiosa, Sacred Ibis. Fam. III. Alcidae.
Sub-fam. a. Alcince.
Fam. HI. Scolopacidae. Fratkrcula. Arctica, Puf¬
Sub-fam. o. Limosince. fin.
Craoticornis. Arquatua, Aeca. Impennis, Great
Curlew. Auk.
Sub-fam. b. Tolanince. Sub-fam. c. Spheniscince.
Tringoides. Hypoleuca, Spheniscus. Demersus,
Sandpiper. Cape Penguin.
Himantopus. Candidus, Stilt Sub-fam. d. Urince.
Plover. Uria. Troile, Guillemot.
Sub-fam. c. Recurvirostrince.
Recorvieostra. Avocetta, Fam. IV. Procellarid®.
Avocet. Sub-fam. a. Procellarmee.
Sub-fam. d. Scolopacinee. Procellaria. Glaciaiia,
Scolopax. Rusticola, Wood¬ Fulmar Petrel.
cock. Thalassiurom a. Pelagici,
Numenius. Scolopacinus, Stormy Petrel.
Snipe. Diomedea. Exulans, Alba-
Sub-fam. e. Tringince. tros.
Philomachus. Pugnax.Rttjf.
Fam. V. Laridae.
Fam. IV. Palamedeidae. Sub-fam. b. Lari nee.
Sub-fam. a. Parrince. Larus. Marinus, Black-
Parra. Jacana, Jacana. backed Gull.
Sub-fam. c. Sternince.
Fam. V. Rallidae. Sterna. Hirundo, Tern.
Sub-fam. a. Rallirue.
Ortgometra. Crex, Corn¬ Tam. VI Pelecanidse.
crake. Sub-fam. b. Phaetonince.
Sub-fam. b. Qallinulium. Phaeton. iEthereus, Tropu
GAtLiNniA. Chloropus, Bird
Water Hen. Sub-fam. c. Pelecanince.
Fulica. Atra, Coot Sula. Bassfl-nea, Gannet.
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XVII

Phalajrocorax. Carbo, Fam. V. Cheloniad®.

Cormorant. Chelcnia. Viridis, Turtle.
Pelecanus. Onocrotalus,
Order IV. EMYDOSAURI.
White Pelican.
Fregata. Aquila, Frigate Fam. I. Crocodilid®.
Pelican. Crocodilu8. Vulgaris, Cro
codile.
Class III. REPTILIA. Fam. II. Alligatorid®.
Alligator. Mississipensls,
Order I. SAURA. A Uigator.
Sub-order I. Leptogeoss®.

Tribe I. CYCLOSAURA.
Fam. IV. Lacertinid®. Class IV. AMPHIBIA.
Zootoca. Vivipara, Lizard. Order I. BA TRACHIA.
Tribe II. GEISSOSAURA. Sub-order I. Salientia.
Ran a. Temporaria, Frog.
Fam. XV. Scincidae.
Buro. Vulgaris, Toad.
Anguis. Fragilis, Blind-
worm. Sub-order II. Gradientia.

Sub-order II. Pachygeoss®. Fam. I. Salamandrid®.

Triton. Cristatus, Newt.
Tribe III. NYCTISAURA.
Fam. XXII. Geckotid®. Order V. ME ANT I A.
Gecko. Verus, Gecko.
Fam. I. Proteid®.
Proteus. Angumus, Proteus.
Tribe IV. STROBILOSAURA.
Fam. XXIII. Iguanid®
Iguana. Tuberculata,Iguana.
Class V. PISCES.
Fam. XXIV. Agamid®. Sub-class I. Pisces Ossei.
Draco. Volans, Flying Dra¬
Order I. ACANTHOPTERYGII.
gon.
Sub-order I. Dactylophori.
Tribe V. DENDROSAURA. Fam. I. Triglid®.
Fam. XXV. Chameleonid®. Trigla. Cuculus, Gurnard.
Chameleon. Vulgaris, Cha¬
meleon. Sub-order II. Hoeodactyli.

Fain. IV. Percid®.

Order II. OPHIDIA. Perca. Fluviatilis, Perch.

Sub-order I. Viperina. Fam. II. Cottid®.

Fam. I. Crotalid®. Cottus. Gobio, Bull-head.
Uropsophus. Durissus, Fam. XIII. Scomberid®.
Rattlesnake. Scomber. Scombrus,
Mackarel.
Fam. II. Viperid®.
Thynnus. Thynnus,
Ceotho. Arietans, Puff-
Tunny.
Adder.
Xiphias. Gladius, Sword¬
Cerastes. Hasselquistii,
fish.
Cerastes.
Gastero8teus. Aculeatus,
Pei ias. Eerus, Viper.
Stickleback.
Sub order II. Colubrina. Fam. XIV. Zeid®.
Zeus. Faber, John Dory
Fam. IV. Boid®.
Boa. Constrictor, Boa. Fam. XVII. Syngnathid®.
Hippocampus. Breviros-
Fam. V. Colubrid®.
tris, Sea-horse.
Naja. Tripudians, Cobra.
Natrix. Torquata, Ringed Fam XXII. Echeneid®.
Snake. Echeneis. Remora, Suck
ing-fish.
Order III. CHF.LONIA. Fam. XXIII. Lophiid®.
Fam. I. Testudinid®. Lophius. Piscatorius,
Testudo. Gr®ca, Tortoise. Angler.
XV 111 SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Order II. MALACOPTERYGII. Fam. II. Squalid®.

Suualus. Carcbarias,
Sub-order I. Abdominalia.
Shark.
Fam. I. Cyprinidse. Sphyrnias. Zygfena.Da.v.-
Cyprinus. Carpio, Carp. rner-headed btiark.
-Barbus, Barbel.
Sub-section II. RAIL.
-Auratus, Gold¬
Fain. I. Pristid®.
fish.
Pristis. Antiquorum,
A bra mis. Brarna Bream.
Sawfish.
Gobio. Fluviatilis, Gud¬
geon. Fam. II. Raidae.
Tinca. Vulgaris, Tench. Torpedo. Scutata,
Leuciscus. Rutilus, Roach. pedo.
-Leueiscus,.Dace. Raia. Clavata, Thornbaci
-Cep halus, Chub. Skate.
CoBiTrs. Barbatula, Loach.
Sub-order III. Cyclostomi.
Fam. II. Esocidae.
Esox. Lucius, Pike. Fam. I. Petromyzonidae.
Exoccetus. Volitans, Fly¬ Petromyzon. Marinus,
ing-fish. Lamprey.
Lampetra. Fluviatilis,
Farn. IV. Salmonidae. Lampern.
Salmo. Salar, Salmon.
Myxine. Glutinosa, Myx-
-- Fario, Trout.
ine.
Fam. V. Clupeidae.
Clupea. Pilchardus, Pil¬
chard.
Division II. INVERTEBRATA.
- Harengus, Her¬
ring. Class VI. MOLLUSCA.
Engraulis. Enchrasicho- Order CEPHALOPODA.
lus, Anchovy.
Fam. Octopidae.
Sub-order II. Sub-brachiata. Octopus. Vulgaris, Cuttle
Fam. VI. Gadidae. fish.
Morrhua. Callarias, Cod. Argonauta. Argo, Nau¬
tilus.
Fam. VII. Pleuronectidae.
Psetta. Maxima, Turbot.
Solea. Vulgaris, Sole. Order GASTEROPODA.

Sub-order III. Apoda.

Sub-order Pulmobranchiata.

Fam. IX. Muraenidae. Fam. Limacidae.

Anguilla. Acutirostris, Limax. Ater, Black Slug
Sharp-nosed Eel. Fam. Helicid®.
Conger. Vulgaris, Conger. Helix. Aspersa, Snail.
Fam. X. Gymnotidie. Fam. Turbinidae.
Gymnotus. Electricus, Scalaria. Pretiosa, Roya.
Electric Eei. Staircase Wentletrap.
Order III. PLECTOGNATHI. Fam. Coniidas.
Conus. Generalis, Cone.
Fam. I. Diodontidae.
Orthagoriscus. Mola, Fam. Cypraeidae.
Short Sun-fish. Aricia. Moneta, Money
Cowry.
Sub-class 11 Pisces Chondropte-
RYGII. Fam. Buccinid®.
Buccinum. Undatum,
Sub-order I. Eleutheropomi.
Whelk.
Fam. I. Acipenseridas.
Fam. Muricid®.
Acipenser. Sturio, Stur¬
Murex. Tribulut,, Thorny
geon.
Woodcock.
Sub-order II. Trematopnei.

Sub-section I. SQUALL. Order CYCLOBRANCHIATA.

Fam. I. Scyllidae. Fam. Patellid®.
Scyllium. Canicula, Little Patella. Vulgata, Lim¬
Spotted Dog-fish. pet.
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XIX

Older CONCHIFERA. Class IX. INSECTA.

Earn. Pectinidae. Sub-class I. Insecta Mandibulaia
Pecten. Jacobaeus, Scal¬ Order I. COLEOPTERA.
lop.
Ostrea. Edulis, Oyster. Fam. Cicindelidae.
Cicin dela. Campestria
Pam. Meleagrinidae. Tiyer-beetle.
Meleagrina. Margarati-
fera, Pearl Oyster. Fam. Carabidae.
Cara- us. Cancellatu*
Fam. Mytilidae. Ground-beetle.
Mytilus. Edulis, Edible Fam. Silphidae.
Mussel. Necrophagus. Vespillo,
Buryiny-beetle.
Order CIRRHOPODA.
Pentalasmjs. Anatil'era, Fam. Lucanidae.
Rernicle. Lucanus. Cervus, Stay
beetle.
Geotrupes. Stercorariu'.
Class VII. CRUSTACEA. Dor-beetle.
Sub-class I. M alacostraca. Melolontha. Vulgaus.
Order I. DEC A POD A. Cockchaffer.

Sub-order I. Decafoda-brach y- Fam. Lampyridae.

ura. Lampyris. Noctiluca,
Fam. I. Canceridae. Glowworm.
Cancer. Pagurus, Crab. Fam. Ptinidae.
Sub-order II. Decapoda - ano-
Anobium. Tesselatum.
moura. Death-watch.
Fam. III. Paguridae. Fam. Cerambycidae.
Pagurus. Bernhardus. Cerambyx. Moschatu*
Hermit Crab. Musk-beetle.

Sub-order III. Decapoda - ma- Fam. Staphylinidae.

croura. Creophilus. Maxillosus,
Rove-beetle.
Fam. V. Astacidae.
Potamobius. Astacus,
Cray-fish. Order II. DERMAPTERA.
Astacus. Gammarus, Lob¬ Foreicula. Forcipata, Ear

ster. wig.
Fam. VI. Crangonidae.
Order III. ORTHOPTERA.
Crangon. Vulgaris,
Shrimp. Fam. Locustidae.
Locusta. Tartarica,Zoca.»J.
Fam. VIII. Palasmonidae *
• PaljEmon. Serratus, Fam. Xchetidae.
Prawn. Acheta. Campestris, Pitta
Cricket.
- Dome*ticua.
Class VIII. ARACHNIDA. House Cricket.
Order PULMONARIA. Gryilotalp a. Vulgaris,
Mole Cricket.
Fam. Araneidae.
Phyleia. Foliata, Lea)
Myoale. Avicularia, Bird
Insect.
Spider.
Fam. Scorpionidae. Fam. Blattidae.
Scorpio. Europaeus, Scor¬
Blatta. Orientalis, Cock¬
pion. roach.

Order IV. NEUROPTERA

Order TRACHEARIA.
Fam. Acaridae. Fam. Ephemeridae.
Leptus. Autumnalis, Har¬ Ephemera. Vulgata, Al*y*
vest Buy. tly
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX

Fam. Libellulidae. Argynnis. Adippe, Siiicr-

Libellula. Depressa, tpotted Fritillary.
Dragon-fly. Vanessa. Atalanta, Red
Fam. Myrmeleonidae. Admiral
Myrmeleon. Formicarum,
Fam. Sphingidae.
Ant-lion.
Acherontia. At.ropos
Fam. Termitidae. Death’s-head Moth.
Termes. Bellicosus, Termite.
Fam. Sesiidse.
Order V. TRICHOPTERA. Macroglossa. Stellata
rum, Humming-bird
Fam. Phryganidae. Moth.
Phryganea. Grandis,
Caddis-fly. Fam. Arctiadae.
Arctia. Caja, Tiger Moth
Order VI. HYMENOPTERA.
Fam. Geometridae.
Fain. Ichneumonidse. Ourapteryx. Sambucaria,
Pimpla. Manifestator, Swallow-tailed Moth.
Ichneumon-fly.
Fam. Alucitidae.
Fam. Formicidae. Alucita. Hexadactyla,
Formica. Rufa, Wood Many-plumeu Moth
Ant.
Fam. Vespid®. Order II. D1PTERA.
Vespa. Crabro, Hornet. Fam. Culicidee.
-- Vulgaris, Wasp. Culex. Pipiens, Gnat.
Fam. Apidae. Fam. CEstridae.
Apis. Mellifica, Honey CEstrus. Bovis, Gadfly.
Bee. Fam. Bombylidee.
Bombylius. Medius, Hum
Sub-class II. Insecta Haustellata. ble-bee Fly.
Order I. LEPIDOPTERA.
Fam. Papiiionidae. Older IV. APHANIPTERJ.
Paeilio. liliwliaon, Swat Fam. Pulicidas.
low-tailed Butterfly. Pus.f.k. Irritans, Flea.
 NATURAL HISTORY

Division I. VERTEBRAT a.—(Lat. possessing vert&brce.)

w

Class I. . . MAMMALIA.— (Lat. suckling their young.)

Order I. . . PRIM A TES.—(Lat. primus, first.)
Family I.. Hominidas.—(Lat. homo, a man— mankind.)
Genus I. . Homo.

BOSJESMAN AND LION

Species /. Sapiens (Lat. wise), Man.

Man holds the foremost place in the order of creation. The perfec¬
tion of his bodily form is as far superior to that of other beings as his
intellect surpasses their instinct, beautiful and marvellous though it be.
Between man and brutes there is an impassable barrier, over which man
ean never fall, or beasts hope to climb. The low©'* animals are but
B

</
9 NATURAL HISTORY.

“ beasts that perish,” whereas man is a living soul, it is the soul that
gives consistency and force to the reason, and therefore, man, even when
fallen from his high estate, and deprived of the right use of his reason,
still holds his supremacy over the lower animals by the power of the
still living soul, and is not subject even to the most perfect and powerful
brutes.
There is but one genus of mankind, Homo, and but one species
Sapiens; that is, the rational human being. Intellect, or reason, differs
from instinct in its power of accommodation to circumstances; whereas
instinct ever remains unchanged. The beaver, when confined in a cage,
still builds dams in order to confine the stream that never visits it; the
captive squirrel, when satiated with food, still conceals the remnants for
a future repast, although it is regularly supplied with its daily meals;
the magpie approaches a dead wasp with the same caution as if it were
living; and the dog Hies from a recently flayed tiger skin with no less
fear than if the living tiger stood before him.* On the contrary, the
power of man’s reason enables him to alter his habits and actions ac¬
cording to the change of external circumstances. The same man can
inhabit the burning sands of the tropics, or the everlasting snows of the
north pole; and can defend himself from the scorching heat of the one,
or set at defiance the piercing cold of the other.
The forms and habits of men are modified according to the different
climates and positions in which they are placed. These modifications are
in some cases so great, that many philosophers, and not a few naturalists,
have imagined that there are several distinct classes of mankind, which
derive their origin from different sources. There is certainly no doubt
that the educated human being who peruses these pages, seated in a
comfortable apartment, surrounded with luxuries brought from almost
every country on the face of the earth, within sound of church bells,
and clothed in garments fitted to defend him from the heat of summer
or the cold of winter, is far superior to the half-naked Bosjesmau, whc
has no conception of a God, who lives in caves, or scrapes a hole in the
sand, in which he crouches until he has devoured the last putrid morsel
of the prey which he has been fortunate enough to secure, and which he
then abandons to the beasts of the desert, scarcely less provident than
himself. Yet this superiority results entirely from the external circum¬
stances in which each is placed. Let each be transplanted into the
country of the other, and in a few generations we should find the Bos-
jesman civilized, and capable of reading how his former superior, now
sunk into the savage state, gains a precarious subsistence by hunting,
and passes his life in caves.
All men do not see the case in this light, for some theorists have ventured
so far as to assert that the Negro is but an improved monkey, and that his
* In those cases where animals alter their habits to suit the changed circumstances in
which they find themselves, their reason, not their instinct, acts. See this point more at
large in the introduction to “Sketches and Anecdotes of Animal Life.”
 NATURAL IIIbTORY. 3.
reason is nothing but a partially civilized instinct. That these theorists,
were no anatomists is sufficiently evident, and it would not be necessary to
prove the absurdity of their assertion, were it not that many have actually
been deceived by their flimsy though specious arguments. Indeed, at the
present time, when we find one philosopher giving what he considers,
satisfactory proofs that salt is the cause of all earthly misery, and the
reason why the sun is at so great a distance from us; another reviving the
very ancient and venerable belief, that the earth is flat like a plate; and
a third pretending to read a sealed letter with the point of his toe, or to
examine the interior of a friend some hundred miles distant; it is dif¬
ficult to say to what extent credulity can proceed.*
We will, however, briefly examine this theory respecting the humanity
of the Negro partly by anatomy, but mostly (for which delinquency we
must ask paraon of the theorists in question) by common sense. That
monkey, or rather ape, whose form most resembles that of man, is the
Orang-outan. Let us compare the skull of this animal with that of the
Negro. Will any one venture to deny that the noble sweep of cranium,
and the smooth globular surface of the human skull, demonstrating the
volume of the brain within, is a proof of far superior intellect than is
indicated by the heavy ridges, the irregular prominences, and the small
capacity of the ape’s skull F The face of the ape is an instrument for
procuring food, and a weapon for attack and defence, while that of man
is an ever-changing index of the workings of the mind within. We
therefore find that the jaws of the ape are enormously developed, armed
with formidable fangs, and marked with strong bony ridges, to which the
powerful muscles which move the jaws are attached. On the other hind,
as man is enabled to procure food, and to manufacture weapons by means
of his hands, his jaws and teeth are reduced to the smallest size compa¬
tible with the preservation of life.
The habitually erect posture is another characteristic of mankind.
Other animals are not fitted for it; since, when they attempt to assume
that position, their head is thrust so far forward that its weight destroys
their balance, and the bones of the leg and the pelvis are so formed as to
give them a tottering gait. When the ape attempts to stand erect, it is
forced to balance itself by its immensely long arms, and cannot walk
without assisting itself along by the knuckles pressed on the ground.
The fingers on the feet, or more properly the hinder hands, prevent the
ape from planting more than the heel upon the ground. It therefore
hobbles along with its body bent, and at best can only contrive to manage
an uncertain and vacillating shuffle; nor does it ever walk so well or so

* I say “pretending,” because, although there are sundry accounts of such sealed
letters proving legible to the “ clairvoyant ” there still exists a crucial test in the shape
of a very thick sealed envelope, containing a bank note of considerable value, which will
become the property of any one who can read its number and signatures without opening
the envelope. It is almost unnecessary to say that the bank note has reposed in illegible
security ever since its first enclosure, and is likely so to do until the patience of its owner
is exhausted.
4 NATURAL HISTORY.

gracefully in the erect posture as many of the performers at Astley’s do

an their hands, which are apparently less fitted for walking than those of
the ape.
The power of the thumb is miucli greater in man than in the apes; it
is by means of this instrument that man is able to handle large or small
objects, to wield a sword or a pen, to cast a spear or thread a needle.
There are also many anatomical differences which need not be de¬
scribed.
The intellectual power in man shows its supremacy over the instinct of
the ape in many ways. We will take as our example of mankind, the
most abject of the human race, the Bosjesman, as represented at the
commencement of this chapter. Surely the slain lion was not destroyed
by an ape. No ape or monkey wras ever able to manufacture weapons
for itself. It may, indeed, take up a stick or a stone and defend itseh
vigorously,* but it could never form a bow and arrow, much less reflect
that the juices of certain plants rubbed on the points of its weapons
would cause inevitable death to any person wrounded by them. Yet the
diminutive Bosjesman, who is far lower in intellect, and much less civil¬
ized than the calumniated Negro, boldly attacks, with perfect certainty
of success, an animal before which the most intelligent ape that ever
lived would fly in helpless terror.
Neither can an ape procure fire, nor even renew it. It will sit de¬
lighted by a flame which a chance traveller has left, and spread its hands
over the genial blaze; but when the glowing ashes fade, it has not suf¬
ficient understanding to supply fresh fuel, but sits ana moans over the
expiring embers.
The Bosjesman makes a bow and arrow; he tips the arrow with a
hard substance to make it penetrate; he imbues the point with substances
which he has learned are fatal when mingled with the blood, and then
sallies forth in search of some animal wdiose skin may serve as a dress,
and whose flesh may furnish him a meal. When by his unerring weapons
he has succeeded in destroying the terrible and ferocious lion, the swift
antelope, or the wary ostrich, he constructs for himself a hut by the
side of his prey, strikes fire, fetches fuel, and dresses his meat. These
are actions which no beast ever performed, and no ape could ever imitate.
One point of difference between man and brutes has yet to be men¬
tioned—language. This one word includes almost every distinction
mentioned, as it is bv the use of language that we are enabled to com¬
municate our ideas to each other, to give t he thoughts hidden in our
minds an almost visible shape, to record our experience for the benefit
of others; in a word, it is by language that wre are civilized. The ape
has no language, although there is no apparent anatomical reason why
apes should not speak, and therefore, the Orang-outan in the gardens
of the Zoological Society is no more refined, nor does it make a nearer
approach to civilization, than its ancestors in the time of Adam.
* Even this statement is generally discredited by naturalists.
 NATURAL HISTORY,

Yes, it is so. The whole of mankind has one common source,

springing from one origin, from him wlro was formed out of the dust
of the earth, and from her whose existence took its rise from his living
side. All are one family, sprung from one father on earth, by the will
of their one Father in Heaven.
The mind of man is much influenced by outward objects and the
society by which it is surrounded. If a man be confined to one spot,
or within certain bounds, his mind becomes feeble in proportion to the
isolation. The rustic, whose ideas never wrander from the farm on which
he works, and whose travels are circumscribed by his native village, or,
at most, by a casual visit to the nearest market town, exhibits a mind
which has received a certain set of ideas, false as well as true, and
which refuses alike to admit new notions or to give up any of the old.
So great is the influence of society on the mind, that an experienced
clergyman, while examining some candidates for Confirmation, observed
that the Oxford children were two years in advance of those of the
same age who had been bred in the country. So with music, a town
child is accustomed to hear street music, and readily catches the air,
while the country child, whose notions of music are confined to the
dismal hosannas and lugubrious psalmody of the village church, is
usually devoid of musical ear, but is great in imitation of rooks, cows,
pigs, and donkeys.
The most perfect case of isolation known, was that of the celebrated
Kaspar Hauser, who had been confined for the first fourteen or fifteen
years of his life in a dark cave, and was never permitted even to see his
Keeper. In consequence, when he at length left his dungeon, his mind
was that of an infant, his body that of a man. It would have been
a most interesting and important experiment to watch the gradual
development of his mind, but, unfortunately for science, an unknown
dagger reached his heart, and this mysterious victim of a hidden plot
perished, leaving the riddle of his life unsolved and the development of
his intellect unfinished. His history furnishes us with another dis¬
tinction between man and beasts. When the mind of Hauser was
released from its bands, it at once began to expand, and every day
gave it fresh powers, while the brain of the ape is rapidly developed
when young, and receives no further increase as it grows in stature,
or if any change at all takes place, rather diminishes in power than
develops by increasing years.
We have seen that mankind have little in common with brutes, and
that the barrier between the two can be passed by neither: but theie is
another question to be considered.
Many theorists have boldly denied the revelation of man’s origin as
given in tire Scriptures, and asserted that at least five distinct races of
men must have been created simultaneously, each deriving its origin
from a different progenitor. Let us see how this theory will hold.
It has already been stated that man is modified according to t.hfi
€ NATURAL HISTORY.

Climate and position in which he is placed. There are several of these

modifications, or varieties as they are called, but authors do not agree
as to their number. Some describe the human family as divided into
five varieties or races: the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian,
the Malayan, and the American; each of these being subdivided into
families, as for instance, the Caucasian race subdivided into the Cauca¬
sian, the Celtic, the Germanic, the Arabian, the Libyan, the Nilotic, and
the Indostanic families. The division generally received is that of
Pickering, who enumerates eleven distinct races of men, all of whom he
has seen; the Arabian, Abyssinian, Mongolian, Hottentot, Malay,
Papuan, Negrillo, Telingan, Ethiopian, Australian, and Negro. He
-differs from Prichard in several points, but especially in referring the
population of America to the Mongolian race, whereas Prichard con¬
siders it as entirely separate.
The characteristics and distribution of each race are briefly these.
The Arabian race extends over the whole of Europe, excepting Lapland,
about half of Asia, including the greater part of India, and most of the
northern third of Africa. The complexion is light, the lips are thin, the
nose is prominent, and the beard thick. Number, about 350,000,000.
The Abissinian race occupies a small tract towards the east of Africa,
including part of Abyssinia, and part of Nubia. The features are like
those of Europeans, the complexion is light, the hair is crisp, and the
beard moderate. Number about 3,000,000.
The Mongolian race is remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes,
so that a stranger i3 often perplexed to distinguish a man from a woman
at a short distance; the hair is straight, and the beard is wanting. If
extends over the eastern half of Asia, except Corea, over Lapland, and
the whole of America, except the western coast bv California, and the
upper part of South America. Number 300,000,000.
The Hottentot race occupies the southern extremity of Africa. The
complexion is not so dark as that of the Negro, the hair is woolly, and
frequently grows in irregular patches, leaving a bald spot in the centre
of each patch. This race includes the Beclmanas and the Bosjesmans.
The complexion of the Bosjesmans, or Bushmen, is very light, and
strongly resembles that of an European, with a few sooty patches
irregularly placed. Number about 500,000.
The Malay race is almost amphibious, and is never found far inland. It
is widely spread, and inhabits the centre of Madagascar, the whole of the
islands in the Pacific Ocean, except the Fiji, New Hebrides, Solomon’s
Isles, Papua, and parts of the Philippines. The parts of America not
populated by the Mongolians, are also inhabited by this race. The
complexion is a dark copper, the hair straight, when cut it stands erect,
and the beard is thin. Number 120,000,000.
The Papuan race inhabits about two-thirds of Papua, and the Fiji
Islands, where Pickering saw the only individuals of this race who came
under his notice. The complexion is dark, the hair bushy, the beard
 NATURAL HISTORY. 7

copious. The most remarkable point in this race is the skin, which is
astonishingly rough and harsh. Number 3,000,000.
The Negrillo race is like the Papuan in colour, but the hair is more
woolly, the stature is small, and the beard absent. The Negrillos
inhabit part of Papua, Solomon’s Isles, the northern extremities of
Luzon and Sumatra, and the New Hebrides. Number 3,000,000.
The Telingan, or Indian race, inhabits the eastern parts of India,
especially about Calcutta, several isolated spots in other parts of India,
and the east coast of Madagascar. The complexion is dark, (best
imitated by a mixture of red and black,) the skin is soft, the features
are like those of Europeans, hair straight and fine, and the beard
copious. Number 60,000,000.
The Ethiopian race is darker than the Telingan, the hair is crisp and
fine, skin soft, and the features are more like European features than
those of the Negro. This race inhabits the north-eastern portion of
Africa, including Southern Egypt, part of Nubia, and part of Abyssinia;
a few detached spots toward the north-west, and a large tract of country
by Senegambia. Number 5,000,000.
The Australian race inhabits Australia alone. The complexion is
like that of the Negro, but the hair is not woolly like that of the Negro.
Number 500,000.
The Negro race inhabits the central parts of Africa, from the north of
Ashanti to a little southward of Zanzibar. The complexion is black, the
lips are immensely thick, the nose is flat, and the hair is close and curly,
strongly resembling wool. Number 55,000,000. The numbers given
in this distribution are of course in many cases only conjectural.
In the distribution of races, it is most interesting to observe the
influence of climate and vegetation on the character of man. Tiie vast
tract of desert extending from the north-west of Africa, through Arabia,
part of India and Tartary, as far as Mongolia, is inhabited by nomadic,
or wandering, tribes, who depend principally on the milk of their do¬
mesticated animals for subsistence.
The interminable and trackless ’woods of North America develop
tribes whose faculties are moulded to the exigencies of their position.
To their practised senses the tangled forests are as clear as the highway;
the moss on the trees, the sun by day, the stars by night, the rushing
of the wind, or the sounds of animal life, are as broad roads and legible
signs to them, although we could discover no means to escape from the
wilderness of trees. Dependent in a great measure on hunting for their
subsistence, their keen eye marks the slightest trace of the expected
prey; a drooping leaf, a twisted blade of grass, a bent twig, a ripple in
the stream, are all noticed and all understood. Ever eagerly bent on
the destruction of inimical tribes, and deeming the number of “ scalps ’
attached to their dress, each designating a slain enemy, as the best mark
of nobility, they learn to track an enemy by his footsteps with unex¬
ampled patience and untiring assiduity. No bloodhound ever followed
8 NATURAL HISTORY.

his prey with more certainty than the American Indian when on his
“ war-pathtracks his retiring enemies, and when near them his
approach is silent as the gliding of the serpent, his blow as deadly as
its fangs.
The Malay race, whose lot is thrown amid islands and coasts, are as
crafty and fierce on the waters as the American Indians in their woods.
Accustomed to the water from their earliest infancy, able to swim before
they can walk, using as their toys waves that would dash an ordinary
swimmer to pieces against the rocks, their existence is almost entirely
passed on the water. As the American Indians are slayers and robbers
by land, so are the Malays murderers and pirates by sea. They have
been known to capture a ship in the midst of a storm by swimming to
it and climbing up the cable, and many instances of their crafty exploits
in ship-taking are on record. For a full account of their ferocity,
cunning, and endurance, the reader is referred to Sir James Brooke’s
reports on the Borneo pirates.
Tiie Esquimaux, situated among ice and snow, where mercury freezes
in the open air and water becomes ice within a yard of a blazing fire,
pass a comparatively inactive life. They actually form the ice and snow
into warm and comfortable houses ; wrapped up in enormous fur
garments that almost disguise the human form, they defy the intensity
of the frost, and place their highest happiness in the chance possession
of a whale, which will furnish them with food, clothing, and light,
through their long winter.
All these races, although they differ in habits and external appearance,
are not different genera, or even different species, but only varieties of
one species. There is not so marked a distinction between the European
and Negro, as between the light and active racer and the heavy brewer’s
horse ; yet no one attempts to deny that these two animals belong to
one species. The varieties in man are permanent; that is, the child of
Negro parents will be a Negro, and the child of Malay parents will be
a Malay, but that is no proof of a distinct species, as precisely the
same argument may be used with regard to the horse. The soul is the
important part of man, not the body ; and though the outward bodies
of men differ, the soul is the same in all, and therefore in all the mind
is capable of improvement and cultivation.
It -were an easy task to prove the unity of mankind by Scriptural
proofs, but I have thought it better to use rational arguments, as so-
called reason was the weapon used to disprove the facts which the
Scriptures asserted. Sufficient, I trust, has been said to show that man
“ has dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth; ” and also
that the whole of mankind forms one great family, precisely according
to the Scriptural assertion, that Eve was “ the mother of all living.”
The distribution of the different nations over the face of the eaith, and
especially the presence of man in certain situations forms one of the
 NATURAL HISTORY. y-
principal arguments of tliose who deny the unity of mankind. Among
such lands may be named America, Australia, New Zealand, and several
other countries, whose inhabitants were supposed to have been destitute
of artilicial means of crossing the expanse of waters that divides their
lands from others.
So to obviate this difficulty the perplexed philosophers invented a
theory that each race was separately and simultaneously created,—
a theory which has but one disadvantage, that of being entirely false.
There are many other theories on the same subject, all differing from
each other in essentials, but all remarkable for their ingenuity and
folly.
As, however, such theories have been promulgated, it cannot but be
interesting to one who holds in its fullest sense the doctrine of the
unity of mankind as given in the Scriptures, to search after the means
by which men were enabled to pass from one common centre to all parts
of the earth.
Many portions of the globe, such as islands, could not be reached
without some artilicial means to enable men to cross the waters. This
implies some degree of civilization, as boats or rafts are the result of
much thought and some skill. Pickering has published a map con¬
taining the probable route of mankind through the earth. He appears
to think that the most perplexing question of all, namely the problem
of the population of America, is not very difficult of solution, as the
Aleutian Isles form a chain of spots easily traversed by the skin-covered
canoes which are still in use among those islands.*
All nations which have preserved traditions of past events agree in
many points in a very remarkable manner. All have some traditions ot
a creation, not always of a world, but of that particular part in which
they reside. The Piji islanders believe that one of their gods fished up
Fiji from the bottom of the sea, by entangling his fish-hook in a rock,
and that the island would have been higher had not the line broken.
The fish-hook is still preserved as a proof, but they do not state where
the god stood while fishing. A traveller asked one of the priests why
the hook, an ordinary tortoishell one, did not break ? “ Oh! it was
a god’s hook, and could not break.” But why then did the line break?
was the traveller’s very natural response. Whereupon the man, ac¬
cording to the prevailing system of argument in those countries, and
perhaps in a few others, threatened to knock him down if he abused the
gods any more. Most nations have dim notions of a deluge which
overwhelmed the whole world, and from which only a few individuals
escaped, by whom the earth wras repeopled. Nearly all believe in
a good and an evil power continually at warfare, and that the good will
finally subdue the evil. Many savage nations, in consequence, seek *o
propitiate the evil powrer with prayers and offerings, feeling sure thn-t
the good one will not injure them.
* Pickering’s Races of Man. Hall’s Edition, p. 296.
10 NATURAL HISTORY.

All nations, (except one or two, such as the abject Bosjesman, who
can form no idea of what he cannot see, and whose answer when told of
a God is, “ Let me see him,”) believe in a future state. Their belief is
invariably modified according to their habits. Some of
the debased dark races believe that after death they
become white men and have plenty of money; the
Mahometan considers his paradise as an abode of ever¬
lasting sensual indulgence; the savage believes that
when he leaves this world he will pass to boundless
hunting-fields, where shall be no want of game, and
where his arrows shall never miss their mark; while
SKULL OF MAN.
the Christian knows his heaven to be a place of un¬
speakable and everlasting happiness, where the power
of sin shall have ceased for ever.

The section Quadrumana includes the apes, baboons, and monxeys.

The name of Quadrumana is given to these animals because, in addition
to two hands like those of man, their feet are also formed like hands,
and are capable of grasping the branches among which most monkeys
pass their lives.
Apes are placed at the head of the Quadrumana because their instinct
is mostly superior to that of the baboons and monkeys, of whom the
former are usually sullen and ferocious, when arrived at their full growth,
and the latter volatile and mischievous.
The Chimpansee and the Orang-outan have been
confounded together by the older naturalists, whose
pardonable error has been unpardonably repeated
even in books professing to instruct the young in
the present state of natural science. That they are
really distinct animals a glance at the skull of each
will at once prove. The Chimpansee is a native
SKULL OF CHIMPANSF.E. of Western Africa, and is tolerably common on the
banks of the Gambia and in Congo.
Large bands of these formidable apes congregate together and unite
in repelling an invader, which they do with such fury and courage that
even the dreaded elephant and lion are driven from their haunts by their
united efforts. They live principally on the ground, and, as their name
imports, spend much of their time in caves or under rocks. Their height
is from four to five feet, but they are said not to reach this growth uirtdi
nine or ten years of age.
Several young chiinpansees have been recently imported into this
country, and have shown themselves very docile and gentle; but, had
they lived, they would probably in a few years have become fierce and
obstinate, as apes almost invariably are when they reach their full grow tin
 NATURAL HISTORY. 11
I lately saw one of these animals at the Zoological Gardens in the
Regent’s Park. It was very gentle, and seemed to be above that restless
spirit of curiosity that is so characteristic of the monkey tribe. Its
countenance appeared expressive of the deepest distress, and it moved
about with a gravity that contrasted curiously with the lively movements
of the body of monkeys living in the large cage.*

Family II. Simiadm.— (Lat. Simla, an ape—Ape kind.)

Troglodytes.—(Gr. rpoZyAri, a hole ; Suo, to creep.)

Niger (Lat. Hack), the Chimpansee.

When I saw it an unmistakeable hacking cough proved that the

scourge of these animals had fallen upon it. When monkeys are brought
to England they are generally carried off by consumption within a few
years. This disease is not so prevalent now in the Zoological Gardens as
it was when the keepers thought that the animals ought to be shut up
close in a warm atmosphere. This treatment predisposed them to taking
cold on the slightest occasion, and thus paved the way for their deadly

* There is a remarkably fine specimen of the Chimpansee in the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris. It is very lively, and is fond of swinging on the ropes that are so plentifully hung
from the roof of the great monke’/ cage at that establishment. The Chimpansee appear*
to be entirely free from disease < f the lungs
12 NATURAL HISTORY.

foe. Since the monkeys have been permitted to range freely in the open
air, they have proved much more healthy than under the old system of
confinement.

The Orang-outan inhabits Borneo and Sumatra. In Borneo there

are certainly two species of orang, called by the natives the Mias-kassar
and the Mias-pappan. Some naturalists suppose that the Sumatran
orang is also a distinct species.
This is the largest of all the apes, as it is said that
orangs have been obtained from Borneo considerably
above five feet in height. The strength of this animal
is tremendous; a female snapped a strong spear
asunder after having received many severe wounds.
Its arms are of extraordinary length, the hands reach¬
ing the ground when it stands erect. This length of
arm is admirably adapted for climbing trees, on which
it principally resides. Mr. Brooke, the Bajali of
SKULL OF
OHANG-OUTAN. Sarawak, gives the following account of the orangs of
Borneo. There appears also to be a third species,
the Mias-rombi:—
“ On the habits of the orangs, as far as I have been able to observe
them, I may remark that they are as dull and as slothful as can well be
conceived, and on no occasion, when pursuing them, did they move so
fast as to preclude my keeping pace with them easily through a moderately
clear forest; and even when obstructions below (such as wading up to the
neck) allowed them to get away some distance, they were sure to stop
and allow us to come up. I never observed the slightest attempt at
defence; and the wood, which sometimes rattled about our ears, was
broken by their weight, and not thrown, as some persons represent. Il
pushed to extremity, however, the pappan could not be otherwise than
formidable; and one unfortunate man, who with a party was trying to
catch one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely bitten on
the face, whilst the animal finally beat off his pursuers and escaped.
When they wish to catch an adult, they cut down a circle of trees round
the one on which he is seated, and then fell that also, and close before he
can recover himself, and endeavour to bind him.
“ The rude hut which they are stated to build in the trees would be
more properly called a seat, or nest, for it has no roof or cover of any
sort. The facility with which they form this seat is curious; and I had
an opportunity of seeing a wounded female weave the branches together,
and seat herself in a minute. She afterwards received our fire without
moving, and expired in her lofty abode, whence it cost ua much trouble
to dislodge her.
“ The pappan is justly named Satyrus, from the ugly face and disgusting
callosities. The adult male I killed was seated lazily on a tree; and
when approached only took the trouble to interpose the trunk betweer
orang-outan
 NATURAL PJSTORY. 13
us, peeping at me and dodging as I dodged. T hit him on the wrist,
and he was al.erwards dispatched. I send you his proportions, enormous
relative to his height; and until I came to actual measurement my
impression was that he was nearly six feet in stature.

Simia.—(Lat. an Ape.)

Satyms (Gr. 2arupos, a satyr), the Orang-outan.

“The great difference between the kassar and the pappan in size
would prove at once the distinction of the two species; the kassar being
a small slight animal, by no means formidable in his appearance, with
hands and feet proportioned to the body, and they do not approach the
gigantic extremities of the pappan either in size or power; and, in short,
a moderately strong man would readily overpower one, when he would
not stand a shadow of a chance with the pappan.”
I saw a young Orang-outan not long since. It was rather spidery in
its development, having a very small and very rotund body, to which
were affixed very long and slender limbs. Its face was like that of a
very misanthropical old miser, thoroughly wearied of life, and contem¬
plating surrounding objects with a calm but derisive pity. The whole
form of the creature leminded me strongly of the Goblin king that
 14 natural history.

appeared to Gabriel Grubb on Christmas Eve, and whose degage ease

of posture upon a tall tombstone has been so admirably depicted by
“ Phiz.”
It possessed in a high degree the expressive mobile character of the
lips, which appeared to express its feelings much in the same manner as
do the ears of a horse. When it was alarmed or astonished at any
object it was accustomed to shoot out both its lips, and to form its
mouth into a trumpet kind of shape. A snail was very effectual in
producing this contortion of countenance.
The creature was very tame, and delighted in walking about the
garden leaning on the arm of its keeper, and if any lady would venture
to be its guide, it appeared as happy as any such misanthropical being
could be.
When young the Orang-outan is very docile, and has been taught to
make its own bed, and to handle a cup and saucer, or a spoon, with
tolerable propriety. Eor the former occupation it proved itself particu¬
larly apt, as it not only laid its own bed-clothes smooth and comfortable,
but exhibited much ingenuity in stealing blankets from other beds, which
/r, , _ , it added to its own. The young
Hylobates.— (Gr. vX-q, a wood ; fra.iv w, to .1 n s.
tnvprv \ Orang in the collection of
the Zoological Society evinced
extreme horror at the sight of
a small tortoise, and, when the
reptile was introduced into its
den, stood aghast in a most
ludicrously terrified attitude,
with its eyes intently fixed on
the frightful object.

The Agile Gibbon is a

native of Sumatra. It derives
its name of Agile, from the
wonderful activity it displays
in launching itself through the
air from branch to branch.
One of these creatures that
was exhibited in London some
time since, sprang with the
greatest ease through dis¬
tances of twelve and eighteen
feet; and when apples or
nuts were thrown to her
while in the air, she would
A-gtlis (Lat. active), the Agile Gibbon, or catch them without discon-
Ouvglca. tinuing her course She kept
up a succession of springs, hardly touching the branches in her
 natural msToinr. 15
progress, continually uttering a musical but almost deafening cry.
She was very tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be touched
or caressed. The height of the Gibbon is about three feet, and the
reach of the extended arms about six feet. The young Gibbon is usually
of a paler colour than its parent. There are several species of Gibbon,
amongst which some naturalists include the Siantang, a monkey chiefly
celebrated for the pains it takes to wash the faces of its young, a duty
which it conscientiously performs in spite of the struggles and screams
of its aggrieved offspring.

The Kahatj is a native of Borneo. It derives its name from the cry
it utters, which is a repetition of the word “ Kahau.” It is remarkable
for the extraordinary size and
shape oi its nose, and the natives PuESB'fTES.—(Gr. irpeaPvTris, an old
man.)
relate that while leaping it holds
that organ with its paws, appa¬
rently to guard it against the
branches. As may be seen from
the engraving, it is not an animal
of very captivating appearance;
but when it has been macerated
in spirits of wine for a few
months, its ugliness is quite super¬
natural. Naturalists formerly
supposed that there were two
species of this animal,—the nose
of one being aquiline like that of
the monkey in the accompanying
cut; and that of the other being
slightly retrouss^e. It was dis¬
covered, however, that the latter
animal was only the young Kahau,
whose nose had not reached its Larvatua (Lat. mashed) Kahau, or
full beauty. Proboscis Monkey.
The length of the animal from
the head to the tip of the tail is about four feet four inches; and its
general colour is a sandy red, relieved by yellow cheeks and a yellow
stripe over the shoulders.

The Entelltjs, or Hoonuman, is a native of India. It is astonish¬

ingly active in the capture of serpents. It steals upon the snake when
asleep, seizes it by the neck, runs to the nearest stone, and deliberately
grinds down the reptile’s head until the poisonous fangs are destroyed,
frequently inspecting its work and grinning at the impotent struggles of
the tortured reptile. When the snake is rendered harmless the monkey
casts it to its young, who, after tossing about and exulting over then
 JG NATURAL HISTORY.

fallen enemy for some time, finally destroy it. The length of its head
and body is about two feet two inches.
PRESBf TES.

Entellus (Lat. A proper name), the Entellus Monkey.

Seven genera are omitted on account of want of space.
We now arrive at
OyroCEPHALUS.—(Gr. kvccv, a dog ; Ke(pa\r), a head.) the Baboons. This
tribe is principally
distinguished from
the apes by their
short and insignifi¬
cant looking tails.
The baboons are
the only mamma¬
lia which exhibit
brilliant colours ;
on some parts of
these, however, na¬
ture has bestowed
vivid tints hardly
to be surpassed
even by the gor¬
geous plumage of
the tropical birds.
The Mandrill,
M ormon (Gr. Mpduoov, a bogie), the Mandrill. which is the most
conspicuous of the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 17

baboon tribe, is a native of Guinea and Western Africa, anu is chiefly

remarkable for the vivid colours with which it is adorned. Its cheeks are
of a brilliant blue, its muzzle of a bright scarlet, and a stripe of crimson
runs along the centre of its nose. These colours are agreeably contrasted
bv the purple hues of the hinder quarters. It lives principally in forests
filled with brushwood, from which it makes incursions into the nearest
villages, plundering them with impunity. On this account it is much
dreaded by the natives, who feel themselves incapable of resisting its
attacks. It is excessively ferocious, and easily excited to anger; and when
enraged, so boundless is its rage, that Cuvier relates that he has seen
several of these animals actually expire from the violence of their fury.
The greenishbrown colourof the hair of this and other monkeys is caused
by alternate bands of yellow and black, which exist on each hair. The
brilliant colours referred to above belong to the skin, and fade away entirely
after death, becoming paler when the animal is not in perfect health.

The American Monkeys, Family III. *Cebtiae.—(Gr. nrjl3os, a monkey.

or Cebidse, are found exclu¬ Monkey kind.)
sively in South America, and Ateles.—(Gr. are Arts, imperfect.*
are never seen north of Pa¬
nama. Their tails are inva¬
riably long, and iu some
genera, prehensile.
The Coaita is one of the Spi¬
der Monkeys, so called from
their long slender limbs, and
their method of progressing
among the branches. The tail
seems to answer the purpose
of a fifth hand, as it is capable
of being used for every pur¬
pose to which the hand could
be applied; indeed, the Spider
Monkeys are said to use this
member for hooking out ob¬
jects where a hand could not
oe inserted. In this manner
they often rob nests of birds,
who thought that they had
laid their eggs safe from all
danger. The tail is also of
considerable use in climbing Paniscu8 (Gl, dim. of ™,, a little
among the branches ot tiees ; Pan), the Coaita Spider Monkey.
they coil it round the boughs
to lower or raise themselves, and often will suspend themselves entirely
* Pronounce KiOidce.
18 NATURAL HISTORY.

bv it, and then by a powerful impetus swing off to some distant branch.
The habits of all the Spider Monkeys are very similar. They are ex¬
tremely sensitive to cold, and when chilly are in the habit of wrapping
their tail about them, so that this useful organ answers the purpose of
a boa as well as a hand. They will also, when shot, fasten their tail so
firmly on the branches, that they remain suspended after death. The
great length of their tail enables them to walk in the erect attitude
better than most monkeys. In walking, they cast their tails upwards
as high as the shoulders, and then bend it over so as to form a counter¬
balance against the weight of the body, which is thrown very much
forward in that and most other animals. The genus is called Ateles, or
imperfect, because in most of the species the thumb is wanting. The
Coaita inhabits Surinam and Guinea.
Several genera are omitted.

Mycetes.—(Gr. ixvkt]T7]s, a bowler.)

Ursinus (Lat. Ursa, a bear—Bearlike), tlce Ursine Howler.

The Howling Monkeys are larger and not so agile as the Spider
Monkeys, and are chiefly remarkable for the peculiarity from which they
derive their name. These animals possess an enlargement in the throat,
composed of several valvular pouches, which apparatus renders their cry
exceedingly loud and mournful. An arrangement somewhat similar may
be seen in the throat of several loud-voiced birds.
They howl in concert, principally at the rising and setting of the sun;
one monkey begins the cry, which is gradually taken up by the rest, pre¬
cisely as may be observed in a colony of rooks. They are in great re¬
quest among the natives as articles of food, their slow habits rendering
Shem an easy prey.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 19
The Ursine Howler, or Araguato, is common in Brazil, where forty or
fifty have been observed on one tree. They generally travel in files, rh
old monkey taking the lead, and the others following in clue order. They
feed principally on leaves and fruit; the tail is prehensile ike that of the
Spider Monkeys.
The genus Cebus is omitted.
CallYtfrix.—(Gr. ku\6s, beautiful; 6pt£,

The beautiful little animals hair.)

here represented belong to
the Squirrel Monkeys, so call¬
ed on account of their large
bushy tails.
The Collared Tee Tee,
or White-throated Squirrel
Monkey, is found to the east
of the Orinoco. It lives on
small birds, insects and fruits.
Its habits are, apparently,
mild and inoffensive, but its
acts belie its looks, for when
a small bird is presented to
it, it springs upon its prey
like a cat and speedily de¬
vours it. Torquatus (Lat. torquis, a necklace—
Collared), the Collared Tee Tee.

The Marmoset is a most interesting little creature. It is exceedingly

sensitive to cold, and when Jacchus.—(Gr. To.k\os. Bacchus.)
in England is usually occu¬
pied in nestling among the
materials for its bed, which
it heaps up in one corner,
and out of which it seldom
emerges entirely. It will eat
almost any article of food,
but is especially fond of in¬
sects, which it dispatches in
a very adroit manner. It
will also eat fruits, especially
those of its native country.
Its fondness for insects is
carried so far, that it has
been known to pinch out the
figures of beetles in an ento¬
mological work, and swallow Vulgaria (Lat common), the Marmoset.
them.
c 2
2i) J\' AT U UAL HISTORY.

A beautiful little marmoset in the Zoological Gardens ate a great

number u£ Hies which I caught and presented to it. Its little eyes
sparkled with eagerness each time that it saw my hand moving towards
a fly settled out of its reach, and it even ventured from its warm woolly
nest, and climbed up the wires of its cage as it saw the fly approaching.
It was also rather expert at catching lor itselt the flies that settled on
the bars of the cage. A blue-bottle fly was evidently considered a great
orize.
This pretty little monkey is also called the Ouistiti, from its peculia?
whistling cry when alarmed or provoked.
Several genera are omitted between Callithrix. and Jacchus.

Family IV. Lemurfdse.—(Lat. lemures, ghosts—Ghostlike.)

LES1UK.

Macdco (Native name), the Huffled Lemur.

The Lemurs derive their name from their nocturnal habits, and then
noiseless movements. The Ituflled Lemur is a native of Madagascar.
It lives in the depths of the forests, and only moves by night, the entire
day being spent in sleep. Its food consists of fruits, insects and small
birds, which latter it takes while they are sleeping. This is the largest
of the Lemurs, being rather larger than a cat.

The SleiN'der Loris is a native of India, Ceylon, &c. It, like the
.Lemur, seldom moves by day, but prowls about at night in search of
food. No sooner does it espy a sleeping bird, than it slowly advances
until within reach; then putting forward its paw with a motion slow
and imperceptible as the movement of the shadow on the dial, it gra-
 NATURAL HISTORY. 21
dually places its fingers over the devoted bird; then, with a movement
swifter than the eye can follow, it, seizes its startled prey.
Several specimens of this Loris. (Native name.)
animal have oeen kept m
captivity and have proved
very interesting in their
habits. Their sleep appeared
to be almost torpidity, as
they would suffer their cage
to be cleaned at any time
between six in the morning,
and the dusk of the evening.
One of them when quietly
awakened by thrusts of a
stick, would utter a low
plaintive cry, and walk once
or twice slowly round its
cage, and then sleep again.
Two genera are omitted Gracilis (Lat. slender), the Slender Lons.
between Lemur and Loris,
and several more between Loris and the Vespertilionidae

Family V. . . Yespertilionldae.—(Lat. vespertilio, a bat. Bat kind.;

Sub-family a. Pliyllostomina.—(Gr. (bvWov, a leaf; <ttopa, a mouth.)
Vampirus (“ said by Adelnng to be of Servian origin ”V

Spectrum (Lat. a spectre), the Vampire Bat.

We now arrive at the Bats, or Cheiroptera. This name is derived
from the singular manner in which their fore-paws, or hands, are
 NATURAL HISTORY.

developed into wings. If the fingers of a man were to be drawn out

like wire to about four feet in length, a thin membrane to extend from
linger to finger, and another membrane to fall from the little finger to
the ancles, he would make a very tolerable imitation of a Bat.
The usual food of Bats is insects, which they mostly capture on the
wing, but some, as the Vampires, suck blood from other animals, and a
'ew, as the Ivalongo, or Elying Box, live upon fruits, and so devour the
mangoes, that the natives are forced to cover them with bamboo baskets
to preserve them from the ravages of these animals, who would soon
strip the fruit-trees without these precautions. Even the cocoa nut is
not secure from their depredations.
The membrane of the Bat’s wing is plentifully supplied with nerves,
and is extremely sensitive, almost appearing to supply a sense independent
of sight. Spallanzani cruelly deprived several Bats of their eyes, and
then let them fly loose in his room, across which he had stretched strings
in various places. The unfortunate Bats, however, did not strike against
the strings or any other obstacles, but threaded their way among them
with a degree of accuracy perfectly wonderful. Many Bats possess a
similar membrane on the nose, wliich is possibly used for the same
purpose.
The long and muscular structure of these animals seems principally
directed towards their organs of flight. In order to give support to the
powerful muscles that move the wings, the breast-bone is developed in
front with a strong ridge, like that of a bird.* The shoulder blades and
collar bones are also exceedingly strong for the same reason, and as the
power of rotating the bones of the forearm would not only be useless
but even hurtful, these bones can only move backwards and forwards,
while the shoulder has considerable mobility.
The object of the extension of the finger joints is to give the animal
the power of extending the wing membrane or folding it at pleasure.
When the bat wishes to walk, it half folds the membrane and assumes
an attitude admirably represented in the cut of the Long-eared Bat.
The thumb joint has no part of the wing attached to it, but is left free,
and is armed with a hook at the extremity, by means of which it is
enabled to drag itself along in that singular vacillating hobble which
constitutes a Bat’s walk.
There are five tribes, or sub-families, of Bats, according to Gray, each
tribe including many genera. The British Museum alone possesses
seventy-seven genera.
The Vampire Bat is a native of South America, where it is very
common, and held in some dread. It lives on the blood of animals, and
6-ucks usually while its victim sleeps. The extremities where the blood
(lows freely, as the toe of a man, the ears of a horse, or the combs and
wattles of fowls, are its favourite spots. When it has selected a subject,
on which it intends to feed, it watches until the animal is fairly asleep,
it then carefully fans its victim with its wings while it bites a little hols
• the cut of the breast-bone of a bird at the commencement of the division AVES-
 NATURAL HISTORY. 23
in the ear or shoulder, and through this small aperture, into which a pin’s
head would scarcely pass, it contrives to abstract sufficient blood to
make a very ample meal. The wound is so small, and the Bat manages
so adroitly, that the victim does not discover that anything has happened
until the morning, when a pool of blood betrays the visit of the Vampire.
Darwin relates, that while travelling in Chili,
“ We were bivouacking late one evening near
Coquimoo, when my servant, noticing that one of
the horses was very restive, went to see what was
the matter, and fancying he could distinguish
SKULL OF COMMON
something, suddenly put his hand on the beast’s BAT.
withers, and secured a Vampire. In the morning
the spot where the bite had been inflicted was easily distinguished, from
being slightly swollen and bloody.”
The wound made by the bat’s teeth is
no larger than that made by a needle, and
hardly penetrates the skin, so that the
blood must be extracted by suction. There
have been very different accounts of the HAIR OF LONG-EARED BAT."
Vampires from travellers, some denying
that they suck blood at all, and others narrating circumstantially the
injuries inflicted upon their own persons. The cause for these dis¬
crepancies is probably owing to the constitution of the narrators, there
being some persons whom a Vampire will not touch, while others are
constantly victimised.
This Bat is placed among the Pliyllostomina, because the membrane on
its nose resembles a leaf. The length of its body is about six inches.

THE LONG-EARED BAT.

The Long-eared Bat is found in most parts of Europe, and is

common in England. It may be seen any warm evening flying about in
search of insects, and uttering its peculiar shrill cry. It is very common
on Hampstead Heath. The ears are about an inch and a half in length,
and have a fold in them reaching almost to the lips, from which pecu¬
liarity the genus is called Plecotus.
This Bat is very easily tamed, and will take flies and other insects from
the hand. One that I had in my own possession used to hang by the
wing-hooks during the whole of the day, and could hardly be persuaded
to move, or even to eat; but when the evening came on it became very
brisk indeed, and after carefully combing itself with its hind feet, it
would eagerly seize a fly or beetle and devour it, always rejecting the
tiead, legs, and wings. It was then very impatient to be released from

* Magnified about 200 diameters

24 NATURAL HISTORY

the cage, and would show its uneasiness bv climoing about the eage ana
fluttering its wings. It unfortunately died before further investigations
could be made, but during the short time that it survived, it seemed very
gentle, and only bit me once, although I used frequently to handle it.
a-, - -t tt - The singular appearance of
Sub-family c. Vespertiliomna. , . > ., y ,
(Lat. VIpertilh, a Bat.) ‘ * ha!r ot.tl,e Bat.as seel!
„ _ T v through a microscope is caused
PLECOTU8. (Gr. riAertw, I fold; ous,an ear.) by a “umber of sc‘ales adher.
ing to the exterior of the hair.
These scales can be rubbed
off, and in consequence of this
property, the bat’s hair often
assumes very singular forms.
The hair that is figured was
drawn by means of the Gamers
Lucida, from a specimen seen
by transmitted light, but if it
had been seen by reflected
light, it would have presented
quite a different appearance,
not very unlike the plant
called Mare’s tail before its
leaves are grown.
Aurltus (Lat. auris, an ear—Eared),
the Long-eared Bat.
The details of the hair are
different in the differing spe¬
cies of Bats, but there is always a character about them which is not to
be mistaken.
When the Long-eared Bat is suspended by its hinder claws it assumes
a most singular aspect. The beautiful long ears are tucked under its
wings, which envelop great part of its body. The tragus, that pointed mem¬
brane visible inside the ear, is then exposed, and appears to be the actual
ear itself, giving the creature a totally different cast of character.

QUADRUPEDS.
The former sections have been characterised by the number and pro¬
perties of the hands. In the section that we are about to consider, the
hands have been modified into feet. At the head of the quadrupeds, or
four-footed animals, are placed the carnivora, or flesh-eaters, and at the
head of the carnivora, the Felidae, or Cat kind are placed, as being the
most perfect and beautiful in that section. The Felidae all take their
prey by creeping as near as they can without observation, and then
springing upon their unfortunate victim, which seldom succeeds in making
 NATURAL HISTORY. 25

Jits escape, as the powerful claws and teeth of its enemv usually dash it
insensible to the ground. The jaws and teeth of the Felidae are very
different from those of the animals already described; their jaws are
more powerful, and their teeth longer and sharper. Their claws, too, are
necessarily very long, curved and sharp, and to prevent them from being
injured by coming into contact with the ground, they are concealed, when
not in use, in a sheath, which effectually guards them and keeps them
sharp. There are five claws on the fore feet, and four on the hinder feet.
The toneme ot the Felidae is very rough, as may be proved by feeling the
tongue of a cat. This roughness is occasioned by innumerable little
hooks which cover the tongue, point backwards, and are used for the
purpose of licking the flesh off the bones of their prey. The bristles of
the mouth, or whiskers, are each connected with a large nerve, and are
exceedingly useful in indicating an obstacle when the animal prowls by
night. Their eyes are adapted for nocturnal vision by the dilating power
of the pupil, which expands so as to take in every ray of light.

THE LION.
The Lion stands at the head of the wild beasts. His noble and digni¬
fied bearing, the terrific power compressed into his comparatively small
frame, and the deep majesty of his voice, have gained for him the name
of “ king of beasts.” The Lion inhabits Africa and certain parts of Asia,
such as portions of Arabia and Persia, and some parts of India. It
varies in external appearance according to the locality, but there is little
doubt that there is but one species. We are indebted to Mr. Cumming
for many interesting notices of this noble animal, observed during his
residence in Southern Africa, and from his book many extracts will be
given in the course of this work, as by his cool and daring courage he
has been enabled to watch the habits and actions of the most ferocious
beasts in the depths of their own haunts.
The Lion is barely four feet high, and eight in length, yet he can, with
little difficulty, dash the giraffe to the earth, or overcome the powerful
buffalo. He has been known to carry off a heifer in his mouth, and
although encumbered with such a burden, to leap a broad dyke, apparently
with the greatest ease. No animal willingly molests the Lion, and there
are but very few which he cannot overcome. The rhinoceros and
elephant are almost the only quadrupeds he dare not meddle with, but
he does not seem to stand in much fear of them. Gnoos, zebras, and
antelopes, seem to be his favourite prey, although one of the antelopes,
the oryx, or gemsbok, not unfrequently avenges its own death by the
destruction of its pursuer, its long straight horns impaling the Lion from
side to side. The two skeletons have been seen lying together. The
roar of the Lion is one of its chief peculiarities; the best description of
it is in Cumming’s Adventures :—
26 NATUKAL HISIOKK.

“One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is his voice,
which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists, at times,
of a low deep moaning, repeated five or six time§, ending in faintly audible
sighs; at other times he startles the forest with loud, deep-toned,
solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succession, each in¬
creasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies away in
five or six low, muffled sounds, very much resembling distant thunder.
At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard roaring in concert,
one assuming the lead, and two, three, or four more regularly taking up
their parts like persons singing a catch.”

Order II. . . . PERM.—(Lat. ferns, wild. Wild beasts.)

Family I. . . . Felidae.—(Lat. felis, a cat. Cat kind.)
Sub-family a. Felina.
Leo—(Lat. a Lion.)

Bar bar us (Lat. Jierce), the Lion.

“ As a general rule lions roar during the night, their sighing moans
commencing as the shades of evening envelope the forest, and continuing
at intervals throughout the night. In distant and secluded regions, how¬
ever, I have constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine and ten
o’clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather they are
to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is subdued.”
It is well known that the power of the human voice is very efficacious
 ‘>0
NATURAL HISTORT. -t i

' alarming even the most savage wild beasts. But I never remember
seeing it mentioned, that it is not so much the sound of the voice, as the
sound of the words that alarms these animals. Any one may test the
fact for themselves, for whereas they may shout inarticulately without
scaring away the wild birds and beasts of our own country, a lew words
spoken in comparatively a low key, sends them off at once.
Indeed we involuntarily use words on such an occasion, as for example,
if we are attacked by a dog or a bull, we do not content ourselves with
shouting, but speak words to it. The dumb brute seems to be cowed by
the “winged words” of human reason.
There is a remarkable instance of this faculty in the work of the
author whom I have before quoted. A lioness whom he had wounded
was about to spring upon him, but as he stood quite still, and recom¬
mended her in a commanding tone to “ take it easy,” she halted and per¬
mitted her assailant to retreat, which he did very slowly, still continuing
to talk to the lioness until he had made his escape.
The opinion that lions will not touch a dead animal is erroneous ; as
they were frequently shot by Mr. Cumming while devouring gnoos, &c.
that, had fallen by his rifle. Those lions who have once tasted human flesh
are generally the most to be dreaded, as they will even venture to spring
in among a company of men, and seize their victim. These lions are called
Man-eaters. During the latter part of Cumming’s residence in South
Africa a dreadful instance of their ferocity occurred.—While the hunt¬
ing party was encamped for the night in the territory of the Balakahari,
a lion, taking advantage of the stormy night, suddenly sprang upon two
men, Hendrick, the driver, and lluyter, the Bosjesman tracker, who were
wrapped in the same blanket, by the fire. It seized Hendrick by the neck,
and dragged him into the bushes, in spite of the blows which another
man gave it with a burning brand, leaving lluyter unhurt except by a few
scratches with its claws. Next morning it was shot by Mr. Cumming,
who placed its skin in his magnificent collection, where lluyter points it
out with great glee.
The Lioness is much smaller than the Lion, and is destitute of the
magnificent mane which is so great an ornament to her mate. As a
general rule she is more fierce and active than the male, especially before
she has had cubs, or while she is suckling them. She has usually from
two to four cubs at a time. They are beautiful playful little things, and
are slightly striped. They have no mane until about two years old.
While her cubs are small the Lioness knows no fear, and will attack a
company of men or a herd of oxen if they come too near her den. Her
mate also ably seconds her endeavours, and has been known to keep the
hunters at bay until she has withdrawn her cubs to a place of safety, after
which he bounds off in the direction which she has taken.
The cubs are remarkably heavy for their age. Many years ago, I had
a pair of young lion cubs in my hands. They were about the size of very
large cats, but weighed considerably more than their size led me to believe.
 2S NATURAL H Jo TORY.

They were playful little animals, but struck rather too hard to be agree¬
able.
The Lion when young is easily tamed, and shows a strong attachment
to its keeper. Tnose who have seen Van Amburgh will know what in¬
fluence man may obtain over this powerful creature. Many anecdotes
have been told of the celebrated lion “Nero,” who would suffer even
strangers to caress him, and carry children on his back with the greatest
good-nature.
Many naturalists, of whom Buffon is the chief, have fallen into errors
concerning the contradictory dispositions of the lion and tiger. “ The
lion unites wit h a high degree of fierceness, courage, and strength, the
more admirable qualities of nobleness, clemency, and magnanimity.
Walking with a gentle step, he does not deign to attack man unless pro¬
voked to the combat. He neither quickens his step, nor flies, and never
pursues the inferior animals except when urged by hunger;” while the
tiger “ presents a compound of meanness and ferocity; he seems always
thirsty for blood,” &c. &c. Now nothing can be more erroneous than
ihese sentences. The tiger is as tameable as the lion, the tiger and lion
seize their prey with equal ferocity, and neither will attack a manor any
other animal when satisfied with food.
There is one remarkable difference in the characters of the feline and
canine tribes. If a man is overcome by a wolf or a dog, the animal ceases
not to mangle its vanquished foe untd life is quite extinct. A dog kill¬
ing a rat is a good instance of this trait of character. But if a lion or
any other feline animal vanquishes a man, it contents itself wdtli the vic¬
tory for some time without making any attempt to injure him, unless he
tries to escape, in which case he is again dashed to the earth, and
probably considerably bitten as a warning. A cat treats a mouse just as
a lion treats a man.
This propensity in the lion has been the cause of saving several lives,
the men having been able either to destroy their foe by cautiously getting
out a weapon, or by lying still until they were succoured.
At the extremity of the lion’s tail there is a small hook or claw, which
has been represented as the means by which the animal lashes itself into
fury, using it as a spur. This is impossible, as the claw or prickle is very
small, not fixed to the bone as the claws of the feet are, but merely at¬
tached to the skin, and falls off if roughly handled. It is net present in
ail dons, as Mr. Wood only discovered it once out of numerous sDecimens
which he examined.
As an example of the accuracy of the Nineveh sculptures we may
DOtice that the little horny claw is faithfully represented. Indeed, the
sculptures of hunting scenes are executed with wonderful spirit and truth,
even delineating the different attitude in which a bull and a lion fall in
death. There is one group representing a combat between a lion and a
bull admirably represented, the whole action of the lion being wonderfully
correct, although slight)v exaggerated.
TIGER.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 29

Tigris.—(Lat. a Tiger.)

llegalis (Lat. royal), the Tiger,

This magnificent animal is found only in Asia, Hindostan being the part
most infested by it. In size it is almost equal to the lion, its height being
from three to four feet, and its length rather more than eight feet. It
has no mane, but to compensate for this deficiency it is decorated with
black stripes, upon a ground of reddish yellow fur, which becomes almost
white on the under parts of the body. The chase of the Tiger is among
the most exciting and favourite sports in India. A number of hunters
assemble, mounted on elephants trained to the sport, and carry with them
a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs, or carriages mounted on the ele¬
phants’ backs. Thus armed, they proceed to the spot where a tiger has
Been seen. The animal is usually found hidden in the long grass or jun¬
gle, which is frequently eight or more feet in height, and when roused,
it endeavours to creep away under the grass. The movement of the
leaves betrays him, and he is checked by a rifle bail aimed at him through
the jungle. Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he turns
round, and springs at the nearest elephant, endeavouring to clamber up
it, and attack the narty in the howdah. This is the most dangerous part
ao NATURAL IilSTORI.

of the proceedings, as many elephants will turn round and run away,
regardless of the efforts of their drivers to make them face the tiger.
Should, however, the elephant stand firm, a well-directed ball checks the
tiger in his spring, and he then endeavours again to escape, but a volley
of rifle balls from the backs of the other elephants, wrho by this time have
come up, lays the savage animal prostrate, and in a very short time his
skin decorates the successful marksman’s liowdah. These hunts are not
carried on without considerable danger, as in some cases the tiger has
succeeded in reaching the liowdah, and more than one hunter has been
known to overbalance himself in his anxiety to get a shot at his game,
and has fallen into the very claws of the enraged brute. Once a wounded
tiger sprang at a badly trained elephant, who immediately turned round
and made off. The tiger succeeded in reaching the elephant’s tail, which
’t mangled dreadfully, but could climb no higher, partly on account of its
wounds, and partly through the exertions of a native, who kept it back
with a spear. The tiger hung in this way for the greater part of a mile,
when another hunter succeeded in overtaking the terrified elephant, and
with a single ball freed the poor animal from its tormentor.
Of late years tiger hunting has become less dangerous, principally on
account of the innate fear that all wild beasts seem to have of the power
of fire-arms. When mankind first waged war against the tigers, they
did not heed the fire-arms, but experience has taught them a fear ol' those
terrible weapons, which appears to have been communicated to their pos¬
terity, just as the puppy of a retriever dog will plunge into the water
and fetch a stick without being taught.
Tigers are usually taken by the natives in pitfalls, at the bottom of
which is planted a bamboo stake, the top of which is sharpened into a
point. The animal falls on the point and is impaled.
The general notion that tigers cannot be tamed is erroneous. They
can be tamed as easily as the lion; but great caution must be used with
all wild animals, as in a moment of irritation, their savage nature breaks
out, and the consequences have more than once proved fatal. The me¬
lancholy death of the “Lion Queen,” in Wombwell’s Menagerie, is a
recent example of this propensity.
In the British Museum are three cubs bred between a lion and a
tigress. They are not unlike lion cubs, but the stripes are much darker,
and the colour of the fur is brighter.
The colouring of the tiger is a good instance of the manner in which
animals are protected by the similarity of their external appearance to the
particular locality in which they reside. The stripes on the tiger’s skin
so exactly assimilate with the long jungle grass amongst which it lives,
that it is impossible for unpractised eyes to discern the animal at all,
even when a considerable portion of its body is exposed.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 31

LsorAiiDUS.—(Lat. leo, a lion; pardus. a panther.)

Varlus (Lat. varied), the Leopard, or Panther.

The Leopard is an inhabitant of Africa, India, and the Indian Islands.

A black variety inhabits Java, and is not uncommon there. Its height
is about two feet. This and the following Felidae are accustomed to live
much on trees, and are on that account called Tree-tigers by the natives.
Nothing can be more beautiful than the elegant and active manner in
which the leopards sport among the branches of the trees: at one time
they will bound from branch to branch with such rapidity that the eye
can scarcely follow them; then as if tired, they will suddenly stretch
themselves along a branch so as to be hardly distinguishable from the
bark, but start up again on the slightest provocation, and again resume
their graceful antics. It is easily tamed, and expresses great fond¬
ness for its keeper, and will play with him like a cat. A remarkably
beautiful specimen in Wombwell’s Menagerie was exceedingly fond of
playing with the tuft at the extremity of a lion’s tail, and from the
familiar manner in which he patted and bit it, he evidently considered it
as manufactured for his own particular entertainment.
This animal is exceedingly fond of some scents, especially preferring
lavender water, by means of wrhich predilection, it has been taught to
perform several tricks.
The Leopard and Panther are considered as the same animal, on the
authority of Mr. Gray.
32 NATURAL HISTORY.

LEOPARDUS.

Uncia (Lat. uncia, an ounce), the Ounce.

The Ounce is a native of Lidia, and has been often confounded with
the Leopard. Its fur is much more rough than that of the leopard, and
the tail is almost bushy, especially towards the extremity. Its body is
marked with irregular wavy stripes, and the head is adorned with black
spots. The general colour is a yellowish grey.
It is easy to distinguish the Ounce from the Leopard, by the indis
tinctness of the markings, and also by the roughness of the fur, which
latter distinction, in the opinion of some naturalists, shows that it lives
in mountainous regions. The habits and history of this animal are but
little known.

The Jaguar inhabits America. It is larger and more powerful than

the leopard, which it resembles in colour, but has a black streak across
the chest, and a black spot in the centre of the rosettes. It is fond of
climbing trees, and finds little difficulty in ascending, even when the trunk
is smooth and destitute of branches. It chases monkeys successfully,
and is said to watch for turtles on the beach, and to scoop out their flesh
bv turning them on their backs and inserting its paws between the shells.
Nor does it confine its attention to the turtles themselves, for it watches
them lay their eggs, and then scoops them out of the sand with its claws.
It often makes fearful havoc among the sheepfoids, and is said to depart
so far from the usual habits of the Lelidse, as to enter the water aftei
 NATURAL HISTORY.

tish, and to capture them in LEOPARDUS.

the shallows by striking them
out of the water with a blow
of its paw. There have been
instances of the domestic cat
acting in the same manner.
When it captures one of
the larger animals it destroys
it by leaping upon its back,
and twisting the head of its
prey round, until the neck is
dislocated.

The Puma inhabits tue

whole of America, where if is
held in much dread by the
natives. Its colour is an uni¬
form grey, fading into white
on the under parts of its body,
and thin similarity of colour
is the reason that the name
“concolor” has been given
to it. It lives much on trees, ~ v ,, T
ai} 1 usually lies along the Oncu (Or. Oyaa, a proper namo), the Jaguar
blanches, where its uniform dusky fur renders it so like the bark that
it can scarcely be distinguished from the branch. This habit it preserves
when in captivity, and
LEOPARDUS.
many persons pass its
den in the Zoological
Gardens, fancying it
empty, while the
puma is lying along
its shelf unobserved.
Mr. Eaton Stone,
the celebrated eques ¬
trian who has tra¬
velled for many years
in the wilder parts of
America, told me that
the puma is accus¬
tomed to follow men
by scent, and to track
t hem on their j ourncy,
waiting for an oppor-

thmCnobservfdPn Concolor (Lat. of the same colow), the Punea.

the traveller teeps nis eye on the animal it is perfectly harmless, but it
n
34 NATURAL HISTORY.

will wait for the moment when his eye L withdrawn to spring upon
him.
The AmericaiiS'.always speak of this animal as the panther, or “painter,”
as it is more familiarly pronounced; and many authors still term it the
cougar, a word contracted from the original elongated unpronounceable
Mexican name, “ Gouazouara.”
LEOPARD US-
The Ocelot, one of the
Tiger-cats, is a native of
Mexico and Peru. Its height
is about eighteen inches, and
its length about three feet.
It is a most beautiful animal,
and is easily tamed. When
in a wild state it lives prin¬
cipally on monkeys, which it
takes by stratagem.

The domestic Cat was

formerly supposed to be the
same animal as the wild Cat,
but it is now proved to be
Pardalis (Gr. irdf)5a\LS, a pard), the Ocelot. a distinct species, and the
difference is seen at once by
the form of the tail. That of the domestic cat is long and taper, while
that of the wild cat is bushy and short. To make the point clearer, it
may be observed that domestic cats, which have made their escape into
the woods and become wild, have retained their slenderness of tail for
several generations, while the wild cat on being domesticated never
loses its characteristic roundness and shortness of tail. See the cut on
page 36.
The cat is an animal which, whether lying curled up on the hearth-rug
fast asleep and immersed in dreams of shadowy fat mice, or leisurely
pacing the room, and complacently muttering its self-satisfied purr as it
brushes softly against the legs of the table or chair, certainly succeeds
in giving a great air of comfort to a room. On this account it is a
general favourite, especially in houses where there are no children. Pussy,
however, is not only ornamental, but useful also, as she is eager and
successful in the pursuit of rats and mice. So strong, indeed, is the
passion for hunting in the breast of the Cat, that she sometimes disdains
mice “ and such small deer,” and trespasses on warrens or preserves. A
large tabby cat, residing at no great distance from White Horse Vale,
vas accustomed to go out poaching in the preserves of a neighbouring
aobleman, and so expert was she at this illegal sport that sue constantly
returned bearing in her mouth a leveret ora partridge, which she insisted
on presenting to her mistress, who in vain endeavoured to check her
aiarauding propensities. These exploits, however, brought their cwn
 NATURAL niSTORY. 35
punishment; for one day, when in the act of seizing a leveret, she found
nerself caught in a vermin trap, which deprived her of one of her hind
legs This misfortune did not damp her enthusiasm for hunting, a?
although the loss of a leg prevented her from chasing hares, and such
like animals, she would still bring in an occasional rat.
This instinctive desire of hunting seems to be implanted in cats at a
very early age. I have seen kittens but just able to see, bristle up at
the touch of a mouse, and growl in a terrific manner if disturbed.
Weissenborn, in his Magazine of Natural History, gives the following
interesting account of the propensity of the cat to hunt, and of the
FELTS.

Domestlca (Lat. domestic), the Cat.

mice to escape, both being at an age rendering it impossible that any
instruction could have been given them by their parents.
“ That instinct is an inherent or innate quality of animals is clearly
proved by experience. The cat possesses the instinct- of catching and
eating mice, and the mouse that of shunning the cat as its most dan¬
gerous enemy. Once, in Rome, I happened to open a drawer which I
seldom had occasion to use, when I saw a ^ouse jumping out of it, and
tound among the papers a nest with five young mice, naked and blind,
and of a pale flesh-colour. I placed them on a table, handled them, &c ,
and they evinced no symptoms of fright, nor any inclination to get away,
but only appeared eager to approach each other for the sake of warmth.
There happened to be in the house a very young cat who had never
tasted anything but milk. I placed it near the little mice by way of
experiment, but to my astonishment it did not even look at them, nor
perceive them, even when I turned its eyes in the proper direction, until
at last, when I had repeatedly approached its nose to the mice, it sud¬
denly cau .ht a scent which made it tremble with desire. The propensity
3G NATURAL HISTORY.

oecame more and more violent, and the cat smelled at the mice, touching
them with its nose, when all at once the pale-coloured creatures became
suffused with blood, and began to make great exertions to get out of the
way of imminent danger, whilst the cat as eagerly followed them.”
The Cat displays a great affection for her kittens, and her pride when
they first run about is quite amusing. While I was an undergraduate at
College, a cat belonging to the baker’s department formed a great friend¬
ship for me, and used to come every morning and evening to obtain her
share of breakfast and tea. She continued her attentions for some time,
bnt one morning she was absent from her accustomed corner, nor did she
return until nearly a week had passed, when she came again, but always
seemed uneasy unless the door were open.
A few days afterwards she came up as
usual, and jumped on my knee, at the
same time putting a little kitten into my
hand. She refused to take it back again,
so I restored it to its brothers and sisters
myself. A few hours afterwards, on going
cats tails.1 into my bedroom, I found another black
kitten fast asleep on the bed.
Cats are very fond of aromatic plants and several powerful scents.
My own cat has just been discovered in the act of eating the green tops
of a musk plant that was standing in the window. Valerian appears to
be the great attraction for cats; and any one who is disposed to place a
plant of valerian in his garden must beware of the cats, for they will
come in numbers, roll over it, and scratch up the plant until there is not
Caracal.—(Turk, black ears.) a vestige of it left. More¬
over they will fight lor the
fragments in various parts oi
the garden, and cause great
confusion among the seeds.
There are several varieties
of the domestic cat, among
which the Angora cats, with
their beautiful long fur, and
the Manx cats of the Char¬
treuse breed, which have no
tails, are the most conspi*
cuous.

The Caracal is found in

must parts of Asia and Africa.
It derives its name from the
Melanotis (Gr. ,u£\as, black oi)s, an ear), black tips of its ears, which
the Caracal.
render it a very conspicuous

* i Tail of Domestic Cat; 2. Tail of Wild Cat..

 NATURAL, HISTORY. 37
animal. It is one of the group of the Lynxes, and is generally supposed
to be the animal referred to by several ancient authors under the name
of Lynx. It lives on the smaller quadrupeds and birds, which it pursues
even to the tops of the trees. There are no records of its being tamed,
as in every instance when confined it snarls at those who approach
its cage. The length of its body is about two feet, and its height about
fourteen inches.

The Canada Lynx is a native of North America, and is remarkable

for its gait. Its method of progression is by bounds from all four feei
at once with the back arched. Lyncus.- (Gr. a„'7£, a Lynx.)
It feeds principally on the
American hare, as it is not,
courageous enough to attack
the larger quadrupeds. Its
length is about three feet.
The natives sometimes eat its
flesh, which is white and firm,
and not unlike that of the
American hare itself. Its
skin forms an important arti¬
cle in commerce, and between
seven and nine thousand are
imported yearly by the Hud¬
son’s Bay Company, by whom
the grey specimen in the
British Museum was pre- ~ , . (T . ,„ , . j7
, j r Canadensis (Lat. of Canada), tke
S6T1 e ' Canada Lynx.

The Chetah, or Hunting Leotard, as it is sometimes called, is one

of thp most elegant and graceful animals known. It is a native both of
Air.ca and India, but it is only in the latter country that it is used for
hunting game, as the Africans appear not to possess sufficient ingenuity
to train the animal. The method of employing it is usually as follows
--The Chetah is either led blind-folded in a chain, or placed upon a
hackery, or native cart, and taken as near as possible to the place where
antelopes or deer are feeding. When close enough, the hunter takes the
band tram its eyes, and directs its head towards the game. Directly the
Chetah sees the deer, it creeps off the cart, and makes towards them as
rapidly and silently as it can, carefully availing itself of the accidental
cover of a bush, or stone, precisely as a cat does when stealing after a
bird. When it has succeeded in unobservedly approaching the unsuspect¬
ing herd, it makes two or three tremendous springs, and fastens on the
back of one unfortunate deer, brings it to the ground, and waits until its
38 NATURAL HISTORY.

keeper comes up, who induces it to leave its prey by a ladle-full of the
blood, which he takes care to have ready. The Chetali is then hooded
and led back to his cart. It is so easily tameable and so gentle that it is
frequently led about the streets by a string for sale.

OUKPAKDA.

Jubata (Lat. crested), the Ohetah.

It is rather larger than the leopard, and differs from it in the length of
its paws, its inability to climb trees, and the crispness of its fur. It is
therefore placed in a different genus from the leopard. It derives its
name of “jubata,” from a thin mane running down the neck.

The Hyenina, or Hyaenas, are remarkable for their predatory, fero¬

cious, and withal, cowardly habits. There are several Hyaenas, the
striped, the spotted, and the villose, but as the habits of all are very
similar, only one will be mentioned. The Hyaenas, although very re¬
pulsive in appearance, are yet very useful, as they prowl in search of
dead animals, especially of the larger kinds, and will devour them even
when putrid, so that they act the same part among beasts, that the
vultures do among birds, and are equally uninviting in aspect. They
not unfrequently dig up recently interred corpses, and in Abyssinia,
according to Bruce, they even flock in numbers into the village streets,
where they prey on slaughtered men who are thrown out unburied. 0n6
of these animals attacked Bruce in- his tent, and was only destroyed
after a severe battle. Their jaws and teeth are exceedingly powerful, as
 NATURAL HISTORY. :sd

they can crush the thigh-bone of an ox with apparently little effort; and su
great is the strain upon the bones by the exertion of these muscles, that
the vertebrae of the neck become anchviosed, as it is called, that is,
become united together, and the animal has a perpetual si iff neck in con¬
sequence. Before the anatomy of the hyaena was better known, people
thought that it had only one bone in its neck. The skull too is very
strong, and furnished with
heavy ridges for the support Sub-family b. Ilyenina.
Hyaena. — (Gv/'Ycuva.)
of the muscles which move
the jaw.
The hinder parts of the
Hyaena are very small, and
give it a strange shambling
appearance when walking.
The Hyaena is easily tamed,
and even domesticated, so that
the tales of its untameable
disposition are entirely erro¬
neous.
The striped ITyaena is found
m many parts of Asia and
Africa, where it is both a
benefit and a pest, for when
dead animals fail it, the flocks Striata (Lat. striped), the Striped llycvna.
and herds are ravaged, and
even man does not always escape.

The Viverrina, or. Civets, are active little animals, averaging about
two feet in length. The whole group is celebrated for the perfume which
is secreted in a grandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance
in commerce. If the Civet Sub-family c. Viverrina.
is kept alive, the perfume is Viveura.—(Lat. a Ferret.)
obtained by enclosing it in a
long narrow box so that it
cannot turn round, and then
scraping the secretion from the
pouch with a spoon. If the
creature is killed, the entire
pouch is usually cut off, and
sells for a higher sum than
when the perfume is sold
separately, as it is not so Civetta (Arabic Zibetta, scent), the
liable to adulteration. Civet Cat.
The Civet is only found in North Africa, especially in Abyssinia, where
it takes up its abode on uncultivated and barren hills. It feeds upon
40 NATURAL history.

birds and the smaller quadrupeds, which it takes by surprise. As it

pursues its prey by night only, its eyes are formed for seeing in the
dark, and gleam as do those of a cat.

Genetta.—(Fr. Gcnette.) ^ie Genet slightly re¬

sembles the cat, particularly
in its spots, and the power of
climbing trees. It inhabits
Africa, and is not unfrequent-
ly found in the south of
France. At Constantinople
it is domesticated, and keeps
the houses free from rats and
_. — mice, which are said to be un-
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Genet. ab!e to °nd"e its f ?"*• but
it is much more probable that
it frees the houses from mice by devouring them.

The Ichneumons, or Mangousts, well deserve their name of Creepers,

for with their long bodies and snouts, their short limbs and slender
tails3 they insinuate themselves into every crevice in their way in search
Herpestes. — (Gr. epirparris, a creeper.) ol their expected lood.
Few animals are more
useful than the Ich¬
neumons. Snakes, li¬
zards, crocodiles’ eggs,
or even young croco
diles themselves, form
their principal food,
Ichneumon (Gr. ixvtvpLuov, a tracker), the and their activity is so
Egyptian Ichneumon. great that when these
sources fail, they are able to secure birds, and even seize upon the swift
and wary lizards, which, when alarmed, dart ofF like a streak of green
light glancing through the bushes.
The Egyptian Ichneumon, or Pharaoh’s Rat, as it is sometimes called,
is a native of North Africa, and is often domesticated for the purpose of
destroying the various snakes, and other reptile annoyances, which are
such a pest in the houses of hot countries. It principally seeks its prey
by night, creeping along with such noiseless and snake-like progress,
that not a sound warns the unsuspecting victim of its danger. Its
slender snout enables it to suck out the contents of eggs with ease, and
it destroys serpents by creeping behind them, and then suddenly leaping
on their heads, which it instantly crushes between its sharp teeth. Its
length without the tail is about eighteen inches.
About twelve genera are omitted.
 NATL UAL iilSTOlt Y . 4 I

THE DOG.

We now arrive at the Dog Family, which includes the Dogs, Wolves,
Jackals, and Foxes. The first of the Dogs is the Kolsun, or Dliale, which
inhabits Bombay and Nepaul. It hunts in packs, as most of the dogs
do even in a wild state, and has been known to destroy tigers and
chetahs. Let us pass to a more interesting animal, the Newfoundland
Dog. This magnificent creature was originally brought from Newfound¬
land. It is often confounded with the Labrador Dog, a larger and more
powerful animal. Both these dogs are trained by their native masters to
draw sledges and little carriages, and on that account are highly esteemed.
The Newfoundland dog is well known as a most faithful guardian of its

Sub-family d. Canlna.—(Lat. Cams, a I)o£.)

CANIS.

Familiaris (Lat. familiar), the Newfoundland Do<j.

master’s property. It is remarkably fond of the water, and will fetch out
any article which its master indicates, and lay it at his feet. Many
instances are known of this noble animal saving the lives of people that
have fallen into the water, and must have perished but for its timely
aid. There is an anecdote related of one of these dogs leaping over the
parapet of a bridge, and rescuing a baby who had sprung from its nurse’s
arms into the river. A gentleman who just came up, and was caressing
the dog after its exploit, discovered, on seeing the child, that It was his
42 NATURAL HISTORY.

own. He offered a large sum for the noble creature, but his master
refused to part with him on any terms.
This is one of the largest of the dogs, as it stands nearly two feci
two inches in height.

The Water Spa¬

niel, as its name
denotes, delights in
plunging into water,
especially if any game
is to be found among
the rushes that fringe
the rivers. It is a
most useful assistant
when shooting wild
ducks, or water hens,
as, when wounded,
they conceal them
selves so effectually,
that, without a dog,
discovery is almost
impossible. It can
THE WATER SPANIEL.
also dive to some
depth, and bring up
in its moutn any small object from the bottom.

The King Charles’s

Dog isa diminutive breed
of spaniels, first brought
into notice by Charles
the Second, who delighted
in being accompanied by
them in his walks, and
was accustomed to admit
them into his bedchamber,
and even permitted them
to lie on his bed.

The Bloodhound.—There are several varieties of this animal, in¬

habiting Cuba, Africa, and England. They all are endowed with a
wonderfully acute sense of smell, and can trace a man or animal with
almost unerring certainty. The Cuban Bloodhound was formerly em¬
ployed by the Spaniards to hunt down the natives while endeavouring
to escape from their invasions. A few years since, one of these dogs
«aved the life of its master, an American hunter, by boldly attacking
 NATURAL HISTORY. 43
a puma wliicn had sprung on him in the darkness, and was lacerating
him in a dreadful manner. The sagacious animal had been tied up at
home, but apparently knowing the dangers of the forests through which
his master was about to pass, he broke his chain, and arrived barely
in time to save the hunter from a horrible death.
The English Bloodhound is frequently mentioned by the older histo¬
rians. Bruce was repeatedly chased by bloodhounds, and at one time he
was so closely pressed that he barely escaped by leaping into a brook.
and wading a con¬
siderable distance
up the stream,
knowing that run¬
ning water would
not retain the scent.
The bloodhounds
led his pursuers as
far as the place
where he entered
the water, but the
stratagem of Bruce
baffled them, and
the pursuit was
abandoned. The
voice of these dogs
is peculiarly deep,
and may be heard
THE ii LOODHOUN1).
at considerable dis¬
tance. Not very long since, a sheepstealer was detected by a bloodhound
when every other means had failed. The dog, on being shown the foot¬
steps of the thief, at once set off on the track, and dashed into a cottage,
where the unsuspecting robber was busily employed in skinning the sheep
which he had stolen. The height of this splendid animal is about two
feet four inches, and its colour a reddish tan, becoming almost black
alongo the back.

The Eoxiiound and Beagle are not very dissimilar in form or habits.
They both follow game by the scent, and are used in hunting. The Fox¬
hound, as its name implies, is used for hunting the fox, and enters into
the sport with extraordinary eagerness. These dogs are trained with
great care : whole books have been written on their education, and men
are engaged at high salaries to train them to the sport. England
possesses the finest breed of foxhounds in the world, and certainly no
expense is spared to improve them, as one kennel is said to have cost
nearly twenty thousand pounds. The height of the foxhound is about
twenty-two inches.
41 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Beagle is used principally for hare hunting It is mucu smailei

than the foxhound,
and not nearly sc
swift, but its scent
is so perfect that it
follows every track
of the flying hare,
unravels all het
windings, and sel¬
dom fails to secure
her at last. Sports¬
men usually prefer
the smallest beagles
obtainable. The
most valuable pacK
of these dogs known,
used to be carried
to and from tne
field in a pair of
THE FOXHOUND. . » r
panniers slung a-
cross a horse’s back. Unfortunately, this pack was so well known, that
numerous were the attempts to gain possession of it. One ill-fated
evening, as the dogs were
returning in their panniers
after the day’s sport, the
keeper was decoyed away
by some stratagem, and
when he returned, his dis¬
may was great to find that
the dogs, panniers, and horse
■were all missing. No traces
of them were discovered,
and it was conjectured that
they must lave been sold on
the Continent. It is a com¬
mon custom m tne military
schools and sometimes at
the universities, to follow
the beagie >n foot. There
nas been for several years a society at Oxford, who thus nunt on foot.
As too much time would be lost in looking for a living hare, a dead
rabbit is trailed along the ground, and as its fur has been rubbed with
aniseed, the dogs can follow it easily.

The Pointer is used by sportsmen to point out the spot where the
game lies. It ranges the fields until it scents the hare or partridge lying
 NATURAL HISTORY. 45
close on the ground. It then remains still as it carved in stone, every
limb fixed, and the tail pointing straight behind it. In this attitude it
remains until the gun is discharged, reloaded, and the sportsman has
reached the place where the bird sprung. It then eagerly searches for
the game, and brings the bird in its mouth.* There are many anecdotes
of its intelligence, among which the following is not the least interesting.
In 1829, Mr. J.
Webster was out
on a shooting party
near Dundee, when
a female pointer,
having traversed tiie
field which the
sportsmen were then
in, proceeded to a
wall, and, just as
she made the leap,
got the scent of
some partridges on
the opposite side of
the wall. She hung
by her fore-feet
until the sportsmen
came up ; in which
situation, while they THE POINTER.
were at some dis¬
tance, it appeared to them that she had got her leg fastened among f lie
stones of the wall, and was unable to extricate herself. But, on coming
up to her, they found that this singular circumstance proceeded from her
caution, lest she should flush the birds, and that she had thus purposely
suspended herself in place of completing her leap.
When badly trained, this dog is apt to make very absurd mistakes. A
young pointer belonging to a friend disappointed him by most perversely
pointing at a pig; and on another occasion was discovered feasting on a
dead sheep instead of attending to its business.

The group of the Mastiff dogs is distinguished by the shortness of

the nose and the breadth of the head. This group includes the mastiff,
the bull-dog, and the almost obsolete absurd little pug-dog. The breadth
of their heads is caused by the large muscles which move the jaw.
The English Mastiff is generally employed as a house-dog, as its
powerful frame and deep voice are well fitted to scare away marauders,
or to repel them if they approach too near. It is by far the most saga¬
cious of the whole group, and exhibits much more attachment to its
master than the others. This animal has been called by several names.
* Manj- dng-traineiB do not permit the do<t even to touch the bird.
46 NATURAL HISTORY.

THE MASrif'F.

of which “Ban-dog” is the best known. Bewick thinks that the ban-dog
is a separate species, of a lighter make than the ordinary English mastiff.
The Bull-dog is proverbial for courage and endurance. Unfortunately
its social qualities are by no
means pleasing, as, although
it has some attachment to its
master, yet it is not always
safe even for liim to disturb
it. This dog was extensively
used in the cruel sport of bull¬
baiting, a recreation now ex¬
tinct. When opposed to the
bull, the dog would fly at its
nose, and there hang in spite
of all the infuriated animal’s
struggles. So firm is its hold,
that the owner of a bull-dog
once laid a wager that when
his dog had seized a bull he
TliK BULL-DOG.
would cut off all his feet in
succession without inducing the poor beast to loose his hold. Thu
experiment was made, and the cruel master, who deserved a similar fate
himself, won his wager.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 47

The Pug-dog looks like a bull-dog in miniature. It was formerly in-

great request as a pet, but is now seldom seen. Its tail is curled over
its back so tightly, that it is not very difficult to believe the story of a
pug-dog being lifted off his hind-legs by the curliness of his tail.

The Terriers never grow to any considerable size. There are severa
breeds of terriers, among
which the English and Scotch
are most conspicuous. These
dogs are principally used for
destroying rats or other ver¬
min, and are so courageous
that they do not. hesitate to
unearth the fox or the badger.
Otters are also hunted by
them, but prove by no means
an easy prey, as their snake¬
like body, sharp teeth, and
amphibious habits, render
them very difficult to seize,
and their tenacity of life will
frequently enable them to
T11E ENGLISH TERRIER.
escape when the dog consi¬
ders them dead. The Scotch Terrier is a rough, wiry little dog, with
hair hanging over its eyes, so that those organs are hardly visible, and
when it is in the water its wetted hair quite obscures its vision.
There is a smaller breed of
these dogs called the “ Skye
Terrier,” whose principal
beauty seems to consist in
their ugliness.
Terriers are extremely at¬
tached to their master, and
are capable of learning many
amusing tricks. I had a
terrier, said to be of Irish
breed, who had imbibed
many of the eccentricities of
the Irish character. He was
particularly fond of terrifying
lapdogs, a species of animal
which he held in supreme;
contempt. On one occasion, 'M,E SC0TCH terrier.
he met a very fat lapdog, the property of an equally fat old lady,
wrddling along the street. Rory looked at it for a short time, and
48 NATURAL HISTORY.

then gave it a pat which rolled it over on its back. Its mistress
immediately snatched it up, and put it on her muff, whereupon Rory
erected himself on his hind-legs, an-art which he possessed in great
perfection, and walked along by her side, making occasional snatches
at the lapdog. The terrified old lady struck at him with her boa,
which Rory immediately caught in his mouth, and carried off down the
street in an ecstasy of delight, ever and anon tripping over it and rolling
head over heels. He had learned to shut the door, ring the bell, bring
the slippers, or put the cat down stairs, which he accomplished by push¬
ing her with his nose down each successive stair. During hA residence
at College he was accustomed to sit, dressed in a cap and gown, at the
breakfast table, where his deportment was always most exemplary, and
afforded a good example to many of the guests.
Poor Rory is dead now, but there is a record of his life in the
“ Sketches and Anecdotes.”

The Shepherd’s dog is a rough, shaggy animal, with sharp pointed

ears and nose. It is an invaluable assistant to the shepherd, as it knows
all its master’s sheep, never suffers them to stray, and when two flocks
have mixed, it will separate its own charge with the greatest certainty.
It understands every look and gesture of its beloved master, and drives
the dock to any place which he points out. This is the dog alluded to
by Eurns in the following beautiful passage:—“Man,” said he, “is the
god of the dog; he
knows no other; he
can understand no
other. And see how
he worships him!
with what reverence
he crouches at his
feet! with what
love he fawns upon
him ! with what de¬
pendence he looks
up to him ! and with
what cheerful ala¬
crity he obeys him !
His whole soul is
wrapt up in his god !
all the powers and
,
XHJS SHEi'HERD S DUG.
faculties of his na-
,
ture are devoted to
his service ! and these powers and faculties are ennobled bv the inter¬
course. Divines tell us that it ought just to be so with the" Christian
but the doir nuts the Christian to shame.”
 NATURAL HISTORY. 40
The Greyhound is the swiftest of all the dogs, and is principally used
in the pursuit of the hare, which amusement is termed coursing. It has
but little delicacy of scent, and hunts almost entirely by sight. The
hare endeavours to baffle it by making sharp turns, which the dog cannot
do on account of its superior size, and has therefore to take a circuit,
during which the hare makes off in another direction. The hare also hat
the property of stopping almost instantaneously when at full speed, it
puts this manoeuvre into force, when it is nearing its favourite hiding
place. It induces the dog to spring upon it, and then suddenly checks
itself. The dog is carried twenty or thirty yards forward by its own
momentum, and the hare springs off to her place of refuge.
At Ashborne, in Derbyshire, there is a public-house sign representing
a black and white greyhound chasing a hare. One greyhound was a littje
in advance of the
other, and struck
the game so forcibly
with its nose that
the hare was thrown
over its back into the
jaws of the other
greyhound. This
animal has been
known to exert
rather an unexpect¬
ed talent, viz. re¬
tracing a journey
during which it had
been a close pri¬
soner.
“The celebrated
greyhound, Black-
eyed Susan, was
brought to Edin¬
burgh from Glasgow in the boot of a coach, on the night of Wednesday,
the 13th May, 1835. On the following Sunday evening she made her
escape, and in forty-eight hours reached her kennel, eight miles beyond
Glasgow, being fifty-two miles in all. The road between Glasgow and
Edinburgh she had never travelled on foot, and from the time taken she
cannot have come direct; but by what route or process this animal made
her point good it is in vain to conjecture.”

I have lately made acquaintance with a very unique dog called “Quiz.'’
I could not class him with any of the before-mentioned dogs, as no one
has been bold enough to say exactly what kind of dog he is. Some say
he is a poodle, some say he is a shock, while some give their opinion
that lie is a very small water spaniel; but no one has as yet decided or
60 S <I URAL IIISTOKY.

the precise breed to which he belongs. At lirst sight, a stranger would

say that there was no difficulty about the matter, as the object lying on
the tloor can be nothing more or less than two mops without handles.
But the thrums appear too long even for a mop, and if the visitor looks
close he may see two glistening specks buried beneath the bundle oi
woollen cords. These are the animal’s eyes, and if the stranger speaks
kindly to him, a slight agitation of the opposite extremity proclaims that
a tail is situated in that vicinity. Without these tests it would be
impossible to judge where his head or his tail were, or whether he
possessed such organs at all. Indeed one visitor did deliberately mistake
his tail for his head.
He is a wonderfully clever dog, and perfectly capable of appreciating
nis own abilities. When told, he will play the piano and sing, the former
feat being performed by beating the keys with his forefeet, while the
latter accomplishment is represented by a melodious howl, during the
performance of which he throws back his head and looks at the ceiling
in the most approved style. He taught himself many of his tricks, and
although my space will not permit me to give many lines to one animal,
one of his eccentric accomplishments must be narrated. He is extremely
fond of being noticed, and will play off all kinds of antics to draw atten¬
tion. Once his mistress was unwell, and sent for her medical attendant
who according to the received routine felt her pulse and inspected her
tongue. This took place for several days in succession, and Quiz felf
himself aggrieved that no notice should be taken of him. A few days
afterwards Quiz was observed sitting on his hind legs, holding out his
paw and putting out his tongue as he had seen his mistress do. I have
seen him perform this feat several times. He has not patience to keep
his tongue out, but continues rapidly putting it out and then drawing
it back again.
Although so fond of attention he is a very modest, dog in his way,
and cannot endure that his face should be seen. If any one pushes
aside the heavy mass of woolly ringlets which entirely obscure his head,
he gives himself an impatient shake, and effectually conceals every
particle of his countenance from the public gaze. I think that he must
be ashamed of his nose because it is white, and not black like that of
other dogs.
It is amusing to note the comments which accompany his journeys
through the streets. Some spectators express their opinion that he is a
young lion, while others are as strongly persuaded that he is a bear. One
gentleman, seeing the dog in the arms of its mistress, took it for a mulf
of a novel and eccentric character. It is impossible to give any idea of
his appearance when walking, except by returning to my first simile of i
mop. The only image by wliich the appearance of this remarkable dog
can be expressed, is by requesting the reader to imagine three or four
double handfuls of mop thrums twice the ordinary length, trundling along
the ground by some invisible power, and attaching to themselves all the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 51

hits of stick, dried hones, &c. that come in the path of the bundle. 1
might till pages with descriptions of this funny animal and other dogs
with whom I am acquainted, but my completed space forces me to post¬
pone such accounts to another occasion.

The Wolf.—Ferocity, craft, and cowardice, are the well-known traits

of the Wolf. Although one of the dog tribe, it is held in utter abLoi
re nee by the domesticated dogs. The stronger pursue and destroy it,
the weaker fly from it in terror. In the earlier part of English history
it is frequently mentioned as a common and dreaded pest. It was
Anally extirpated in England about 1350, in Scotland about 1600, ana
was not entirely destroyed in Ireland until the beginning of 1700. It is
still found in parts of France, Russia, and the whole of Western Asia.
These formidable creatures almost invariably hunt in bands, and display
very great cunning in waylaying and pursuing their prey. Winter is the
time of year most dreaded by those who live in countries where wolves
exist, as at that season hunger renders them exceedingly ferocious and
rpi
daring. They will then attack sledges, or carriages, even when guarded
bv aimed men.
Cants.—(Lat. a Dog.)
They are very
wary, and dislike
approaching any¬
thing at all resem¬
bling a trap. A
traveller, aware of
this habit, saved
his life by trailing
a oord from his
carriage window.
The wolves thought
that the cord look¬
ed suspicious, and
before they had
quite made up
their minds about
it, the traveller “'A

reached a station
where he was in Lupus (Lat. a Wolf), the Wolf.
safety.
The bite of the wolf is extremely dangerous, as its jaws are immensely
strong, and it generally brings away the part it seizes. It does not bite
like auy other animal, but makes a succession of short sharp snaps, each ot
great power but very rapid. Those who have been chased by the wolves
compare the snapping of their jaws to the clash of a steel trap when
slipped. When young, the wolf can easily be tamed, and shows as
great attachment to its master of any dog will. It is very tenacious of
e 2
52 NATURAL II 1ST CRY.

life. Parry relates an anecdote of a wolf that was caught in a trap, and
after being pierced with three bullets, and several thrusts of a sword,
sprang at one of the officers, and actually succeeded in escaping, although
its hind-legs were firmly tied together.
Almost every traveller who has journeyed out of the regular rail¬
road and diligence line has stories of the wolves, and in almost every
case the feeling appears to be more of irritation than anything else.
Either they have hunted the wolf until their horses were knocked up,
while the animal still continues his provoking and lasting gallop, or a
wounded wolf has succeeded in escaping, or the wolves have eaten all
the leather straps from their carriages, or some such misfortune, appears
to excite the most vindictive feelings against the wolves.
The flesh of the wolf is considered rather good eating by those who
have tried it, and at all events, as one hunter said, “ it is much nicer
than lean deers’ meat.”

The Jackal.—This animal is found in North Africa, Persia, and

India. It derives its name “ aureus ” from the yellow tint of its skin.
It, like the wolf, unites in bands to hunt, and the prey which the pack
has taken so much pains to
CASTS.
secure is not unfrequently
confiscated by the lion, who
keeps the reluctant hunters
at a distance until he has
satisfied his own royal ap¬
petite. The Jackals, how¬
ever, often retaliate bv assist-
mg at the demolition of the
larger prey which the lion
destroys. It is very useful in
the East, as it acts as scaven¬
ger, and consumes the offal
which, in those not very
cleanly towns, is cast into the
streets, and would inevitably
cause a pestilence, were it
Aureus i^Lat. y olden), the Jackal. not for the assistance of the
jackals and other creatures,
It is excessively fond of grapes, and makes dreadful havoc in the
vineyards, so that the fable of the Eox and the Grapes might be quite
as appropriately related of this animal. While hunting, it utters most
piercing shrieks, which have been compared by those who have heard
them to the wailings of evil spirits, an association which the oriental
tombs and ruins which it frequents, recalling to mind the mysterious
Arabian Nights, are most fitted to produce.
'there are several kinds of Jackals, one inhabiting Seregal and another
 NATURAL HISTORY. 53
Hie Cape of Good Hope. They are rather largei than the fox, but do not
possess nearly so bushy a tail as that “ brush3’ wherein sportsmen take
so much delight.

The Eox.—This terror of hen-roosts and delight of sportsmen is

found in most parts of England, and many other countries. It varies
very much in colour and size, according to the country where it
lives.
The habits of this animal are mostly nocturnal. It lies by day con
cealed in its burrow, if it be fortunate enough to possess one, or in the
depths of some thicket, if it is not a householder. Towards evening it
sallies out in search of food, and woe to the unfortunate hare, rabbit,
pheasant, or fowl that comes in its way ! Heynard does not attempt to
chase the hare, for it is too swift for him, nor the rabbit, as it would
immediately dive into its hole; nor does lie run at the pheasant, which
would fly away, and
probably only leave v ulpes.—Wat. a Fox.)
a tail feather in the , ■
fox’s mouth. He
knows his business
too well. He creeps
very quietly and slow¬
ly to some place
where hares or rab¬
bits are likely to pass,
and then springs on
them as they run by
him. One of his
most ingenious de¬
vices to catch rab¬
bits is really quite
mathematical. When
the rabbit has young,
she keeps them safe¬
ly at the end of the Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Fox.
burrow. Now the
burrow is too small for the fox to creep into, and it is so deep that even
the six or seven young rabbits would not recompense him lor the toil.
So he traces them by scent, fixes on a spot over the termination ol the
ourrow, and by digging perpendicularly, attains his object with compara¬
tively little trouble.
Sometimes he steals into the hen-roost, destroys and carries off most
of its inmates, some of which he devours on the spot, others he carries
home, and the remainder he buries for a future repast.
When irritated, the fox gives out a strong disagreeable scent, which
lies so long on 1 lie ground that it may be perceived for nearly an hour
54 NATURAL HISTORY.

after the fox has passed. Partly ou this account, and partly on account
ol its speed, endurance, and cunning, the chase of the fox is one of the
most admired English sports.
Many tales are related of its cunning when pursued, such as driving
another fox out of its home, and forcing ir, to substitute itself as the
chase; diving into a heap of manure, so that the dogs could not perceive
its scent; jumping over a wall, running a little wTay, coming back again,
and lying under the wall until all the dogs had passed, and then leaping
a second time over the same place where it had passed before, and making
off on its old track. A fox has been known to leap through a kitchen
window, and hide itself behind the plates on the dresser, without the
observation of the cook, to whose terror and consternation six or seven
dogs have leaped through the same window, and dragged the fox from its
lurking-place.
The Eox appears to be the same crafty animal in all countries, there
being quite as many American tales of vulpine sagacity as we can find in
England. There are so many stories of this nature that it is impossible
to give even a hasty account of them. I therefore select one of the
shortest.
On the banks of the Kentucky river rise huge rocky bluffs several feet
in height. A fox that lived near this river wras constantly hunted, and as
regularly lost over the bluff. Now, nothing short of wings would have
enabled the animal to escape with life dowm a perpendicular cliff. At last,
a hunter, being determined to discover the means by which the animal
baffled them, concealed himself near the bluff
Accordingly in good time the fox came to the top of the cliff as usual
and looked over. He then let himself down the face of the cliff by a
movement between a leap and a slide, and landed on a shelf not quite a
foot in width about ten feet down the cliff. The fox then disappeared
into a hole above the shelf. On examination, the shelf turned out to be
ihe mouth of a wide fissure in the rock, into which the fox always escaped.
But how was he to get out again ? He might slide down ten feet, but
he could never leap ten feet from a ten-inch shelf up the face of a per¬
pendicular rock. This impossibility struck the hunter’s mind, so he in¬
stituted a search, and at length discovered an easier entrance into the cave
from the level ground.
The fox was too wise to use that entrance when the hounds were
behind him, so he was accustomed to cut short the scent by dropping
down the rock, and then when all the dogs were at the edge of the cliff,
Le walked out at his leisure by the other entrance.
The Arctic Eox changes its fur, and becomes white during the winter

The Mustelina, or Weasels, are easily distinguished by their long

slender bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth, and predatory habits. Thej
inhabit almost every part of the world, and procure their food by creep-
 NATURAL HISTORY. 55
in? on tlie unsuspecting victim, generally a rabbit, rat, or bird, and then
suddenly darting at it and piercing its neck with their sharp tgeth.
Almost all the weasels devour the brain and suck the blood of their
prey, but seldom touch, the flesh, unless they are pressed by hunger.
Two kinds of Martens inhabit England, named, from their favourite
haunts, the Pine and the Sub-family e. Mustelina.—(Lat. Mustela
Beech Marten. Some natu- a Weasel.)
lalists asseit that these two Martes.—(Lat. a Marten.)
martens are not distinct
animals, but only varieties of
the same species. The Pine
Marten is not uncommon in
Derbyshire, where it is much
too fond of chickens and
ducklings to be a desirable
neighbour. This animal, as
well as the Sable, is much
sought after on account of
its skin, which furnishes a
beautiful fur, not much in¬
ferior to that of the Sable.

The Sable, long famous

for its costly fur, which is
thought worthy to adorn the Abietum (Lat. of the Pine-tree), the Pine
coronation robes of a mon¬ Marten.
arch, inhabits Siberia. The chase, or rather the search, after these ani¬
mals is attended with dreadful hardships and great danger. Sometimes
a sable will not be seen for days ; sometimes the bait of the trap is eaten
by other animals, such as martes
gluttons, &c.; sometimes the
hunter’s provisions fail; he
spends days and nights in
the midst of snow, surround¬
ed by interminable pine
forests, and exposed to the
piercing blasts of the tem¬
pest. Many hunters lose
their lives in these terrible
solitudes, overwhelmed by
snow-storms, or famished Zibellma (from a Sclavonic word, from
with hunger. which is derived our “ Sable”), the Sable.
A species of Sable (Maries letictipus) inhabits North America. The
hair of the sable will turn either way, and in this respect differs from
the fur of other animals. The skins are very valuable, varying from one
to ten pounds in price, according to the quality.
56 NATURAL niSTORV.

The Polecat, fitchet, foulmart, or “fommard,” as the farmers call it.

is very common in most parts of England. It is dreadfully destructive
to the poultry, and destroys
Pctoru’S.~ (Lat. from puteo, to stink.)
both old and young. William
llowitt relates an interesting
anecdote of his dog unearth¬
ing a polecat, and afterwards
bringing out of its hole an
entire brood of ducklings that
had most unaccountably dis¬
appeared from the premises of
a farmer. Winter is the usual
„ ,y, , , /-.-a ji „ . time for its appearance in the
v ' ” larmyard, as in the summer it
obtains its food with less risk among the warrens.

The Ferret is supposed to be a domesticated variety of the polecat,

and a mixed breed is generally preferred by rat-catchers, who use the
ferret, first muzzling it carefully, to drive the rats out of their holes,
wften they are either struck down with sticks or killed by terriers, who
keep a sharp watch for them. This animal may be rendered very tame,
but it is at all times to be handled with caution. I knew a lad who was
very proud of a beautiful white ferret, and used to boast of its tameness.
One day he was caressing the animal and letting it kiss him as he called
it, when he started back and threw down the ferret. His face was
streaming with blood, the ferret having bitten both his lips through, and
made four cuts like those of a sharp knife. The hair, called Fitch, is
much used for making paint brushes.

The Stoat, or Ermine, is also another common English animal. It

is less than the polecat, but
Mustela.—(Lat. a Weasel.)
its habits are scarcely less
predacious. Hares and rabbits
fall easy victims to their little
enemy, who dispatches them
with a single bite, penetrating
the brain. During the winter,
the stoat becomes partially
white, in northern countries
wholly so, except the tip of
ErmiuSa.—The Stoat. ^1C ^il, which remains black.
In this state it is called the
Ermine, and is killed in great numbers foi the sake of its beautiful and
valuable fur.

The Weasel is the least of this tribe. It is excessively useful to

farmers, as it wages unrelenting war on rats and mice, and in an incredibly
 i>Ai'i;KAL MltiTOliY. 57
short space of tn. e extirpates them from a barn or stack, it hunts by
scent like dogs, and tracks the unfortunate rat with the most deadly
certainty. On this account some farmers encourage it on their premises,
but the generality destroy it.
Mustela.
and nail its body on the barn
door, forgetting that although
it does sometimes abstract a
chicken or an egg, yet it will
not touch them as long as it
can find rats or mice. It is a
most courageous little animal,
and will even attack men, who
have found it by no means a
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Weasel.
despicable antagonist, as its
instinct invariably leads it to dash at the throat, where a bite from its
long sharp teeth would be very dangerous.
Like many other little beings, it is very passionate and easily irritated,
often maeed taking offence where none was intended. On one occasion
a colony of weasels attacked an old woman who was returning from
market with her basket of provisions, and had sat down upon a heap of
stones in which the weasels had taken up their residence.

The Ratel is a native of Mellivora. -(Lat. mel, honey; voro,

South Africa, and lives I devour.)
principally on the combs
and honey of the wild bee,
although it is very probable
that much of its subsistence
is derived from flesh and
roots. It is said to be guided
to the bee’s nest by a bird
called the Honey-guide,
which, as the natives assert,
being very fond of honey
and unable to attack the
hive by itself, seeks for the
honey-ratel, and admonishes
it by a peculiar cry that the
desired honevcomb is not
t

very far distant. Rate! (Native name), the lionet/ Ratel.

The Wolverine, Glutton, or Carcajou, inhabits North America.

Accounts vary respecting the habits of this animal. The older natu¬
ralists sav that it ascends trees, and drops on the neck of any unfor¬
tunate deer winch happens to pass beneath, and that having om>.
secured its prey it never leaves it until the last morsel is consumed
:>b NATURAL HISTORY.

Be this as it may, the Glutton is known to hunt after its prey, which h
follows for many miles at a slow but persevering pace, and seldom fails
of bringing it down at last. It is especially hated by the sable hunter, as
it will follow him in his rounds, robbing the traps of the baits as it pro-
Gulo.— (Lat. a Glutton.) ceeds, and should a sable be
caught it generally tears it
to pieces, or buries it in the
snow. The hunter has some
slight revenge in robbing it
of its skin, as the fur is in
some request, but the mis¬
chief it does him is not by
any means counterbalanced
by the value of its hide.
7 /T . , It is a very determined
Luscus (Lat. blinking), the Wolverine. , 17 ,, , ,
v animal, and when attacked
defends itself vigorously, proving more than a match for a dog. The
length of the glutton, without the tail, is about two feet six inches.
Several genera are omitted.

The Badger.—This harmless and much injured animal (which is often

subjected to such ill treatment that the term “ badgering ” a person is
Meles.—(Lat. a Badger.) used to express irritating
him in every possible way)
is found throughout Europp
and Asia. It is not now
very common in England,
but is frequently found in
Scotland, where it is termed
the “Brock,” a name fami¬
liar to us all, through the
means of Dandie Dinmont,
who also immortalized the
pepper and mustard terriers.
The Badger lives at the
bottom of deep burrows,
which it excavates, and in
which it passes all the day,
sleeping on a very comfort¬
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Badger.
able bed of hay and grass.
When the evening approaches it seeks its food, consisting of roots, fruit,
insects, and sometimes young rabbits. It is also said to attack the wild
bee, and boldly to devour the honey and combs, its thick hair and skin
rendering it utterly regardless of the stings of the enraged bees, who
“might as well attack a barber’s block.”
The cruel sport of baiting the badger is still continued, although not
 NATURAL HISTORY. 59
so openly or frequently as a few years back. The poor creature is placed
inside a kennel, and dogs set at it, who are not unfrequently worsted by
the badger, as its bite is terrific, and its skin so tough, and hair so thick,
that the bites of the dog do not take full effect. The pleasure of this
“sport,” as in many other diversions of the sporting world, appears to
consist in trying whether the dogs or the badger will be most mangled in
a given time.
But this sport, cruel as it may seem, is not so cruel as the method
employed for training young dogs to attack the badger, or as it is techni¬
cally called, entering them. The under jaw of the unfortunate animal
is sawn off, and most of the remaining teeth drawn. In this state it is
put into a barrel lying on its side, and the dogs are encouraged to attack
the poor maimed animal, in order that they may be so inspirited by their
impunity as to attack badgers armed with their full means of defence.
The power of the badger’s bite is caused principally by the manner in
which the under jaw is set on. Not only are its teeth sharp, and the
leverage of its jaw powerful, but the jaw is so contrived, that when the
creature closes its mouth, the jaw locks together as it were, and is held
fast without much exertion on the part of the badger.
Its skin is rather valuable, the hair being extensively employed in the
manufacture of brushes, and its fur being in some request for holsters.
The omnivorous and thrifty Chinese eat its llesh, as indeed they will that
of most animals, and consider its hams a very great dainty. The length
of the badger is about two feet three inches.

The Otter seems to play the same part in the water as the polecat
and the other weasels on the land. Like the polecat, it is excessively
rapacious; like the polecat, it destroys many more creatures than it can
devour; and as the polecat only eats the brain and sucks the blood, so
the other daintily eats the flakes at the back of the fish’s neck, and
leaves the remainder for less fastidious animals. In Scotland, wdiere the
otter abounds, it is not uncommon to find a large fish, such as a salmon,
lying on the bank, perfectly fresh and entire, except a few inches along
the back, which the otter has bitten out.
So wrell do the poor people know this custom of the otter, that in
some places they consider the otter’s shelf as their larder, Lnd go to mok
or the bank daily for their salmon, which is none the wrnrse for them
because the otter had previously helped itself to a piece of the
shoulder.
It is extremely interesting to wratch the actions of this almost amphi¬
bious creature. It slides noiselessly into the water, tuins and twists
about below the surface with the same or greater ease than a fish, then,
with a graceful sweep of the body, it glides to the surface and ascends
the bank with almost the same motion. While below the surface it
bears a great resemblance to the seal, the method in which it disposes
its hind feet greatly assisting the effect. Its rapid and easy movements'
6b NATURAL iilSTCRY.

in the water are mostly performed by the assistance cl its powerful

tapering tail.
Otter hunting is a very favourite sport in Scotland, where almost
every stream is furnished with its otter. At the sight ot the footsteps
of the animal the popula¬
Lutra.—(Lat. an Otter.)
tion round is in a com
motion, the dogs are as¬
sembled, guns and spears
provided, and the hunters
go out in sufficient numbers
and with sufficient arms to
kill a tiger; and from all
accounts it is quite as
difficult an animal to de¬
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Otter. stroy ; for by diving, and
biting, and hiding among
stones, added to its great tenacity of life, it gives the hunters no little
trouble to secure it.
The otter is easily tamed, and its predatory habits have been occa¬
sionally turned to account, as it is sometimes trained to catch fish and
bring them to shore, precisely as the falcon is trained to catch terrestrial
game.
The Hindoos have brought the art of otter training to great perfection,
and keep their otters regularly tethered with ropes and straw collars on
the banks of the river.
Several genera are omitted.

Family II. . . Urstcke (Lat. ursus, a bear. Bear kind).

Sub-family a. Urslna.
The Bears and their allies are mostly heavy, and walk with the wdiole
foot placed flat on the ground, unlike the cats, dogs, &c., who walk with
merely their paws or toes. All the bears are omnivorous, that is, they
can eat either animal or vegetable food, so that a leg of mutton, a pot ot
honey, a potato, or an apple, are each equally acceptable.
The Brown Bear inhabits the north of Europe, Switzerland, and the
Pyrenees. It has been extirpated from England for many centuries, but
is recorded to have been found in Scotland so late as 1057. The inha¬
bitants of Northern Europe hunt it with much skill, and take it in traps
and pitfalls, availing themselves of its love for honey. It is said that
there exists a practice of placing the hive in a tree, and planting long
spikes round its foot. A heavy log of wood is then suspended by a cord
just before the entrance of the hive, and the trap is complete. The bear
scents the honey and comes to look at the tree. The spikes rather
astonish him, but he sniffs his way through them, and commences the
ascent. When he has reached the hive, he is checked by the .:og hanging
 NATURAL HISTORY. 61
before the entrance; this he finds is movable, and pusnes aside, hut it
is just so long that a mere push will not entirely remove it, so he gives it
a tremendous pat, and looks in at the entrance. Just as he has succeeded
in putting his nose to the hive, the log returns and hits him very hard

unsiTs.

Arctos (Gr. Aparos, a bear), the Dear.

on the head. This makes him exceedingly angry, and he poxes it away
harder than ever, only to return with a more severe blow than before.
He now has a regular fight with the log, hitting it first to one side and
then to the other, the perverse block invariably striking his head every
time, until at last a severer blow than usual knocks him fairly off the tree
on to the spikes below.
In the time of Queen Elizabeth the bear used to be baited, that is to
say, the bear was tied to a pole, and several dogs were set at him, the
object being, to see whether the bear could bite the dogs, or the dogs
bite the bear with the greater force; but this cruel sport is now happily
extinct.
Two genera are omitted.

The Grizzly Bear.—‘J Bernardin de Saint Pieire dit, ‘ A la vue de

i’komme, les animaux sent frappes d’amour ou de crainte.’ II laissait
de cot6 une troisieme impression qu’eprouvent beaucoup d’anin.aux, a
62 NATURAL HISTORY.

(’aspect de Tliomme; e’esfc la faim, et 1’envie de le manger.”* This

observation applies most fully to the Grizzly Bear, a native of North
America. It is the most ferocious and powerful of its family, and is an
animal which must either be avoided or fought, for there is no medium.
If a Grizzly Bear once sees a man, it will probably chase him, and will
do so with great perseverance. An American traveller told me lately,
that he had been chased nearly thirty miles by one of these bears, who
would probably have kept up the chase as many miles more, had not my
informant crossed a wide river, over which the bear did not choose to
follow him.
ursus.

Horribilia (Lat. horrible), the. Griztly Bear.

Some writers have said, that the Grizzly Bear will run away if he
comes across the scent of men. This, my informant, who is a practical
man, strenuously denies, and states that the man is more likely to run
away from the bear, than the bear from the man. The American Indians
fear it so much, that a necklace of its claws, which may only be worn by
the individual who destroyed the bear, is a decoration entitling the
wearer to the highest honours. These formidable claws are five inches
long, and cut like so many chisels, so that the Indian of former days,
* “Bemardin de St. Pierre said,—‘ At the sight of man, all animals are struck either
with love or fear.’ He forgot to mention a third impression made on many animals whe*
they see a man, namely ‘ hunger, and a great desire to eat him.’”
 NATURAL HISTORY 63
armed only with bow, spear, and knife, fully deserved honour, for over¬
coming so savage and powerful a brute. Since the introduction of fire¬
arms, the Grizzly Bear affords a rather easier victory, but even to one
armed with all advantage of rifle and pistols, the fight is sure to be a
severe one, for when the bear is once wounded, there is no attempt to
escape, but life is pitted against life. Before the hunter commences the
struggle he must have considerable confidence in his presence of mind,
for every one knows how the least tremor of hand or eye, causes a rifle
ball to wander far from its intended path, and a ball that does not pene¬
trate a vital part only serves to irritate the bear.
Sometimes, it is said, after a party of hunters have been combating
one of these bears, it is impossible to find four square niches of sound
skin in the animal’s body, a ball through the brain, or heart, appearing to
be the only safety on the part of the hunter.
When a traveller is passing through a part of the country where he is
likely to fall in with these animals, he provides himself with a quantity
of meat strongly impregnated with some perfume. If a bear sees the
traveller, and charges him, he throws down a small piece of his prepared
meat. The bear stops and snifFs at it, and is dubious about it for some
time, but at last finishes by eating it. During the time in which he is
undecided, the traveller has gained considerable ground, and by a repe¬
tition of the same ruse, either tires the bear out, or meets with a
sufficient body of friends to render him independent of the animal.
It is rather singular that this bear has the power of moving each claw
separately, as we move our fingers. It is able to overcome and carry olf
the enormous bison, and to dig a pit in which to bury it.

The Polar, or White Bear, called Nennook by the Esquimaux, lives

in the Arctic regions, where it feeds on seals, fish, and even the walrus,
but it dares not attack the latter animal openly. It is a formidable
antagonist either by land or water, as it dives with great ease, and is able
to chase the seal amid the waves. Nelson nearly lost his life by impru¬
dently attacking one of these animals with no weapon but a rusty musket,
which could not be induced to fire; and indeed had he not been separated
from the infuriated bear by a cleft in the ice, he could hardly have
escaped its claws. As the seals frequently crawl out of the water upon
rocks or fragments of ice, the Polar bear is forced to swim after them;
but lest they should observe him he makes his approaches by a succession
of dives, and contrives that the last dive brings him directly under the
unsuspecting seal, who is immediately grasped and killed. Kichardson
dates that these bears are often drifted from Greenland to Iceland on
fields of ice, and that they find the flocks and herds so very delicious after
a long course of seal diet, that the inhabitants are forced to rise in a
bedy and put an end to their depredations.
To give this animal, who is constantly running over fields of ice, a
firm footing, the soles of its feet are thickly covered with long hair, on
64 NATURAL lilSTUKA'.

Tualarctos.— (Gr from daXacrcra, the Sea, and apKTos, a Bea-r.)

Maritimua (Lat. belonging to the sea), the Polar Bear.

the same principle that induces elderly gentlemen to tie list round theii
shoes in the winter months, when they have reason to dread the slides
that idle boys always have made on the pavement, and we suppose
always will make.

The Racoon is an animal about the size of a large fox, and an inhabi¬
tant of Canada and other parts of America. It derives its name, lotor,
from the habit it is said to possess, of washing its food before eating it.
Its skin is very valuable, and is much sought after by American hunters,
who pride themselves on their skill in shooting this active and wary
animal. There is a story related by the Americans, of a hunter who
was so excellent a marksman that when he entered a wood, the ’coons
came down of their own accord, knowing that escape was impossible ; but
we must class this tale with the account of the man who could grin the
bark off gum-trees, and the swift Indian, who could run so fast round a
tree that he sometimes caught sight of his own back.
The food of the Racoon is principally small animals and insects.
Oysters are also a very favourite article of its diet. It bites off the
hinge of th° oyster, and scrapes out the animal in fragments witn its
Daws. Like a squirrel when eating a n-ut, the racoon usually holds its
food between it3 fore-paws pressed together, and sits upon its hind
 NATURAL HISTORY-.

quarters while it eats Poultry are very favourite objects ot its attack, ami
it is said to be as destructive in a farm-yard as any fox, for it only devou re
the heads of the murdered
Sub-family c. Procyonlna.
fowl. Like the
Procyon.—(Gr. llpoKvwu, a constellatiou)
prowls by night.
When taken young it is
easily tamed, but very fre¬
quently becomes blind soon
after its capture. This
effect is supposed to be
produced by the sensitive
state of its eyes, which
are only intended to be
used by night; but as it is
frequently awakened by day¬
light during its captivity,
it suffers so much from the
unwonted glare, that its
eyes gradually lose their
sight.
It has been mentioned Lotor (Lat. a washer), the Racoon.
that the name in general
use among the Americans of the present day is “ ’Coon,” a word which
strangely contrasts with its ancient Mexican name of Cioatlamacazque.
—Two genera are omitted.

The peculiarly long snout Sub-family cl. Cercoleptina.

of the Coatis distinguishes Nasua.—(Lat. from nasus, a nose.)
them at once from the Ra¬
coons, which they resemble
in some other respects. Their
snout is very moveable, and
is of great use to them in
routing out the worms and
insects which they dig up.
The nostrils are placed on a
sort of disk at the end of
the snout, and givejfthe whole
head a most extraordinary
aspect. The Coatis live upon
birds, eggs, insects, and
worms, and sometimes they
will eat roots. They are
nocturnal in their habits,
spending most of the day
ui sleep, rolled up in a
66 NATURAL HISTORY.

ball* In descending a tree they walk with their heads downwards,

like the cat, which, however, they surpass in activity. These animals
inhabit the warmer parts of America, but do not appear to be much
sought after by hunters. The Brown Coati-mondi is the species repre¬
sented in the engraving; there is another species, the Bed Coati.
The Kinkajou is also an inhabitant of Southern America. It is not
unlike the Coati in its habits, but is more active, as it possesses a
prehensile tail, which it uses in the same way that the Spider Monkeys
Cbucoleptes.—(Gr. KipKos, a tail; use theirs. The tongue of
n 4- 1» /-» I •»«/■< ^ I V» /-v 4- /\vi mi t A AT

Ae^-ros, thin.) the Kinkajou is capable of

being inserted into crevices,
and drawing out any insects
that may be lying concealed
beyond the reach of its paws.
The Spanish missionaries
give it the name of Honey
Bear, because it is a great
devastator of the nests of
the wild bee, using its long
tongue to lick the honey
Caudivolvulus (Lat. twisted tail), out of the cells. When in
the Kinkajou. captivity it is very tame
and gentle, and will play
with an acquaintance as a cat will. It displays great address in
capturing flies and other insects with its tongue, and it is amusing
to watch how its eyes gleam directly that a fly settles within its reach.
During the earlier part of the day it will not move, but towards dusk it
becomes very brisk and animated, climbing about its cage, and swinging
from the top bars by its tail and hinu paws.
A sub-family is omitted.

Family III. . . Talpidse. (Lat. talpa, a mole. Mole kind.)

Sub-family a. . Talpina.
The Mole.—Many ridiculous stories of the Mole and its habits may be
found in several authors, among whom iEsop stands very conspicuous.
This much maligned animal is said to be deprived of eyes, to undergo
unheard-of tortures in forcing its way through the earth, and to spend a
life of misery in subterranean damp and darkness. But so far from being
a miserable animal, the Mole seems to enjoy its life quite as much
as any other creature. It is beautifully fitted for the station which it
fills, and would be unhappy if removed from its accustomed damp and
darkness into warmth and light.
The eyes of the mole are very small, in order to prevent them from
being injured by the earth through which the animal makes its wrav;
* There are several fine specimens of this animal in the Jardin des Plantes at Pane.
They are tolerably lively even during the day-time.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 67
indeed, larger eyes would be useless underground. When, however, the
mole requires to use its eyes it can bring them forward from the mass of
fur which conceals and protects them when not in use. The acute ears
and delicate sense of smell supply the place of eyes. Its fur is very fine,
soft, capable of turning in any direction, and will not retain a particle of
mould. But the most ex¬ TALPA.
traordinary part of the
mole is the paw or hand
with which it digs. The
two fore paws are com¬
posed of five fingers, armed
with sharp, strong nails, in
order to scrape up the
earth; and to prevent the
accumulated mould from
impeding the mole’s pro¬
Europoea (Lat. belonging to Europe), the Molt,
gress, the hands are turned
outwardly, so as to throw the earth out of its way.
The Mole is a most voracious animal, and is incapable of sustaining
even a slight fast. Its principal food is the earth-worm, in chase of
which it drives its long galleries underground; but it also will eat insects,
bits of meat, and is said sometimes to catch birds, which it takes by
surprise, and then rapidly tears to pieces with its powerful claws. This
ravenous appetite causes it to suffer from thirst if a supply of water is
not at hand. Tor this reason the mole always makes a tunnel towards
a pond or brook, if there is one near. If no water is near, it digs a
number of little wells, which receive the rain or dew, and enable it to
quench its thirst.
It is a good swimmer, and can pass from bank to bank, or from the
shore to an island, and when the fields are inundated by floods it can save
itself by swimming.
The construction of the
mole’s habitation is very
singular and interesting.
Each mole has its own
habitation and hunting
ground, and will not permit
strangers to trespass upon
its preserves, which it
guards, not by “ man-traps
and spring-guns,” but by its own claws and teeth.
In order to construct a fortress, the mole selects a secure place, as tne
foot of a tree, or the side of a high bank. It then throws up a heap of
earth, which it presses firmly together, as within this mound its fortress
das to be made. It commences by running a circular gallery near the
summit of the mound, and another larger one near the bottom. These
68 NATURAL HISTORY.

two galleries it connects by five descending passages. In the very centre

of the mound, and at the level of the ground, it now digs a circular hole,
which it connects with tne upper gallery by three ascending passages.
Lastly, it makes a number of passages from the lower gallery, and
connects the circular chamber with the largest of them, or high road, by
a passage that first bends downwards, and then rises into the high road a
little outside the large gallery. In the circular chamber the mole sleeps,
and can escape into the high road either by the upper gallery or by the
road from the bottom of its dormitory.
I have already stated that each mole has its own hunting ground, and
permits no intruder. If a strange mole should happen to trespass upon
the domains of another, there would be a furious fight, and the con¬
queror would devour his vanquished foe.
Although each mole has its own hunting ground, yet there are mostly
High roads, which connect the different hunting grounds with each other,
and vhicli are used by many individuals in common, the only precaution
taken being, that if two moles should happen to meet, the weaker
immediately retreats into one of the numerous side galleries which open
from uhe high road, and permits its aristocratical neighbour to pass.
Ali the passions of the mole seem to be furious. Even its passion for
work, i.e. search after its food, has somethin" fierce in it. The animal
works desperately for several hours, and then rests for as many hours.
The country people about Oxford say that it works at intervals of three
hours each.
the mode of burrowing by this animal, is by rooting up the earth with
its snout, and then scooping it away with its fore feet. I have often seen
this operation performed.
The depth at which this animal works depends almost entirely on the
time of year. In the summer, the worms come to the surface, and the
mole accordingly follows them, making quite superficial runs, and some¬
times only scooping trenches on the surface. But in the winter, when
the worms sink deep into the ground, the mole is forced to follow them
there, and as it cannot fast above an hour or two, it is forced to work at
the comparatively hard and heavy soil, as it did in the light earth nearer
the surface.
Moles vary in colour, the usual tint being a very deep brown, almost
black, but they have been seen of an orange colour, and a white variety
is not uncommon. I have a cream-coloured skin in my possession.
There are several moles known,—the Shrew Mole, the Changeable Mole,
the Cape Mole, and the Star nosed Mole, are the most conspicuous.

Sub-family d. Erinaclna.— (Lat. from Erinaceus, a Hedgehog.)

The Shrew Mouse.—This pretty little animal is very like the common
mouse,. but is easily distinguished from it by the length of the nose,
which is used for grubbing up the earth in search of earth-worms and
insects.
 NATURAL HISTORY. C9

The reader must not imagine that the Shrew has any connexion with
the true mice. It belongs to an entirely different class of animals, its
teeth being sharp and pointed, not unlike those of the mole and the
hedgehog, whereas those of the mouse are broad and chisel-shape like
the teeth of the rabbit.
A peculiar scent is diffused from these animals, which is possibly the
reason why the cat will not eat them, although she will readily destroy them.
Many species of shrews Sorex.— fLat. a Rat.)
are known, inhabiting various
countries. There are, besides
the common species, the
Oared and the Water Shrew,
all three inhabitingEngland.
The formation of their hair
as seen under a powerful
microscope, is very beautiful,
but quite distinct from the
hair of the mouse or rat. In
Araneus (Lat. a Shrew), the Shrew Mouse.
the autumn, numbers of these
little animals may be seen lying dead, but what causes this destruction
is not known.
This is one of the numerous animals that have suffered by false reports,
and have been treated with great cruelty on account of those fables.
Rustics formerly believed that the poor little harmless creature paralysed
their cattle by running over them, and that the only way to cure the
diseased animal was to place a bough of shrew-ash on the injured part.
The shrew-ash was made by boring a hole into an ash-tree, and then
plugging up in the hole a living shrew-mouse. By the same process of
reasoning a shrew cut in half, and placed on a wound supposed to be
caused by its bite, was considered a certain remedy.

The Water Shrew fre- Crossopus. (Gr. Kpoaaol, fringe; navs, afoot.)
quents brooks and clear
running ditches, in the
banks of which it lives. It
swims and dives with great
ease, and when under water
appears as if it had been
speckled over its entire
surface with silver, from
the bubbles of air which
adhere to its fur. It eats Lodtens (Lat. digging), tJu Water Shrew.
the grubs of various aqua¬
tic insects, digging them out of the muddy banks with its snout. It is
not very common, but I have seen numbers of them inhabiting a hroo>
70 NATURAL HISTORY.

near Little Hinton in Wiltshire, and often watched their eiegant mo7e
ments and gambols through the water.
Its localities may be discovered by searching for its “runs,” which are
(ike those of the common water rat, but much smaller.
One or two genera are omitted.

The Hedgehog is remarkable as being our only English animal that is

guarded with spikes. These spikes are fixed into the skin in a very
_ _ /T , rr 7 7 beautiful and simple man-
Eeinaceus. (Lat. a Hedgehog.) ner_ wben the ]Iedgehog
is annoyed it rolls itself up,
and the tightness of the
skin causes all its spines to
stand firm and erect, bid¬
ding defiance to an unpro¬
tected hand. While rolled
up, even the dog and the
fox are baffled by it; but
their ingenuity enables
Europieus (Lat. belonging to Europe), them to overcome the dif-
the Hedgehog. ficulty by rolling it along
until they push it into a puddle or pool, when the astonished hedgehog
immediately unrolls itself to see what is the matter, and before it can
close itself again is seized by its crafty enemy.
Many more fortunate animals have outlived the aspersions cast upon
their character by ignorant persons, but the prejudice against the hedge¬
hog is still in full vigour in the agricultural districts. Scarcely a farmer
or labourer will be persuaded that the hedgehog does not suck the cows.
Now this is an impossibility for the hedgehog, but I have seen pigs—not
hedgepigs, but real bacon pigs—suck the cows whilst lying down. Among
other creatures accused of this theft, are the slow-worm or blind-worm, a
kind of legless lizard with an extremely small mouth, and the bird called
the goatsucker. Heally when a man relates that a bird sucks a cow, it
reminds one of the brother philosophers, one of whom milked a bull
while the other held the pail.
The food of the hedgehog consists not of cow’s milk, but insects, snails,
frogs, mice, and snakes. Dr. Buckland placed a snake in the same box
witli a hedgehog. The hedgehog gave the snake a severe bite, and then
rolled itself up, this process being repeated until the spine of the snake
was broken in several places ; it then began at the tail, and ate the snake
gradually, as one would eat a radish. White has seen it bore down and
eat the roots of the plantain, leaving the leaves and stem untouched.
The flesh ot the hedgehog is said to be good eating, and the gipsies
frequently make it a part of their diet, as do the people in some parts of
the continent.
There is a peculiar method of preparing the animal for food, strongh
 NATURAL HISTORY. 71

reminding one of the earth ovens used by the Polynesians. The hedge¬
hog is simply wrapped up in a mass of clay and put on the fire. In
process of time the clay is thoroughly baked, and cracks open, when the
hedgehog is supposed to be cooked. On opening the clay, the skin comes
off with it, while the insides of the animal have formed themselves into a
hard ball, and are taken out entire. By this method of cooking, the
juices are retained, and not suffered to dissipate as they would if it were
roasted.
During the winter it lives in a torpid state, in a hole well lined with
grass and moss, and when discovered looks like a round mass of leaves
as it has rolled itself among the fallen foliage, which adheres to its spikes.
The engraving of the spine, or quill, of this animal shows the method by
which it is retained in the skin. The quill is as it were pinned through
the skin, and retained by the head. The curvature is such, that when
the animal contracts itself, the quills are drawn upright, and form a strong
and elastic covering, useful for more purposes than merely defence from
foes. The hedgehog has been known to throw itself
boldly from a considerable height, trusting to the
elasticity of the spring for breaking its fall. It will
be seen that when the spines are upright, the force SPINE OF hedgehog.
of the fall would not tend to drive the end of the quill upon the animal,
but merely test the elasticity of the curved portion.

Family V. . . Macropidae.—(Gr. Mcu<pus, long; nous, a foot.)

Sub-family b. Macroplna.
The Kangaroo.—In the mole we saw that the power of the body was
placed chiefly in the fore legs; we now come to a family which has the
principal power placed in the hinder part of the body. In the Kangaroos
the hind legs are very long and immensely powerful; the fore legs are
very small, and used more as hands than for walking; the tail also is
very thick and strong, and assists the animal in its leaps.
The Great Kangaroo inhabits New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land
Its singular formation, peculiarly adapted to the country, calls forth a
corresponding degree of ingenuity on the part of the natives, who live
much on its flesh. Its method of progression is by immense leaps from
its long hind legs assisted by its tail. So rapidly are these leaps made,
that the animal appears to alight on its hind legs after every leap, and
never to touch the ground with its fore legs at all. But this is only a
deception caused by the rapidity with which the animal performs its move¬
ments. On alighting from a leap, it comes to the ground on its fore legs,
and immediately draws up its hinder limbs.
Indeed, the natural walking position of this animal is on all four legs,
although it constantly sits up on the hinder legs, or even stands on a tripod
composed of its feet and tail, in order to look out over the tops of the
luxuriant grass among which it lives. The leaping movements are
72 NATURAL HISTORY

required for haste or escape, the length of each leap being about fifteen
feet.
Of course this swiftness would soon leave its pursuers behind, but the
Australian is able to break one of its limbs or strike it insensible to the

MACROrUS.

Major (Lat. larger), the Kangaroo.

ground with his boomerang, the most wonderful weapon that uncivilized
man ever produced. This extraordinary missile is a flat curved piece of
wood, which the Australian natives can wield with wonderful skill, making
it describe circles in the air, or rush at an object, and then return to its
owner’s feet; or throw it at the ground and make it leap over a tree and
strike an object at the other side.
Many boomerangs have been made in England from models brought
from Australia, and it is not very difficult to learn the turn of the wrist
accessary to make them describe a circle and return, but no one except
an Australian can perform the complicated evolutions which the natives
force the weapon to describe.
The English boomerangs are never certain. A purchaser may lay out
Ills money on a dozen before he finds one that will fly, and when he has
found a successful one, it is liable to lose its powers by damages recei 7ed
KANGAROO.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 73
in its fall. In general, the English boomerangs are too much curv ad, and
they are made with too little care, a very small shaving more or less,
making or destroying the character of the weapon.
Hunting this animal is a Very favourite sport with both colonists and
natives. The natives either knock it down with the boomerang, spear it,
from behind a bush, or unite together and hem in a herd, which soon fall
victims to the volleys of clubs, spears, and boomerangs which pour in on
all sides. The colonists either shoot it or hunt it with dogs, a pack of
which is trained for that purpose just as we train fox-hounds. The “ole
man,” or “boomer,” as the colonists call the Great Kangaroo, invariably
leads the dogs a severe chase, always attempting to reach water and
escape by swimming. It is a formidable foe to the dogs when it stands
at bay, as it seizes the dog with its fore-legs, and either holds him under
water until he is drowned, or tears him open with a well-directed kick of
its powerful hind feet, which are armed with a very sharp claw.
The female Kangaroo carries its young about in a kind of pouch, from
which they emerge when they wdsh for a little exercise, and leap back
again on the slightest alarm. All the kangaroos and the opossums have
this pouch, from which they are called “marsupiated ” animals, from the
Latin word marsupium, a purse or pouch.
The length of the Great Kangaroo is about five feet without the tail,
the length of which is about three feet.
There are many species of kangaroo, the most extraordinary being the
Tree Kangaroo, which can hop about on trees, and has curved claws on
its fore-paws, like those of the sloth, to enable it to hold on the
branches.
Several genera and two sub-families are omitted.

The Opossum.—This animal innabits North America, and is hunted

with almost as much perseverance as the racoon, not, however, for the
sake of its fur but of its flesh. When it perceives the hunter, it lies
still between the branches, but if disturbed from its hiding place, it at¬
tempts to escape by dropping among the herbage and creeping silently
away.
Its food consists of insects, birds, eggs, &c., and it is very destructive
among the hen-roosts. The Opossum uses its tail for climbing and
swinging from branch to branch as the spider monkeys use theirs: but
the Opossum uses its tail in a manner that the monkeys have never
yet been observed to do, that is, making it a support for its young,
who sit on its back and twist their tails round their mother’s in order
to prevent them from falling off. Lawson, in a passage quoted in
the Museum of Animated Nature, gives the following quaint account of
this animal:—“If a cat has nine lives this creature surely has nineteen;
for if you break every bone in their skin and mash their skull, leaving
them for dead, you may come an hour after, and they will be quite gone
away, or, perhaps, you may meet them creeping away. I have for
7* NATURAL HISTORY.

necessity in the wilderness eaten of them. Their flesh is very white and
well-tasted; but their ugly tails put me out of conceit with that fare.”
In Audubon’s delightful work is a passage exhibiting exactly the same
character on the part of the Opossum :—
“ Suppose the farmer has surprised an opossum in the act of killing
Sub-family e. Didelphina.—(Gr. Als, oue °* ^is 'jCir' fowls. His
double; BeXtpbs, a pouch.) angry feelings urge him to lack
DIDELPHYS.
the poor beast, which, conscious
of its inability to resist, rolls
off like a ball. The more the
farmer rages, the more reluc¬
tant is the animal to manifest
resistance; at last there it lies,
not dead, but exhausted, its
jaws open, its eyes dimmed;
and there it would lie until
the bottle-fly should oome to
deposit its eggs, did not its
tormentor walk off. ‘ Surely,’
says he to himself, ‘ the beast
must be dead.’ But no, reader,
it is only ‘’possuming,’ and no
sooner has its enemy with¬
drawn, than it gradually gets
Virginiana (Lat. belonging to Virginia), on its legs, and once more
the Opossum.
makes for the woods.”
Tke length of the Opossum is about twenty-two inches, and its
height about that of an ordinary cat. When disturbed or alarmed, it
gives out a very unpleasant odour.
Several genera are omitted.

The Common Seal inhabits the coast of Europe, and is not unfre-
quently found in many parts of the Scottish coasts, where seal-hunting
is a favourite amusement. The young are taken by stretching nets across
the narrow straits which they frequent, but the older and stronger animals
are shot or knocked down with clubs when they attempt to scramble into
the sea, as a blow on the nose instantly disables them.
The fore-feet of the Seal are used as fins, and the two hinder feet
almost as the tail of a fish, to assist and direct its course. On land the
movements of this animal are very clumsy; it shuffles along by means of
its fore-feet, or rather paddles, and drags itsfflind-feet after it.
i This seal, when taken young, is easily tamed. Edmonston gives the
following amusing account of a seal named Einna, which he kept for
about six months. “We had her carried down daily in a hand-barrow
to the sea-side, where an old excavation admitting the salt water was
abundantly roomy and deep for her recreation and our observation. After
 NATURAL HISTORY. 75
snorting ana diving for some time, she would come ashore, and seemed
perfectly to understand the use of the barrow. Often she tried to waddle
from the house to the water, or from the latter to her apartment; but
finding this fatiguing, and seeing preparations by her chairmen, she would
of her own accord mount her palanquin, and thus be carried as com¬
posedly as any Hindoo princess.” This interesting animal, after living
in the house for about six months, at last was decoyed away by some
wild seals and did not return again. A young seal was tamed by the
ffuard of a small island in the Frith of Forth above Edinburgh. It
seemed quite to consider
Family V, . Phocidse.—(Gr. a Seal-
itself one of the party,
Seal kind.)
would accompany their boat
across the water, and when Sub-family o. Phocina.
the vessel was made fast, PHOCA.
it used to take its station
inside, and watch until the
owners returned. It had
the playful manners of a
water dog, and would snatch
a stick from its master’s
hand and dash into the sea
with it, where it would toss
and tumble about, sometimes
approaching close .to the yjtulma (Lat. belonging to a calf), the Seal.
shore, and swimming oil
again when its master attempted to grasp the stick, but it invariably
brought back whatever it had taken. It would also bring fish out of the
water and give them to its owners.
The length of the Common Seal is about four or five feet, and its
weight often two hundred and twenty-four pounds. When surprised
basking on the shore, it scrambles off towards the water; but if in¬
tercepted, dashes at its antagonist, oversets him if possible, and makes
its escape as fast as it can.

The Elephant Seal inhabits the Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern

Oceans. It is very much larger than the Common Seal, being from
twenty to thirty feet long. It derives its name from the long snout,
something like the proboscis of the elephant, or rather the tapir, which
it thrusts forward when angry, and snorts loudly. Only the males have
this proboscis, and they do not attain it until they are three years old.
Although its appearance is very formidable, it does not attempt to attack
men; but if it cannot frighten them by opening its mouth and displaying
its teeth, it makes off towards the water, but with great deliberation, as
vvhen in good condition it is so fat that its body trembles like a mass o(
jelly, and will furnish seventy gallons of oil. This oil is the principal
object of the South Pacific seal fisheries: but tne skin of this seal is also
76 NATURAL HISTORT.

very valuable tor its strength

MORCNGA.
aud is used in making har¬
ness. The seal skin is often
used as fur.
It is a migratory animal,
and changes its residence
several times in the year, the
first migration taking place
in June.
There are many seals
known, among which are the
Sea Leopard, a spotted spe¬
cies ; the Harp Seal, so called
because the markings on its
back something resemble a
lyre; and the Sea Lion.

Proboscidea (Gr. that has a proboscis The Walrus inhabits the

or trunk). northern seas, but has been
known to visit our coasts.
Three instances of this have happened, one in 1817, one in 1825 at the
Orkney Isles, and a third in 1S39 at the mouth of the Severn. The
Sub-family c. Tricheclna. most remarkable point in the
Walrus is the great length
Trichicus.—(Gr. rpix^os, hairy.)
of two of its upper teeth,
which extend downwards for
jp/b": 1, nearly two feet, and resemble
m 5.
the tusks of the elephant.
'• •«''

They furnish very fine ivory,

and are extensively used by
dentists in making artificial
teeth, as teeth made from
them remain white much
longer than those made from
the tusks of elephants.
These tusks are used by
the Walrus for climbing the
rocks or heaps of ice, and
also for digging up the sea¬
weeds on which the animal
EosmtLrus (Scandinavian, Rosmar ,* the mostly subsists. It will also
Walrus), the Walrus, or Morse. eat shrimps and young seals.
* In (he Scandinavian tongue, the word ‘ Ros ’ signifies horse, and ‘ Mar ’ sea. The
meaning of the word ‘ Rosmar’ is thus “ Sea horse.” Sometimes the two syllables are
transposed; making the word “ Mar-ros,” which we contract into “ Morse.”
In the same manner “Walrus” is an Anglicism of Hval-ros, or Whale-horse. The
reader will notice the resemblance of these words to the corresponding words in German
 NATURAL HISTORY. 77

i'lie Walrus is oftez hunted for the sake of its oil, its flesh, its skin,
.rid its teeth. It is generally found in troops; and if one is wounded,
its companions rush to its rescue, and attack the enemy with their sharp
tusks, which they have been known to drive through the bottom of a
boat. Their skin is so strong and slippery that it is very difficult to drive
the harpoon through it, and even a sharp weapon frequently glides ofl
without injuring the animal. The great enemy of the walrus is the polar
bear, who does not always venture on an open battle, as, when a combat
takes place, the walrus defends himself most vigorously with his curved
tusks, and often inflicts fearful gashes on the bear, forcing it to abandon
the contest.
The head of this animal is very small in proportion to the remaindei
of its body, and often ueceives people as to its size,
which is difficult to ascertain without examination.
The stuffed specimen in the British Museum, although
,n bad preservation, will give a tolerable idea of the
animal. The expression of its countenance is very
erocious, principally on account of the enormous size
of the upper lip and the thick bristles with which it
is covered. The length of the Walrus is about fifteen
or sixteen feet, and it yields from twenty to thirty walrus’s skull

gallons of excellent oil.

The Cetacea, or Whale tribe, closely resemble the fishes, and have
often been placed among these animals by naturalists. They, however,
are distinguished by possessing warm blood, and in consequence, being
forced to rise at intervals in order to breathe the air, instead of sepa¬
rating from the water, by means of their gills, sufficient oxygen for
supporting life.
Yet the whale remains under water for a time so much longer than
could be borne by any other warm-blooded animal, that the most indif¬
ferent observer cannot fail to perceive that the whale is furnished with
some plan for supporting life during its stay beneath the water.
The manner in which this object is attained is at once beautiful and
singular. Every one knows that the object of breathing is to oxygenize
the blood, which in its course through the body becomes deprived of its
native qualities, and is. actually poisonous. If the blood is not renewed,
it causes apoplexy and death, as is the case when a person is strangled
or drowned. The most natural way to supply this want in the whale
would be to give it much more lungs, in order that it might take into its
body a reservoir of air, from which the blood might be renewed. But
if this were the case, the animal would be seriously inconvenienced by
such an amoun, of air, which would make it too buoyant, and prevent it
from diving into the depths of the sea. But there must be a reservoir
somewhere, and, therefore, instead of a reservoir of air to arterialize the
blood, there is a reservoir of blood alreadv arterialized.
7E NATURAL HISTORY.

Along the interior of the ribs there is a vast collection of blood-vessels,

ramifying from one another, and capable of containing a large quantity
of blood, having no immediate connexion with that portion of the blood
which is already circulating in the body. As fast as the exhausted and
poisonous blood returns from its work, it passes into another reservoir
adapted for its necessities, while a portion of the arterialized blood in the
arterial reservoir passes into the circulation. It will be seen from this
statement, that the whale, and others of the same order, possess more
blood in proportion than any animals. By means of this wonderful
apparatus, a whale can remain below the water for more than half an
hour at a time.

Order III. . . CETE.—(Gr. Krjros, a Whale, or sea monster.)

Family I. . . Balaenidae.—(Gr. BaAaira, a Whale. Whale kind.)
BAL2ENA

Mysticetus (Gr. Mvara£, a moustache; kt}tos, a sea monster), the Whale.

The depths to which the whale can descend are astonishing, wounded
whales having been known to take down perpendicularly nearly 800
fathoms of line. The pressure of the water at this depth is very great,
amounting, according to Scoresby’s calculation, to 211,200 tons. This
pressure would certainly cause the water to burst through their nostrils,
and enter the lungs, were it not that the nostrils are formed so as to close
themselves more firmly as the pressure of water increases.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 70
The great Greenland Whale is found in the Northern Oceans, living
amid ice and perpetual cold. Many ships are annually fitted out for the
capture of this creature, which, unhappily for itself, furnishes oil anG
whalebone. The oil is obtained from the thick layer of fatty substance,
called blubber, which lies immediately under the skin; and the whale¬
bone—which, by the way, is not bone at all—is obtained from the inte¬
rior of the mouth, where it fringes the jaws, and acts as a sieve for the
Whale to strain his food through. The throat of the Greenland Whale
is so small that the sailors, who always use forcible expressions, say that
a penny loaf would choke a whale. The greater proportion of its food
consists of a little creature about an inch and a half long, called Clio
borealis, one of the marine Mollusca, belonging to the class Pteropida.
or wing-footed creatures, so called because it propels itself through the
water with two wing-like organs. The Whale, when it wishes to feed,
rushes through the water with its immense jaws wide open, enclosing a
host of little sea animals, and a few hogsheads of water. As the Whale
only wants the animals, and not the water, it shuts its mouth, and drives
all the water out through the fringes of whalebone, leaving the little
creatures in its jaws.
Por the capture of this animal, a number of ships leave England,
France, and other countries, reaching the Polar Seas about the end of
April. When arrived at tlieir destination, a careful look-out is kept
from the mast-head for “ fish,” which are usually first observed by the
column of steam and water that the whale sends into the air from its
nostrils. At the welcome sound, “ There she blows,” the whole crew
starts into activity; the boats, which are always kept hanging over the
side of the ship, furnished ready for action, are instantly manned and
lowered into the water, and the boat springs off iu chase of the whale.
The harpooner, whose station is in the bow, examines his implements
carefully, tries the edge of the harpoon, and sees that the rope is pro¬
perly coiled, as the slightest entanglement would upset the boat, or
might even drag it below water.
It will be as well just to notice the different weapons used in the
whale-fishery. The first and most important is the harpoon, a kind of
spear with a large barbed head, the shape of which is not very unlike the
flukes of an anchor. The edges of the barbs are kept very sharp, a3
otherwise the harpoon would not penetrate beyond the blubber, and the
whale would consequently escape. The head of the harpoon is not made
of steel, as inexperienced persons would imagine, but of soft iron, so soft
that it can be scraped to an edge with a knife. This is fixed to a wooden
handle, by which the harpooner holds it. In some vessels, the harpoon
is fired at the whale from a small cannon placed in the bow of the boat.
There are some very ingenious harpoons in the United Service Museum,
one of which, intended to be fired from a gun, has its barbs joined to
the head by a hinge, and held apart with a spring, so that when a whale
is struck the barbs collapse until the force of the blow is expended when
80 NATURAL HISTORY.

the spring expands them and holds the whale firmly. The common
harpoon, however, is the weapon usually employed.
To the harpoon is fastened a long and, very tough line, about 4,000 feet
in length. This line is kept ready coiled in a tub at the head of the boat,
and great care is taken to prevent it from being entangled. It runs over
a kind of pulley, as the friction is so great when the alarmed whale
starts off, that the rope when out of its place has repeatedly set the gun¬
wale of the boat on fire. At Deptford, some years back, might be seen
a boat, the head of which had been quite cut off by the rope. A bucket
of water is therefore always kept at hand to throw on the rope. When
a whale is struck, it sometimes runs out with the whole of the line, in
which case the line of another boat is fastened to it, and sometimes a
whale has carried off three miles of line with it. When the whale begins
to slacken the line, it is immediately recoiled in the tub, so as to be
always under the command of the pursuers.
The use of the harpoon is merely to hold the whale ; it does not enter
deeply, and causes the animal but little inconvenience, as a whale has
often broken its line and escaped with the harpoon sticking in its back,
and been afterwards recaptured, apparently none the worse for its
adventure. In order to kill the whale the fishermen have another weapon,
called a “lance.” This is a long, slender, steel weapon, with a very
sharp head, without barbs, as the men have to withdraw the lance as fast
as they can after it lias pierced a vital part. With these few and simple
weapons the fishers contrive to secure the monster of the waters—a
neautiful instance of the superiority of reason over brute strength; for,
as the expert angler secures a large and strong fish with a single hair,
utterly inadequate to bear half the weight of the creature it holds, so
the whale-fisher, with a few small weapons, achieves a task which may
he compared to a mouse attacking and killing a wolf with a reel of
thread and a crotchet needle.
The boats always approach the whale from behind, lest the expected
prey should see them and escape. When within a few yards the har-
pooner throws his weapon at the whale, so as to pierce through the mass
of blubber, and hold fast in the flesh. The wounded animal instantly
dashes off, taking the line with it. When it has been under water far
some time, it is forced to come to the surface to breathe. The fishers
knowing the time that it can remain under water, and calculating from
long practice the place where it will rise, are at the spot ready to receive
it as its huge body reaches the surface, and thrust their long lances
deeply into its body, inflicting mortal wounds. Blood mixed with water
is now discharged from the whale’s nostrils or “ blow-holes,” a sure sigu
that it will soon die. Presently streams of blood are thrown up, colour¬
ing the sea and frequently drenching the crews of the boats, and after a
few violent struggles the whale turns over on its side and dies.
The enormous carcass is now joyously towed to the ship, and prepara
tions are made for “ flensing,” or cutting off the useful parts. When
 NATURAL HISTORY. 81

the carcass has been brought alongside the ship, men wearing shoes
armed with spikes, to prevent them from slipping off the oily back of
the monster, commence the process by fastening ropes to its head and
tail. A strong hook is then fixed into the fat near the neck, called the
“ kent,” as it is used for “ kenting,” or turning over the whale. To this
hook is fastened a’rope passing through a pulley at the mainmast head,
and fixed to a windlass on deck. The blubber is taken off the upper
side by “ blubber spades.’5 The blocks of blubber, called “ slips,” are
then hauled up on deck by means of ropes called “ speck tackles,” speck
being the German word for fat or bacon. When the blubber is all
stripped from the upper side, the men turn the whale partly round by
nauling at the rope fastened to the “ kent.” They then cut out the
whalebone with knives made for that purpose. Lastly, the “ kent ”
itself is stripped off, and the whale left to the sharks and gulls, who
have been helping themselves very liberally while the flensing was going
on, the shovel-nosed shark sometimes scooping out semicircular pieces as
large as a man’s head. The birds and fish hold grand festival on the
body of the whale until it is so stripped that it sinks, when the sharks have
it all to themselves.
When the crew have leisure, the blubber, which has been meanwhile
stowed away in a place with a not very polished name, is “ made off,”
that is, carefully stripped of the pieces of skin and muscle adhering to it,
cut into moderately sized pieces, and packed in casks until wanted. The
oil is extracted by boiling the blubber in large coppers ; a most unsavoury
occupation, but a very pleasant one to the crew, if they take that dutv
upon themselves. The refuse blubber is used as fuel, so that there is
no waste.
It is impossible to calculate on the amount or mode of resistance
which may be met with from a whale when struck, for one whale will
yield to a single harpoon loosely fixed, while another will break away
and escape with five or six in his back, and two miles or so of rope
trailing behind him. Some instances have been related of whales being
killed without being struck at all. Scoresby tells us that on one me¬
morable occasion, after a whale had been killed, it sunk as whales some¬
times will do. While they were hauling it up, the line sometimes
resisted, and sometimes came in easily. At last they drew up a whale
with a coil of the rope round it, which they naturally thought to be the
animal struck by them. After disentangling it they found to their
surprise that the line still descended into the sea, and dragged as if
there was a weight at its end; and so there was, for they found their
harpooned whale still fixed to the weapon, and discovered that the other
unfortunate animal had contrived to entangle itself in the line, and had
thus drowned itself. Another anecdote of a similar character is related
by Scoresby. “A whale was struck from one of the boats of the
ship Nautilus, in Davis’ Straits. It was killed, and as is usual after the
capture, it was disentangled from the line connected with the first ‘ fast
G
82 XA.TURAL HISTORY.

boat,’ (the first boat which had struck it,) by dividing it at the splice of
the foreganger, (the part of the rope fastened to the harpoon,) within
eight or nine yards of the harpoon. The crew of the boat from which
the ‘fish5 was first struck, in the meantime were employed in heaving in
the lines by means of a winch fixed in the boat for the purpose. On
a sudden, however, to their great astonishment, the lines were pulled
away from them with the same force and violence as by a whale when
first struck. They repeated their signal indication of a whale being
struck; their shipmates flock towards them, and wdiile every one ex¬
pressed a similar degree of astonishment with themselves, they all
agreed that a c fish ’ was fast to the line. In a few minutes they were
agreeably confirmed in their opinion by the rising of a large whale close
by them, exhausted with fatigue, and having every appearance of a ‘fast
fish.’ It permitted itself to be struck by several harpoons at once, and
was speedily killed. On examining it after death, they found the line
belonging to the boat in its mouth, w'here it was still firmly fixed by the
compression of its lips. The occasion of this happy and puzzling inci¬
dent was therefore solved. The end of the line, after being cut, was
sinking in the water—the ‘fish5 in question, engaged in feeding, was
advancing with its mouth open, and accidentally caught the line between
its extended jaws—a sensation so utterly unusual as that produced by
the line, had induced it to shut its mouth and grasp the rope which wras
the cause of its alarm so firmly between its lips as to produce the effect
just stated. This circumstance took place many years ago, but a similar
one occurred in the year 1814.55
The dangers undergone in this pursuit are very great. Sometimes
the boat is dashed to pieces by a blowr from the tail of the enraged
whale; sometimes the crew are left on the ice for many hours, wet and
frozen; sometimes the ice-fields strike together, and crush the ship
between them, although the vessel is
strengthened in every possible way by
cross-beams and treble sheathing;
sometimes a fog comes on, and the
boat and ship are separated, neither
having any means of knowing where
the other lies, for sound is much im¬
peded by fog, and even cannon are
not heard when fired comparatively
close.
The Whale shows great attachment
to its young, which is called the cub,
and on the approach of danger, seizes
it with its fin or flipper, and carries
it down out of danger. The Whale
has no fins, properly so called, as it is not a fish. Its flippers, which
supply the place of fins, are in fact fore legs, furnished with a kind of
 NATURAL HISTORY 83
hand covered with a thick skin. They seem to be principally employed
in balancing the animal. The hind legs are concealed under the skin, as
are those of the boa constrictor. The length of this Whale averages
sixty feet. Its tail is placed transversely, and not vertically, as in the
fishes.

The Cachalot.—The chase of the Cachalot is similar to that of the

Greenland whale, and need not be described. It is attended with more
danger, as the terrific row of teeth with which the lower jaw of the
Cachalot is armed, is not unfrequently employed in biting the boat. In
the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an under jaw-bone of this whale,
sixteen and a half feet in length, containing forty-eight huge teeth.
Besides this method of defence, it has a very unpleasant habit of swim¬
ming off to a distance, and then rushing at the boat with its head,
thereby knocking it to pieces. One of these whales actually sank a ship
by three or four blows from its head.

Physeter.—(Gi\ 3?vcn)Trip, a blow-pipe, or bellows.)

Macrocephalus (Gr. Ma/cpos, long; <ecpa\ri, a head), the Cachalot^

or Spermaceti Whale.

Spermaceti is obtained from the head of the Cachalot, and it is this

substance that causes the immence size of the head. When the whale
S4 NATURAL HISTORY.

is killed, a hole is made in the upper part of the head, and the sperma¬
ceti is baled out with buckets. When just procured it is almost fluid,
but is rendered solid and transparent by being first drained of its oil,
then boiled in water, and lastly set to cool in wide pans, where it soon
assumes the white flaky appearance so well known in this country. The
akull of the Cachalot occupies a comparatively small portion of the head,
the huge mass at the end of the mouth being composed of a gristly kind
of substance. The bone of the upper jaw occupies about one-fourth of
the distance between the mouth and the top of the snout. It runs
backwards nearly straight until just before the eyes, when it joins the
remainder of the skull with a bold sweep. That part of the skull is
called “ Neptune’s Chair” by the sailors, and is the part where the sper¬
maceti is found. The layer of blubber is thin, but yields a fine and
valuable oil.
Ambergris, so long a riddle to all inquirers, is now found to be pro¬
duced in the interior of the Cachalot.
This substance is of the consistency
of wax, inflammable, and gives out a
kind of musky odour. It was once in
great repute as a medicine, but is now
only used as a perfume.
The Cachalot, although an inhabi¬
JAW OF GREENLAND WHALE.
tant of the Arctic seas, lias sometimes
been found and captured off our coasts. The length of this whale is
about seventy feet.

Those readers who have formed their ideas of Dolphins from the very
graceful and elegant creatures represented under that name in the pic-
~ , tures of the “ old masters,”
family II. Delphmidre.—(Gr. Ae\<pls,
or the statues of the
a Dolphin. Dolphin kind.)
ancient sculptors, will find
DELrniNus—(Lat. a Dolphin.) that the real animal differs
as much from the ideal,
as the red and green lions
wearing golden collars, re¬
presented in heraldry, dif¬
fer from the lion of Africa.
Sad to say, almost the whole
history of the Dolphin is
imaginary — very poetical,
but very untrue. The red
and blue colours of the
Delphis, the Dolphin. heraldic lien are not less
fabulous than the changing
tints of the dying dolphin, so dear to poetry. Alas! our unpoetical
Dolphin, when we have hamooned and brought him on deck, is only
 NATURAL HISTORY. 85

olack and white, and all tlie change that he makes, is that the black
becomes brown in time, and the white grey.
The creature that really displays these colours when dying, is a fish
called the Coryphene, and not a cetaceous animal of any kind. The
sailors generally call them Dolphins, which has led to the mistake.
We will leave poetry and its beautiful errors, and pass on to facts
The Dolphin is, like the whale, a warm-blooded animal, suckles its young,
and is forced to come to the s-urface in order to breathe. Its snout is
very long, and is apparently used for capturing such fish, and other
animals, as live in the mud.
The length is from six to ten feet. Several species of Dolphin are
known, of which the British Museum possesses six.

The Porpoise.—These animals may be observed in plenty playing

their absurd antics off every coast of England. There are numbers of
them off the Nore, a place which they frequent greatly, as it is the
mouth of a river, and they find more food there than in the open sea.
They tumble at the surface of the water for the purpose of breathing.
In the olden times, when glass windows were considered an effeminate
luxury, and rushes supplied the place of carpets, the flesh of the Por¬
poise constituted one of the
standard delicacies of a pub- Phoca^na.—(Gr. buncuva, a Porpoise.)
lie feast, but it has long
since been deposed from its
rank at the table. Like
most of the cetacea, its flesh
has a very strong oily flavour,
which, however relished by
an Esquimaux, is not agree¬
able to the palate of an
European epicure of the
present day. Communis (Lat. common), the Porpoise,
The voracity of the Por¬ or Porpesse.
poise is very great. It feeds
on various fishes, but its great feasts are held when the periodical shoals
of herrings, pilchards, and other fish arrive on the coasts. In the
pursuit of its prey, it frequently ventures some distance up a river, and
is then often taken in nets by the fishermen.
The teeth of this animal are very numerous, and interlock when the
jaws are closed, so that the fish when once seized cannot escape. Its
length is about five feet, its colour a rich black; becoming white on the
under side.

The Narwhal.—Although the Narwhal has not suffered from false

reports so much as many other animals, yet it has unwittingly con¬
tributed to uropagate a very old error, The spiral tusk of the Narwhal
86 NATURAL HISTORY.

was accustomed to be sold as the real horn of the unicorn; and as an

accredited part of that animal, forming direct proof of its existence, it
used to fetch a very high price. Of course, when the whale fishery waa
established, the real owner of the horn was discovered, and the unicorn
left still enveloped in mystery.
The name Monodon is not strictly correct, as the Narwhal possesses
two of these tusks, one on each side of its head. Only the left tusk
projects, the other remaining within the head. Sometimes a specimen
has been found with both tusks projecting, and some think that when
the left tusk lias been broken off by accident, the right one becomes
large enough to supply its place.
The use of these tusks is not known; some supposing that they are
employed to dig up sea-weeds, and other plants, on which the Narwhal

Monodon—(Gr. M6vos, solitary; oSou's, or o5<£v, a tooth.)

Monoccros (Gr. Movos—vcejas, a horn), the Narwhal.

s »

lecds, and some imagining that the living prey is first transfixed and
then, eaten. Be this as it may, as a weapon the tusk is not to be
despised, as the strength and rapidity of the Narwhal are very great.
Instances are on record, of the thick oak timbers of a ship being pierced
by the ivory tusk of this creature. The Greenlanders employ this ivory in
the manufacture of spears, arrows, hooks, &c. They take the Narwhal by
* kind rl harpoon attached to a line, with a buoy at its extremity. The
 NATURAL HISTORY. 87
use of the buoy is to harass and retard the Narwhal when struck, and
to give notice when it is about to rise. Immediately on reaching the
surface, a lance is thrust into it, which generally proves its death-blow.
The adventurous Greenlander finds it a most welcome prey, as he obtains
from it oil, food, weapons, and ropes.
Although an inhabitant of the northern seas, it has several times
visited our coasts. Its body is from thirty to forty feet in length, and
its tusk from five to nine.
The Manatees and Dugong are omitted from want of space.

We now arrive at the Rodentia, or gnawing animals, so called from

their habit of gnawing through, or paring away, the substances on
which they feed. For this purpose their teeth are admirably formed, and
by these teeth it is always easy to ascertain a member of the Rodents.
They have none of those sharp teeth called canine, such as are seen in
the lions and in those animals which seize and destroy living animals,
but in the front of each jaw there are two long flat teeth, slightly
curved, and having a kind of chisel edge for rasping away wood, or
other articles.
The constant labour which these teeth (called incisors, from the
Latin word, inciclo, I cut,) undergo, would rapidly wear them away. To
counteract this loss, the teeth are constantly growing and being pushed
forward, so that as fast as the upper part is worn away, the tooth is
replenished from below. So constant is this increase, that when an
unfortunate rabbit, or other rodent, has lost one of its incisors, the
opposite one, meeting nothing to stop its progress, continually grows,
until sometimes the tooth curls upwards over the lips, and prevents
the wretched animal from eating, until it is gradually starved to death.
An example of this preternatural growth may be seen in the vignette
under the article Rabbit. The sketch was drawn from a specimen in
the Anatomical Museum at Oxford.
The Rodentia include the mice, beavers, rabbits, squirrels, and
porcupines.
The Brown Rat, sometimes called the Norway Rat, is the species
usually found in England. It was some years since imported into this
country, and from its superior size, strength, and ferocity, has so com¬
pletely established itself, and expelled the original Black Rat, that it is
very difficult indeed to find a Black Rat in any part of England.
Waterton’s sympathies are much excited in favour of the original rat, and
his anger is great against the invader. He says of the Brown Rat:—
“Its rapacity knows no bounds, whilst its increase is prodigious,
beyond all belief. But the most singular part of its history is, that it
has nearly worried every individual of the original rat out of Great
Britain. So scarce have these last-mentioned animals become, that iu
aii my life I have never seen but one single solitary specimen. It was
88 »TURAL HISTORY.

sent, some few years ago, to Nostell Priory, in a cage, from Bristol,
and I received an invitation from Mr. Arthur Strickland, who was on
a visit there, to go and see it. Whilst I was looking at the little native
prisoner in its cage, I could not help exclaiming, ‘Poor injured Briton!
„„„„_ _ hard, indeed, has been the
Order IV. . . OLIRES.—(Lat. Gits, a Dor¬ fate of thy family! in another
mouse.)
generation, at furthest, it
Family I. . . . Murid®.—(Or. Mus, a Mouse. will probably sink down to
Mouse kind.)
the dust for ever !
Sub-family a. Murlna. The same amusing natu*
iMUS. ralist, being considerably
annoyed by the depredations
on his provisions, and the
unceasing clatter that they
kept up behind the panels
of his sitting-room, after
trying various plans to ex¬
tirpate them, at last thought
of a method, rich in the
same humour with which
Decumanus (Lat. tenth or large), the Rat. most of his actions are tinged,
and as efficacious in its
operation as amusing in its idea:—
“ Having caught one of them in a box trap, I dipped its hinder parts
into warm tar, and then turned it loose behind the hollow plinth. The
others, seeing it in this condition, and smelling the tar all along the run
through which it had gone, thought it most prudent to take themselves
off: and thus, for some months after this experiment, I could sit and
read in peace, free from the hated noise of rats. On moving the plinth
at a subsequent period, we found that they had actually gnawed away
the corner of a peculiarly hard-burnt brick which had obstructed their
thoroughfare.”
It is at all times difficult to get rid of these dirty, noisy animals, for
they soon learn to keep out of the way of traps, and if they are poisoned
they revenge their fate by dying behind a wainscot or under a plank
of the floor, and make the room uninhabitable. There are, however, two
ways recommended to attain the desired object.
Place a saucer containing meal in a room frequented by rats, letting
them have free access to it for several days. They will then come to
it in great force. When they have thus been accustomed to feed there
regularly, mix a quantity of jalap with the meal, and put it in the accus¬
tomed place. This will give them such internal tortures that they will
not come near the place again.
The second plan is to use the same precautions, but to mix phosphorus
with the meal and make it into a ball. The phosphorus is said not to
kill the rats, but to afflict them with such a parching thirst that they
 NATURAL HISTORY. 89
rush to the neaiest water and die there. By this method the dangei
of their dying in the house is avoided.
I have not proved either of these plans experimentally, but offer them
for the benefit of those who are afflicted by the rat pest.

The Common Mouse is so well known, that a description of its form

and size is useless. It almost rivals the rat in its attacks upon our pro¬
visions, and is quite as difficult to extirpate. It brings up its voung in
a kind of nest, and when a board of long standing is taken up in a room,
it is not uncommon to find
under it a mouse’s nest,
composed of rags, string,
paper, shavings, and every¬
thing that the ingenious little
architect can scrape together.
It is a round mass, looking
something like a rag ball very
loosely made. When opened,
seven or eight little mice
will probably be found in the
interior—little pink trans- MnscUus (Lat. „ Uttk, , lhe Moute
parent creatures, three ol
which could go into a lady’s thimble, sprawling about m a most
unmeaning manner, apparently greatly distressed at the sudden cold
caused by the opening of their nest.
The Mouse is said to be greatly susceptible of music. An anecdote is
related of a gentleman who was playing a violin seeing a mouse run
along on the floor and jump about as if distracted. He continued the
strain, and after some time the mouse, apparently exhausted with its
exertions, dropped dead on the floor. An instance occurred to myself
very recently, similar in all respects but that of the death of the little
animal, which only scampered back to its hole when the music ceased.
We afterwards found that it was a partially tame one which had
escaped.
Every one has heard of the fable of the Lion and the Mouse, but from
the following account from Basil Hall’s Fragments, we must conclude
that, whatever the lion might have done under the circumstances, the
tiger at all events would not have availed himself of the proffered assist¬
ance. He relates of a tiger that was kept in a cage at Mysore :—
“But what annoyed him far more than our poking him up with a
stick, or tantalizing him with shins of beef or legs of mutton, was intro¬
ducing a mouse into his cage. No fine lady ever exhibited more terror
at the sight of a spider than this magnificent royal tiger betrayed on
seeing a mouse. Our mischievous plan was to tie the little animal by a
string to the end of a long pole, and thrust it close to the tiger’s nose.
The moment lie saw it, he leaped to the opposite side; and when the
90 NATURAL HISTORY.

mouse was made to iun near him, he jammed himsell into a corner, and
stood trembling and roaring in such an ecstasy of fear that we were
always obliged to desist from sheer pity to the poor brute. Sometimes
we insisted on his passing over the spot where the unconscious little
mouse ran backwards and forwards. For a long time however we could
not get him to move, till at length, I believe by the help of a squib, we
obliged him to start; but instead of pacing leisurely across his den or
making a detour to avoid the object of his alarm, he generally took a
kind of flying leap, so high as nearly to bring his back in contact with
the roof of his cage.”
The two objects here represented are
two portions of the same hair, the larger
one being the centre and the smaller
being taken near the origin. It is worth
while to notice that although to external
appearance the fur of the mouse exactly
resembles that of the bat, yet when
they are placed under the microscope
HAIR OF MOUSE. they are shown to be very differently
formed.
A white variety of mouse is tolerably common, and is usually bred
in cages. As it is very tame and beautiful, it is in great repute as
a pet.

Micr5mys.—(Gr. yutpos, small; /As, a The Harvest Mouse, the

mouse.)
smallest of the British quadru¬
peds, discovered and described
by White in his “ Selborne,”
is very much smaller than the
ordinary mouse, a halfpenny
weighing down two of them
when placed in a pair of scales.
Its nest is raised about a foot
and a half from the ground, and
supported on two or three
straws. It is made of grass,
about the size of a cricket-ball,
and very compact.

The Field Mouse is as

great a pest in the open air
as the Common Mouse within
a house. It not only devours
Minutus (Lat. very small), the Harvest
the corn, but strips the bark
Mouse.
off young trees, doing great
 NATURAL HISTORY. 9]

mischief. Ihe kestrel or windhover hawk lives almost exclusively on the

Field Mouse, and ought always to be encouraged.
Several genera are omitted.

The Hamster Hat is a native of parCs of Germany. It is a terrible

pest there, as it not only devours the corn, &c. in the summer, but lays
up a large store for the .
winter. It is a most furious Sub-family o. Arvzcoltria.—(Lat. Arvum,
little animal, and will attack field; colo, I inhabit.)
a man or a horse and even Cricetus.— (Gr. kdikt)tos, ringed.)
a waggon wheel if it ap¬
proaches too near the spot
which the Hamster considers
its own property. Rats,
mice, lizards, birds, and even
its weaker brethren, are eaten
by this ravenous little animal.
It lives in holes under¬
ground, and to escape attack
has several passages from its Frunientarlus (Lat. belonging to harvest), th<
chamber leading m different Hamster.
directions. The skin is of
some value, and the hunter who spears it usually opens its granary for tne
sake of its store, which is far from being inconsiderable, a hundredweight
of beans having been found in one granary.

The Water Rat is a native of England, and very common on the

banks of rivers, brooks, &c. It digs holes in the bank, and is reported
to eat fish, frogs, &c., but
this is very doubtful. These Arvicola.—(Lat. Arvum, a field; colo, I
inhabit.)
animals exist in great num¬
bers round Oxford, and I
have repeatedly watched
them feeding. I never
saw them eating fish, nor
found fish - bones inside
their holes, except when a
kingfisher had taken pos¬
session ; but I have fre¬
quently seen them gnawing
the green bark from reeds, Ampkiblus (Gr. 5Afupt, on both sides; fiivco, I
which they completely live), the Water-rat.
strip, leaving the mark of
each tooth as they proceed. I shot one while feeding, and at first
thought that the marks of its teeth were caused by the shot, for until
that time I had supposed that the Water Rat fed on fish.
92 NATURAL HiSTORI.

The Beaver.—North America is the principal country where the

Beaver is found, but it is also common on the Euphrates, and along
some of the larger European rivers, as the Rhone and the Danube. In
former years, when the wolf and bear inhabited England, the Beaver
followed its architectural pursuits along the rivers ; but it has not been
seen in this country since 1188.
The houses of the Beaver are built of mud, stones, and sticks. They
are placed in a stream, and their entrance is always below the surface. As
a severe frost would freeze up their doors, it is necessary to make the
stream deep enough to prevent the frost from reaching the entrances
This object is attained by building a dam across the river, to keep back
c , „ ., 7 n , - the water until it is suffi-
Sub-family d. Cmtorma. cielltly deep for the beaver’s
Castor. (Gr. Kdarup, a Beaver.) purposes. The dam is made
of branches which the Beaver
cuts down with its strong
sharp teeth, and mud and
stones worked in among the
branches. The Beavers throw
these branches into the
water, and sink them to the
bottom by means of stones,
and by continually throwing
in fresh supplies a strong
embankment is soon made.
As many Beavers live
together in one society, the
formation of a dam does not
take very long. By their
Fiber (Lat a Beaver), the Beaver. united efforts they rapidly
fell even large trees, by
gnawing them round the trunk, and always taking care to make them
fall towards the water, so that they can transport the logs easily.
The mud and stones used in their embankments are not carried on
their tails, as some say, nor do the Beavers use their tails as trowels
for laying on the mud, the fact being that the stones and mud are
carried between their chin and fore-paws, and the mistake respecting
the tail is evidently caused by the slap that Beavers give with that
member when they dive. In order that their pond may not be too deep
they always leave an opening in the dam to let the water escape when it
rises above a certain height.
They cut most of their wood in the summer, taking care to choose
trees above their houses, so that the stream floats them down to the
place where they wish to use them. They also lay up stores of food for
the wintet, by cutting a number of green branches and sinking them
 NATURAL HISTORY. 93

near the door of their habitations, where they are held firm by stones
laid on the summit of the heap.
During the severe winter, their mud-built houses freeze quite hard,
and prevent the wolverine, their greatest enemy except man, from
breaking through and devouring the inmates. Every year the Beavers
lay a fresh coating of mud upon their houses, so that after the lapse of
a few years the walls of the house are several feet in thickness. Many
of the houses are built close together, but no two families can communi¬
cate with each other, except by diving below the walls and rising inside
their neighbours’ houses.
The fur of the Beaver is exceedingly valuable, especially for the
manufacture of hats, and is greatly sought after. The hunting season
is in winter, when the beavers are quietly in their houses. The hunters,
armed with spears, &c. break the tops of the houses. The alarmed
beavers instantly rush out and pass under the ice to certain hiding-places
in the bank. The hunter then discovers the position of the hole in the
bank by the sound of his spear struck against the ice; he then breaks
a hole and spears the animal in its place of fancied security. A sub¬
stance called Castor was formerly obtained from the Beaver and much
used in medicine, but is now discarded.
When in captivity the Beaver soon becomes tame, and will indus¬
triously build dams across the corner of a room with brushes, boots,
fire-irons, books, or anything it can find. When its edifice is finished it
sits in the centre apparently satisfied that it has made a beautiful
structure to dam up the river—a proof that the ingenuity of the Beaver
is not caused by reason but by instinct.
The fur of the Beaver, like that of many other animals, consists of
a fine wool intermixed with long and stiff hairs. The hairs are useless,
but the peculiar construction of the fur causes it to penetrate and fix
itself into the felt which forms the body of a hat. In making the hat,
the only method required to fasten the fur into the felt is to knead
fur and felt together. The hair is toothed on its surfaces, and makes its
way into the felt, just as an awn of barley will travel all over the body
if placed up the sleeve.
The length of the Beaver is about three feet and a half.
Several genera are omitted.

The Common Porcupine is found in Africa, Tartary, Persia, India,

and some parts of Europe. It lives in holes which it digs in the
ground, and only comes forth at night in order to feed. It eats vegetable
substances only, such as roots, bark, and other similar substances. The
array of spines or quills with which this animal is covered forms its princi¬
pal means of defence. If it cannot escape, it suddenly stops, erects all
its quills, and runs backwards against its adversary, striking the quills
against him by the weight of its body. Occasionally a looser quill than
usual remains in the wound or falls on the ground, which evidently
94 NATURAL HISTORY.

gave rise to the foolish error that the Porcupine could dart its weapons
at its adversary from a distance. There are two kinds of these quills,—
one kind long and curved, the other short, thick, and pointed. These
last are the weapons of defence, as the former are too slender to do
much service. When the Porcupine walks, its quills make a kind of
rustling sound, caused principally by those arranged on the tail, which

Family II. . . . HystricYdse.—("Tcttoi£, a Porcupine. Porcupine kind.)

Sub-family a. Hystriclna.
rrvsTKix.

Cristata (Lat. crested), the Porcupine.

are large, hollow, and supported on long slender stalks. When an

animal is pierced by one of these quills it is in some danger, for the
exterior of the quill is formed on the same principle as the beaver fur,
and if not extracted, will gradually work its way into the body, until it
buries itself entirely. Dogs are not unfrequently killed in this manner
by a neglected quill, which has struck them, but which they are too
eager to notice in the excitement of the combat, until it has inflicted
a wound upon one of the internal organs.
The American Indians use the quills extracted from the Canada
Porcupine, a species living on trees, for ornamenting various parts of
their dress, especially their mocassins or skin shoes. In England the
quills are much used by anglers for making fine floats for angling. The
length of the Porcupine is about two feet, and its spines or quills are
from six to fourteen inches long.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 95
The Agouii lives m Brazil, Guiana and Paraguay. It is about the size
of a rabbit, and like that animal is generally found in company with
others. In Brazil and Guiana, .-
, . ... i , ’ bub-family c. * Dasyproctma.
the Agouti '3 much sought ^ .'L ,
after for the sake of its flesh, DA3YrEooTA.-(Gr. A«<rw, rough; vpmo s,
but it appears that in Para- hmd-quarters.)
guay the ffe*h is not eaten.
When pursued, it runs for a
short time with much rapidity,
but soon endeavours to con¬
ceal itself in a hole or under
the roots of a tree, when it
will suffer itself to be cap¬
tured without any resistance,
merely uttering a plaintive cry.
It feeds on vegetables, espe¬
cially yams and tubers, but Aguti (Native name), the Agouti.
in the West India Islands it devours the sugar-canes, and is a great
pest to the planters.

The Capybara or Chiguira is the largest of all the Rodentia. At

first sight it looks very like a pig, and its skin is covered thinly with
hairs like bristles, which Sub-family d. Hydrochmlna.
add to the resemblance. TT „
It inhabits, the bordersHYDROCHffiRUS'_(Gr- T5“0’water 5 Xo‘oos>a ^
of lakes and rivers in many
parts of Southern America.
During the day, it hides
among the thick herbage of
the banks, only wandering
forth to feed at night, but
when alarmed, it instantly
makes for the water, and
escapes by diving. It is
hunted for the sake of its
Capybara (Native name), the Capybara.
hesli, which is said to be
remarkably good. The Jaguar appears to be of the same opinion, for
he is the most terrible enemy of this creature, destroying immense
numbers. The food of the Capybara consists of grass, vegetables and
fruits. Its length is about three feet six inches.

The Guinea-pig or Restless Cavy belongs to the sub-family Caviina,

It was originally brought from South America, and is frequently domes¬
ticated in England. Its beauty is its only recommendation, as it shows
tittle intelligence, and is never used for food. Children, however, and
particularly schoolboys, are fond of keeping Guinea-pigs, as they are
96 NATURAL JTISTORY.

wonderfully prolific, easy to manage, and do not make mucn noise.

They are popularly supposed to keep off rats, and are therefore usually
patronised in connexion with rabbit-hutches.

Family III. Lepondso.—(Lat. lepus, a Hare. Hare kind.)

LETUS.

Timidus (Lat. timid), the Hare.

The Hare is one of our most common quadrupeds. It is constantly

hunted both for the sport and for its flesh. When hunted with grey¬
hounds, the amusement is called coursing. Beagles are also used for
the same purpose, but they do not catch the Iiare by speed, but by
patiently following its track, until the wearied animal is no longer
capable of escaping. It comes under the denomination of game, and is
protected by the Game Laws, as are pheasants and partridges.
When full grown, it is larger than the rabbit and exceedingly like that
animal, but its colour is slightly different, and the black spot on the
extremity of its ears is a simple method of distinguishing it. The Hare
does not burrow like the rabbit, but makes a kind of nest of grass and
other materials. In this nest, called a “form,” the Hare lies, crouchmc
to the ground, its ears laid along its back, and trusting to its conceal¬
ment, will often remain quiet until the foot of an intruder almost
touches it. Many people can distinguish it when thus hidden bv the
sparkle of its eye.
Innumerable foes besides man surround this animal. Foxes, ferrets,
stoats, and all their tribe, are unmerciful enemies, and sometimes a large
hawk will destroy a leveret, as the young Hare is called. Although
 NATURAL HISTORY. 97

destitute of all means of defence, it is often enabled to escape by the

quiCKness of its hearing* and sight, which give it timely warning of the
approach of an enemy, and enable it to escape to a place of satety.
In cold countries LEPUS.
toe Hare changes its
t ur during winter, and
oecomes white, like
tne Arctic fox and
tne ermine. The Al¬
pine Hare, inhabiting
tne northern parts
of Scotland, is a
good example of this
change.

The well-known
Rabbit is rather
smaller than the hare,
but closely resembles
it in form. It lives
in deep holes, which
it digs in the ground.
When a number of
these holes or bur¬
rows occur near each Variabilis (Lat. varying), the Alpine Hare.
other, the place is
called a warren. A loose dry soil, such as the soft red sandstone, is
the delight of these animals, who may be seen frisking about in great
numbers outside their holes, but diving in on the slightest alarm.
Poachers often take them in LEPUS.
great numbers by spreading
nets over the mouth of the
holes, and sending a ferret
carefully muzzled down one
of the burrows. The terri¬
fied rabbits rush out at
the sight of their dreaded
enemy, and are caught in
the nets. If the ferret were
not muzzled, it would kill .
the first rabbit it caught, Cumcttlus (Lat.. a little Ratfat).
and remain in the hole, sucking the blood of its victim.
The female Rabbit forms a soft nest at the bottom of her burrow,
composed of fur torn from her body, of hay and dried leaves. Here the
young rabbits are kept until they are strong enough to shift for them¬
selves, and make their own burrows.
 98 NATURAL HISTORY.

The tame Rabbit is only a variety, rendered

larger by careful feeding and attendance. There
are many breeds of domestic rabbits, some, as
the fancy or lop-eared rabbits, being often oi
considerable value, thirty guineas having been
refused for a particularly line one. When tame
OVER-GROWN TEETH OF
rabbits are suffered to go free, they speedily
RABBIT.* return to their wild habits and instincts.

The Chinchilla.—This pretty little animal is an inhabitant of the

valleys in the mountain districts of South America. In such situations the
cold is often very intense; but the long soft fur of the Chinchilla forms
an effectual protection against the frosts. The fur is extensively used for
clothing, and celebrated for its soft and warm texture. Numbers of these
animals are annually destroyed for the sake of their skins, and Coquimbo
appears to be the place where they are taken in the greatest numbers.
The Chinchilla lives in
Family IV. . . Jerboidse.—(Jerboa kind.) society like the rabbit, and
Sub-family a.. Chinchilllna. resides in burrows dug in
the ground. Its food is en¬
chinchilla (Native name). tirely vegetable, and prin¬
cipally consists of bulbous
roots. In captivity it is
cpiiet aud inoffensive, but
seems to betray no particular
attachment to its keeper;
neither does it seem playful.
Its tail, covered with long
bushy hairs, is usually held
turned up over its back, like
Laniger (Lat. wool-bearing), the Chinchilla. that of the squirrel, and
probably for the same reason.
From the various specimens of fur sent to this country it would
appear that there are two species of Chinchilla, but it is not quite
certain. The length of the Chinchilla is about nine inches, exclusive of
its tail, which measures about five.

The Jerboas are celebrated for their powers of leaping. Their long
hind legs enable them to take enormous springs, during which their tails
serve to balance them. Indeed, a Jerboa, when deprived of its tail, is
afraid to leap.. At hrst sight the Jerboa seems to alight on its hind feet,
as well as spring from them, but the fact is, that it alights on its fore
feet and draws up the hind legs ready for the next leap with such
rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow the movement; as lias been
before related of the kangaroo.
* From the Anatomical Museum, Oxford.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 99
In the history of the polar bear it was mentioned that its feet were
prevented from slipping on the ice by a coating of thick hair. The foot
of the Jerboa is defended in the same manner by long bristly hairs, which
not only give the creature a Sub-family c. Dipina.
firm hold of the ground for
Dipua—(Gr. Ats, double; -rrovs, a foot.)
its spring, but also defend
the foot from the burning soil
on which it lives.
The timidity of the Jerboa
is very great, and on the
slightest alarm it instantly
rushes to its burrow, but if
intercepted, skims away over
the plain with such rapidity
that it seems to fly, and when
at full speed a swift grey¬
hound can scarcely overtake
it.
Grain and bulbous roots
are its chief food; while
eating, it holds the food with
its fore paws, and sits upright
JEgyptius (Lat. belonging to Egypt),
on its haunches, like the
the Jerboa.
squirrels and marmots. The
Jerboa does not bear confinement well; it always appears uneasy and
distrustful; it remains hidden during the day, and even when it emerges
from its concealment towards the evening is always ready to retreat at
the least alarm.
There are many kinds Sub-family d. Myoxina.
of jerboa; the Egyptian
Jerboa is rather small Myoxus.—(Gr. Muo£os, or Muco£os, a Dormouse.)
being about the size of a
large rat; its colour is a
tawny yellow.

The Dormouse is very

common in all the warmer
parts of the Continent,
and is often found in this
country, especially in the
southern and midland
counties. It lives in
copses and among brush¬
Avellanarius (Lat. from Avellana, a filbert),
wood, through which it
the Dormouse.
makes its way with such
rapiditv that it is verv difficult to be captured During the winter it lies
ii 2
100 NATURAL HISTORY.

torpid, but takes care to have a stock of food laid up, on which it feeds
during the few interruptions to its slumbers. A warm day in winter
will usually rouse it, but during the cold weather it lies rolled up,
with its tail curled round its body. While in this torpid state, a sudden
exposure to heat kills it, but a gentle warmth, such as holding it in the
hand, rouses it without injury. It lives principally on nuts, acorns, and
grain. It brings up its young in a nest composed of leaves and hay, and
seems to be fond of society in its household labours, as ten or tweive
nests have been seen close to each other.

The Squirrel is a very common animal in woods, where numbers may

be seen frisking about on the branches, or running up and down the
trunks. If alarmed, it springs up the tree with extraordinary activity,
and hides behind a branch. By this trick it escapes its enemy the hawk,
and by constantly slipping behind the large branches, frequently tires him
out. The activity and daring of this little animal are extraordinary.
When pursued, it makes the most astonishing leaps from branch to branch,
or from tree to tree, and has apparently some method of altering its direc¬
tion while in the air, possibly by means of its tail acting as a rudder.
Many boys, and men too, know the delights of a squirrel hunt. How
the little animal is chased from tree to tree until it is driven into a soli¬
tary tree, from which it cannot leap into the branches of other trees; how
some venturous climbers ascend the branches and try to shake the squirrel
down upon the ground; how the active little creature throws itself from
branch to branch, baffling the attempts of its pursuers, until one lucky
stroke sends it flying into the air, and it comes softly to the ground, there
to be chased amid shouts, tumbles, and laughter, until it is finally over¬
whelmed by a well-aimed cap, and made prisoner before it can disengage
itself from the encumbrance.
It ir, easily domesticated, and is ver amusing in its habits when
Sub-family e. Sciurina. suffered to go at large in a
Sciurus.—(Gr. 2Kid, a shadow; oupct, a tail.) room or kept in a spacious
cage; but when confined in
a little cramped box, espe¬
cially in one of the cruei
wheel cages, its energies
and playfulness are quite
lost. Men often go about
with squirrels for sale, and
generally cheat those who
buy them. In the first place,
they constantly try to sell
Europseus (Lat. European), the Squirrel. old squirrels for young, but
this imposition may be detected by looking at the teeth of the animal,
which are nearly white if young, but if old are of a light yellow.
Li the second place, let the purchaser beware of very tame and quiet
 NATURAL HISTORY. 101

squirrels. These are generally animals just caught and perfectly wild, but
made sedate by a dose of laudanum, which in many cases causes their
death in a short time. One of my friends was deceived in this manner
only a few months since, the squirrel dying in the course of the evening
of the day on which it was purchased.
The colour of the English Squirrel is a deep reddish brown, and its
tail so large and bushy as to shade its whole body when carried curled
over its back from whence it derives its name of Seiurus, or Shadow-tail.

The Flying Squirrels are well known by their powrer of making

enormous sweeps through the air. They are enabled to make these leaps
by a fold of skin at each side, which, when spread by the extended paws,
forms a kind of parachute, that supports them in their passage through
the air. When they wish to pass from one tree to another, they spring
downwards from a lofty branch, stretch out all their legs, and sweep to
their mark with an upward curve. The species of Flying Squirrel here
represented is a native of the Rocky Mountains in America, where it
lives among the dense pine forests that abound there. Its colour is
yellowish brown, and its length about a foot.
Webber gives a very happy account of the domestic life of these
creatures:—
“ Then, when I went out by myself into the deep wood, I sat down on
the moss at the root of an old tree to wratcli for the squirrel. When
everything was still again, I
Pteromys.—(Gr. TlTepuu, a wing; yvs,
would see him after a while
poking his head out of the a mouse.)
hole, snuff! snuff! Then
out his head would pop to
rest his chin upon his fore
paws, and he would look all
around, above and below,
very cunningly, to see if all
was right. Then out, like
a thought, he would glide,
and I could see his lovely
brush quickly curled and
spread so grandly above his
head, as he sat upon a
limb, still for the moment.
Lo! there is another snuf-
ling nose, and then great
shining eyes filling the round
Alpmus (Lat. Alpine), the Flying Squirrel.
black knot hole, and out
another pops, and another and another. Such whisking of tails, darting
along limbs, and bounding from swinging twig to rustling tree tops,
intil they all meet.
102 NATURAL HISTORY.

“Now the frolic begins in earnest, and they dart round and round the
trunks, rattling the bark down as they chase each other. Their tails are
spread now as wide as they can, as if they were scared; and that lady
squirrel he makes love to, you may be sure, for now he has chased her
out to the very end of a great high limb; and hard pushed, here she
comes right off into the air! down almost into my face—the white of
her arms underneath, spread wide like her stiffened tail—into the leaves
head-foremost, and then up and aw'ay, patter! patter! patter! Here
he comes too, sailing down after her, plump! and rattles off along the
old logs and swinging vines in hot chase.
“ So they all would frolic, chasing one another, and one of them would
see me, and stop and stamp his tiny feet and bark at me, jerking his tail
in comic wrath.”
The Alpine Marmot is common in the mountainous districts of
Europe. It lives in burrows dug in the ground. These burrows are
something in the shape of a Y, one of the forks leading to its habita¬
tion, a kind of chamber lined with dry grass and mosses, and the
other fork serving as a storehouse for food, as a provision against the
. „ winter months, when it re-
AKCTOMYS.-(Gr. ApKros, a bear; ««, tires to jts boj closes th„
a mouse.) , , , ’ .
entrance, and becomes tor¬
pid until the commence¬
ment of spring. When it
first retires for the winter,
it is very fat, and is then
killed and eaten in great
numbers. The skin is also
of some service.
Many may be seen in
England, carried about by
the Savoyard boys, who
Marmotta (from its native name), the Marmot. catch them when young,
and tame them. When
domesticated they are mild and inoffensive, but no instruction entirely
overcomes their abhorrence of a dog.
When feeding in their native country, the marmots are very suspicious,
and always station one marmot as a sentinel, and on his giving the
alarm, the remainder instantly seek the protection of their holes, closely
followed by their faithful sentinel.

The Ox.—The Ruminantia, or animals that chew the cud, include the
oxen, sheep and goats, deer, giraffe, and camels. They have a peculiar
construction of stomach, which receives the freshly-gathered food, retains
it for some hours, and then passes it back into the mouth to be re-mas¬
ticated.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 103
The Ox is spread widely over the earth, scarcely any country being
without its peculiar breed. In this country, where it is our most useful
domesticated animal, there are nearly as many breeds as counties,
generally distinguished by the length or shape of their horns. There
is the “long-horned breed” from Lancashire, the “short horned” from
Durham, the “middle-horned ” from Devonshire, and the “polled” or
hornless, breed. Each of these breeds has its particular value; some

Order V. . . . UNGULATA.—(Lat. possessing hoofs.)

Family I.. . . Bovidae.—(Lat. Bos, an ox. Ox kind.)
Sub-family a. Bovina.
BOS.

Taurus (Lat. a Ball), the Ox.

fatten easily, and are kept especially for the butcher; others give milk,
and are valuable for the dairy. The best dairy cow is the Alderney, a
small, short-horned animal, furnishing exceedingly rich milk.
In some parts of England, oxen are used to draw waggons, or to drag
the plough. They are not so strong as horses, and their movements are
much slower.
Formerly, the cruel sport of bull-baiting was much practised in
England, and bull-rings, that is, large iron rings firmly fixed in the
ground, may be seen in the market-place of many towns. The poor
bull was fastened to the ring by a strong rope, and mangled by thfi
repeated attacks of large and fierce dogs. Sometimes the rope did not
prove strong enough to restrain his frantic struggles, and the tortured
animal chased and scattered the terrified spectators.
In Spain, bull-baiting is a very popular sport. The Spaniards do not
confine the animal with a rope, but turn him loose into a large arena.
104 NATURAL HISTORY.

where several men, armed with spears and darts, first goad him into
madness, and then slaughter him. The death of the bull is, however,
considered as a compliment due to the valour and endurance of the
animal; for if a bull is soon overcome, or refuses to attack his oppo¬
nents, he is driven out of the arena amid the hisses of the spectators,
and suffered to prolong an ignominious existence.
Every part of the Ox is of value. We eat his flesh, we wear shoes
soled with his skin, our candles are made from his fat, our tables are
joined with glue made from his hoofs, his hair is mixed with the mortar
of our walls, his horns are made into combs, knife handles, drinking
cups, &c., his bones are used as a cheap substitute for ivory, and the
fragments ground and scattered over the fields as manure—and soup is
made from his tail.
The young ox is called a calf, and is quite as useful in its wav as the
full-grown ox. The flesh is called veal, and by many preferred to the
flesh of the ox or cow, which is called beef: jelly is made from its feet.
The stomach is salted and dried, and is called rennet. Cheese is made
by soaking a piece of rennet in water, and pouring it into a vessel of
milk. The milk soon forms a curd, which is placed in a press, and the
watery substance, called whey, squeezed from it. The curd is coloured
and salted, and is then cheese.
When a number of cows are kept in the same yard, the oldest cow
always takes precedence, and pushes the others with her horns if they
interfere with her. She chooses her own rack, and if she sees another
radt better furnished, she dispossesses the original proprietor, and with
an air of ridiculous complacency appropriates it to herself. None of the
junior cows attempt to leave the yard or enter it until she has preceded
them ; and so jealous is she of her authority, that if any enter before her
she refuses to move until they have been turned out. She then looks
round in a dignified manner, and marches in, followed by the rest of the
troop.
At Chillingham Park there is a breed of wild cattle, apparently the
descendants of the original race that overran England in former years.
They still retain their wild habits, and when any of them must be killed,
thirty or forty men go out armed with rifles. A keeper mounted on
a swift horse separates the victim from the herd, and drives it by the
concealed marksmen, who speedily lay it prostrate. The colour of the
Chillingham breed is always white with dark red ears.

The Zebit or Brahmin Bull is a native of India. It is a very

conspicuous animal on account of the hump on its shoulders. There are
different breeds of it, some larger than the English cattle, and some
hardly larger than an ordinary hog. The Hindoos treat it with great
reverence, and will not suffer it to be molested. It is in consequence so
tame and familiar that it will often walk down the streets, examine the
simps, and perhaps help itself to some sweetmeats; or it will lie down in
 NATURAL HISTORY. 105

the narrow street; but no one must disturb it, they must either proceed
by another road, or wait until the sacred animal is pleased to rise.
With singular inconsistency, the Hindoo, although he honours the
bull with such absurd reverence, yet has no pity on the ox. While the

BOS.

Indicus (Lat. Indian), the Zebu.

consecrated bull wanders with impunity through the streets, walks into
shops, (china shops or otherwise,) and resents with a peevish push of its
horns the slightest affront, the ox is fastened to the plough, urged on by
the goad, and put to every kind of labour. The Zebu-cow, although not
quite so well treated as the bull, yet enjoys more forbearance than the ox.

The Asiatic Buffalo is a large and powerful animal with enormous

horns. It closely resembles the domestic ox, but is larger and stronger.
Its strength is so great that it is a formidable enemv even to the tiger.
Captain Basil Hall gives an account of a battle between a buffalo and a
tiger. The tiger, however, seemed to have been alarmed at the very
unusual scene into which he had been transferred; but the readiness of
the buffalo to attack, proves that it did not fear the tiger.
“ We were promised a grand day’s sport one afternoon, when a buffalo
and a tiger were to be pitted against each other. The buffalo entered
the ring composedly enough; but after looking about him, turned to one
side, and rather pettishly, as if he had felt a little bilious, overturned a
vessel of water placed there expressly for his use. The tiger refused
for a long time to make his appearance, and it was not till his den was
filled with smoke and fire that he sprang out. The buffalo charged his
106 NATURAL HISTORY.

enemy in a moment, and by one furious push capsized him right over
To our great disappointment, the tiger pocketed this insult in the shab¬
biest manner imaginable, and passing on, leaped furiously at the ropes,
with which his feet became entangled, so that the buffalo was enabled to
punish his antagonist about the rump most ingloriously. When at
length the tiger got loose, he slunk off to a distant part of the area, lay
down, and pretended to be dead. The boys, however, soon put him up
again, and tried to bring him to the scratch with squibs and crackers,
and a couple of dozen dogs being introduced at the same moment, they
all set at him, but only one ventured to take any liberty with the enraged

Bubalus.—(Gr. BowfiaAos, a Buffalo.)

Buffelus (Latinised coi’ruption of BovfiaAos), the Buffalo.

animal This bold dog actually caught the tiger by the tail, but a slight
pat of the mighty monster’s paw crushed the yelping cur as flat as a
board. The buffalo, who really appeared anxious to have a fair stand-up
fight, now drove the dogs off, and repeatedly poked the tiger with his
nose, and even turned him half over several times with his horns.
“We had then a fight between two buffaloes, which ran their heads
against each other with a crash that one could fancy shook the palace
to its very foundation; indeed, the only wonder was how both animals
did not fall down dead with their skulls fractured. But there appears
to be a wonderful degree of thickness or hardness in this part of the
animal.”
The Buffalo has long been domesticated in India, and from its great
strength is exceedingly useful. In its wild state it is always found in
marshy grounds, where the air is sufficiently pestilential to destroy most
 NATURAL HISTORY. 107
animals. There it will luxuriate through the hottest part of the day,
with its entire body immersed in the muddy water, only leaviug its
muzzle above the surface.
The hide of this animal is particularly thick and strong, and is in
great request for making harness.

The Cape Bueealo is a native of Southern Africa. It is exceedingly

ferocious and cunning, often lurking among the trees until an unsus¬
pecting traveller approaches, and then rushing on him and destroying
him. The ferocious creature is not content with killing his victim, but

BUBALUS.

CafFer, the Cape Buffalo.

stands over him mangling him with its horns, and stamping on him with
its feet. Cumming shot several of these animals, and once or twice had
narrow escapes from them, as they are difficult to kill. His description
of their aspect is very good, and I cannot do better than give it in his
own words:—
“Their horns reminded me of the rugged trunk of an oak-tree.
Each horn was upwards of a foot in breadth at the base, and together
they effectually protected the skull with a massive and impenetrable
shield. The horns, descending and spreading out horizontally, com¬
pletely overshadow the animal’s eyes, imparting to him a look the most
ferocious and sinister that can be imagined.”

The Bison inhabits the plains or prairies of North America in count¬

less multitudes. Its enormous and heavy mane, its fierce eyes and
lowering appearance, give this animal a most terrific aspect. The
108 NATURAL HISTORY.

American Indians constantly hunt the Bison, which they call by the
name of Buffalo. Their weapons are principally bows and arrows, ap¬
parently weak and small, but which, when wielded by a skilful band
will strike the huge bison to the heart. In Catlin’s account of his
\ravels among the North American Indians are many most interesting
accounts of “ buffalo hunts.” Mounted on a swift horse, and armed
with a spear and bow and arrows, the Indians kill great numbers of
these animals. They ride up close to the bison, and with the greatest
apparent ease bury an arrow up to its feather in the creature’s body.
Indeed many instances are known where the slight Indian bow, drawn
bison.—(Gr. /3i<recu, a Buffalo.)

Americanus (Lat. American), the Bison.

without any perceptible effort, has thrown the arrow completely through
the body of the huge animal. There are many modes of destroying this
animal in vogue among the Indians and white settlers. The skin is so
valuable that every exertion is made to procure it. Of the buffalo’s
hide they make their wigwams or tents, their shields, their robes, their
shoes, &c. The Indians can also sell the hides to the traders for a
considerable sum, so that an Indian can almost measure his importance
and wealth by the number of hides that he takes.
The hunters take advantage of the gregarious instincts of this animal,
and hunt them when they are collected together in their vast herds,
which blacken the face of the prairie for miles. Sometimes they form
 NATURAL HISTORY. 109
in line, and drive the herd to the edge of some tall cliff, over which they
fall in hundreds, those behind pushing on those in the van; or sometimes
they form a large circle, driving the animals into a helpless and leaderless
mass, into which the hunters spring, leaving their horses, and treading
with the skill of rope-dancers on the backs of the bewildered bisons,
ttdiom they slaughter as they pass, stepping from one to the other, and
driving the sharp blade of their spear through the spine of the animal
whose back they have just quitted.
When only wounded the Bison is a most dangerous antagonist, and
rushes on its enemy with the most determined ferocity. Bichardson
gives the following instance of its fury when wounded:—
“ Mr. Finnan M‘Donald, one of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s clerks,
was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat, and one evening, having
pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look for game.
It had become nearly dark, when he fired at a bison bull, which was
galloping over a small eminence, and as he was hastening forward to see
if his shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him.
He had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on its
forehead as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a remark¬
ably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued until his
wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered powerless; he then
fell, and after receiving two or three blows became senseless. Shortly
afterwards he was found by his companions lying bathed in blood, being
gored in several places, and the bison was couched beside him, apparently
waiting to renew the attacK nad he shown any signs of life.”
Despite the wholesale slaughter of this animal which is carried on
annually by the Indians, there seems to be no decrease in their numbers.
They are more wary than before, and have withdrawn themselves into
more distant lands, but their dark masses still crown the plain as of yore,
although it is now impossible to judge as men could do in former days of
the various migrations which the herds would make. The dreaded fire¬
arms have had their effect on the bison as on every other animal, and it
withdraws as far as possible from the haunts of civilized man.
The improvidence of the Indians is much to be regretted. Myriads of
these animals are slaughtered every year, merely for the sake of their skin,
their “ hump,” or their marrow-bones, the remainder of the animal being
left to the wolves and the birds.
The principal use of the flesh of the bison is to make “jerked meat ”
uf it. This is made by cutting the meat into long narrow slips, and
drying them in the sun. There is a peculiar art in the cutting these
slips. The operator takes a large lump of the flesh, and holding his knife
firmly in one hand, presses the meat against its edge with the other,
continually turning it round and round, until the wrhole piece is converted
into one long strip. The strips thus prepared are pegged out on stays,
as washerwomen peg their clothes, or suspended in festoons on the
branches of trees, like red snakes, until they are dry enough to be packed
110 NATURAL HISTORY.

up. Three days is considered sufficient for the purpose. The cow is
preferred to the bull for conversion into jerked meat, while the skin of the
Dull is more valuable than that of the cow, from the mass of woolly bait
about the shoulders.
Mantles to keep travellers warm during the winter time, when sleighs
are in the ascendant, are made from the hide of the bison.
The strength and weight of the bison is enormous, and as it is a fierce
as well as a powerful animal, it may seem singular that it should be so
easily killed. The explanation of this question will be found in the
structure of the animal. It will be seen from the engraving on p. 108,
that the bison holds its head low, and cannot see much higher than the
legs of a horse without exertion. In consequence, when enraged, it
charges in a direct line, and thus the trained horses of the Indian hunters
turn aside from its course, and contrive to place themselves close along¬
side the furious animal, sheering off with admirable dexterity as soon as
the deadly arrow has sped from their masters’ hands. Indeed a well-trained
horse will unhesitatingly dash in among a whole herd of bisons, threading
its way among them unscathed.
The flesh of the Bison is tolerable eating, but the “hump” appears
from all accounts to be unapproachable in delicacy. It is exceedingly
tender, and possesses the property of not cloying even when eaten in
Poephagus.—(Gr. ndrj, grass; (payee, I eat.)

Grunnlens (Lat. grunting), the YcJe.*

excess The fat also is said to be devoid of that sickening richness whiefc
is usually met with in our domesticated animals.
The cow is smaller than the bull, and considerably swifter. She is also
* See page 111.
 NATURAL HISTORY. Ill
generally in better condition and fatter than her mate, and in consequence
the hunters who go to “get meat,” always select the cows from the herd.

The Yak inhabits Tartary. Of this animal in a native state little or

nothing is known. The name of “grunniens,” or grunting, is derived
fi Dm the peculiar sound that it utters. The tail of the Yak is very long
and fine, and is used in India as a fan or whisk to keep off the mosquitos.
The tail is fixed into an ivory or metal liandls, and is then called a
chowrie. Elephants are sometimes taught to carry a chowrie, and wave
it about in the air above the heads of those who ride on its back. In
Turkey, the tail is called a “ horse-tail,” and is used as an emblem ol
dignity.
Erom the shoulders of the Yak a mass of long hair falls almost to the
ground, something like the mane of a Lion. This hair is applied to
various purposes by the Tartars. They weave it into cloth, of which they
not only make articles of dress, but also tents, and even the ropes which
sustain the tents.

The Musk Ox is a native of North America, and is not very unlike the
Yak in appearance. It is covered with very long hair, which reaches
almost to the ground. Its flesh is tolerably good when fat, but at other

ly of musk. The Ov.Bos._(Lat. Sfi.eep-Oz.)

horns of this animal
are united together
at their base, forming
a kind of shield or
helmet covering the
forehead. When the
hunters wish to shoot
the Musk Ox they
conceal themselves,
and fire without per¬
mitting the oxen to
see them. The poor
animals seem to fancy
that the report of the
guns is thunder, and
crowd together in a
mass, so that they
afford a good mark. Moschatus (Lat. musky), the Musk Ox.
If, however, they
catch sight of one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and
then are very dangerous enemies. Both this animal and the Yak are
small, scarcely equalling in size the small Highland cattle, but the thick
hair which covers them makes them look larger than they really are.
112 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Gnoo, or 'Wildebeest, inhabits Southern Africa. At first sight

it is difficult to say whether the horse, buffalo, or deer predominates in
its form. It however belongs to neither of these animals, but is one of
the bovine Antelopes. The horns cover the top of the forehead, and
then, sweeping downwards over the face, turn boldly upwards with a
sharp curve. The neck is furnished with a mane like that of the horse,
and the legs are formed like those of the stag. It is a very swift
animal, and when provoked, very dangerous. When it attacks an oppo¬
nent it drops on its knees, and then springs forward with such force
that, unless he is extremely wary and active, he cannot avoid its shock.
When first alarmed, its movements are very grotesque, and are thus
described by Cumming :—
“ When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they commence whisking
their long white tails in a most eccentric manner; then springing sud¬
denly into the air, they begin prancing and capering, and pursue each
other in circles at their utmost speed. Suddenly they all pull up toge¬
ther, to overhaul the intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence
fighting in the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every
shock; then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whirl their
Catoblepas. (Gr. KaTco^\eiruy, looking down.)
—
tails with a fantas¬
tic flourish, and
scour across the
plain enveloped in
a cloud of dust.”
When it is taken
young, the Gnu
can be domestica¬
ted, and brought
up with other cat¬
tle, but it will not
bear confinement,
and is liable to be¬
come savage under
restraint.
There are several
species of this ani¬
mal, three being
satisfactorily as
Gnu (Native name), the, Gnoo.
certained, namely,
the common Gnoo,
represented in the accompanying engraving, the Cocoon, (CatoblSpas
Taurlna,) and the Brindled Gnoo (CatoblSpas Gorgon), as a specimen,
all three animals being in the British Museum.
The size of the Gnoo is about that of a well-grown ass, that is, about
four feet in height. Its flesh is in great repute both among the natives
and colonists.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 1! 3
The Nylghau, one of the largest and most magnificent of the Ante-
iopes, inhabits the forests of India. It is extremely vicious, and cannot lie
approached without danger. Its method of attack is similar to that of
the Gnoo, namely, by dropping upon its knees and then springing violently
PORTAX.—(Gr. UopraZ, a Calf.)

Picta (Lat. painted) the Nylghau.

forward. The tiger is its great enemy, and often destroys it in spite of
its courage. During the day the Nylghau conceals itself in the forests,
and at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing no inconsiderable
harm to adjacent cultivated lands.
The colour of this creature is a slaty blue; it has however several
white spots, and from its throat and shoulders hangs a dense bunch of
hair. It is about the same size as the gnoo, standing about four feet
high at the shoulder.
The Koodoo* is a native of South Afnca, living along the wooded
borders of rivers. It is chiefly remarkable for its beautifully shaped horns,
which are about four feet in length and twisted into a large spiral of
about two turns and a half. A bold ridge runs along the horns and
follows their curvature. When hard pressed it always takes to the
water, and endeavours to escape by its powers of swimming. Although
a large animal, nearly four feet in height, it can leap with wonderful
activity. The weight of the horns is very considerable, and partly to
relieve itself of that weight, and partly to guard them from entangle¬
ment in the bushes among which it lives and on which it feeds, it
Earries its head backwards, so that the horns rest on its shoulders.
* See page 114.
I
114 NATURAL HISTORY.

The best and fullest accounts of the Eland * and the Oryx are to be
found in Harris and Cumming’s Adventures in South Africa. An extract
from Cumming will be both interesting and accurate. Of the Eland, he
writes:—
“This magnificent animal is by far the largest of all the antelope
, . tribe, exceeding a
Strepsiceros.—(Gr. 2tpeil/is, a twisting; nepus, a horn.) jaro-e ox in size. It
also attains an ex¬
traordinary condi¬
tion, being often
burthened with a.
very large amount of
fat. Its flesh is most
excellent, and is
justly esteemed a-
bove all others. It
has a peculiar sweet¬
ness, and is tender
and fit for use the
moment the animal
is killed. Like the
gemsbok, the Eland
is independent of
water. It is general¬
ly diffused through¬
out all the wooded
districts of the in¬
terior where I have
hunted. Like other
varieties of deer and
antelope, the old
Kudu, (native name) the Koodoo. males may often be
found consorting to¬
gether apart from the females, and a troop of these, when in full con¬
dition, may be likened to a herd of stall-fed oxen.
“ I have repeatedly seen an eland drop down dead at the end of a
severe chase, owing to his plethoric habit. The skin of the eland I had
just shot emitted, like most other antelopes, the most delicious perfume
of trees and grass.”
The height of the eland is fully five feet at the shoulders, and its
weight from seven to nine hundredweight. The horns of the male are
about a foot and a half in length, while those of the female are smaller,
and sometimes without the spiral wreathing.

The Oryx, also a South African animal, is well known among hunte>c
* See pa^e 115.
 NATURAL HISTORY, 116
HoselIphus.— (Gr. Ox-stay.)

Oreas (Gr. ’Operns, belonging to the mountains), the Eland.

as the mly antelope that revenges itself on the lion. When it sees the
lion in the act of springing on it, it lowers its head, receiving the lion on
the points of its sharp horns. It invariably perishes by the shock, but
the lion also perishes with it. Their skeletons have more than once
been seen lying together bleached on the plain. The description given
of this animal by Cumming is highly graphic. “ The oryx, or gems-
bok, to which I was now about to direct my attention more particu¬
larly, is about the most beautiful and remarkable of all the antelope
tribe. It is the animal which is supposed to have given rise to the
fable of the unicorn, from its long straight horns, when seen in profile, so
exactly covering one another as to give it the appearance of having but
one. It possesses the erect mane, long sweeping black tail, and general
appearance of the horse, witli the head and hoofs of an antelope. It is
robust in its form, squarely and compactly built, and very noble in its
bearing. Its height is about that of an ass, and in colour it slightly
resembles that animal. The beautiful black bands which eccentrically
adorn its head, giving it the appearance of wearing a stall collar,
together with the manner in which the rump and thighs are painted,
impart to it a character peculiar to itself. The adult male measures 3
feet JO inches in height at the shoulder.”
The sharp horns of the oryx stand it in good stead, when pursued by
 116 NATURAL HISTORY.

Ohyx.—(Gr. vOpv£, a word from Herodotus, dogs, as it generally

denoting a gazelle.) kills several of them
before it is van¬
quished, and if the
hunter’s rifle is not
at hand, drives off the
dogs and escapes.

The Springbok is
one of the smaller
South African ante¬
lopes. Its colour is a
light cinnamon red on
the back, fading into
white on the under
part of the body, a
narrow band of red¬
dish brown separating
the two colours.
For a description
of the habits of the
animal, I must again
refer the reader to
Cumming. During
his early travels in
South Africa, the first
Leucoryx (Gr. the white Oryx), the Oryx.
object that met his
eyes on waking one morning, was a herd of Springboks, which he thus
describes:
“ On the 28th I had the satisfaction of beholding, for the first time,
what I had often heard the Boers allude to, viz. a “ trek-bokken,” or grand
migration of springboks. This was, I think, the most extraordinary and
striking scene, as connected with beasts of the chase, that I have ever
beheld. For about two hours before the day dawned I had been lying
awake in my waggon, listening to the grunting of the bucks within two
hundred yards of me, imagining that some large herd of springboks was
feeding beside my camp; but on my rising when it was clear, and looking
about me, I beheld the ground to the northward of my camp actually
covered with a dense living mass of springboks, marching slowly and
steadily along, extending from an opening in a long range of hills on the
west, through which they continued pouring, like the flood of some
great river, to a ridge about a mile to the north-east, over which they
disappeared. The breadth of the ground they covered might have been
somewhere about half a mile. I stood upon the fore-chest of my waggon
for nearly two hours, lost in wonder at the novel and wonderful scene
which was passing before me, and had some difficulty in convincing
 NATURAL HISTORY. 117
myself that it was reality which I beheld, and not the wild and ex¬
aggerated
*88
picture of a hunter’s dream. During this time their vast
legions continued
streaming through Gazelua.— (Arabic, Ghazil, light or elegant.)
the neck in the hills
in one unbroken
compact phalanx.
“Yast and sur¬
prising as was the
herd of springboks
which I had that
morning witnessed,
it was infinitely sur¬
passed by what 1
beheld on the march
from my vley to old
Sweir’s camp; for
on our clearing the
low range of hills
through which the
springboks had been _ . ^ ... _ „ ,
pouring, I beheld Euchore (Gr- Ev> well5 X°P0*> dance), the Springbok.
the boundless plains, and even the hill sides which stretched away on
every side of me, thickly covered, not with herds, but with one vast herd
of springboks ; as far as the eye could strain the landscape was alive with
them, until they softened down into a dim red mass of living creatures.’’
The Springbok is very fearful of man, and if it has to cross a path
over \vhich a man has passed before, it does not walk over, but takes a
tremendous leap, ten or twelve feet high, and about fifteen long, at the
same time curving its back in a most extraordinary manner. It is from
this habit of leaping that the Dutch Boers who inhabit the Cape have
given it the name of Springbok.

The Gazelle, so famous in Oriental poetry, inhabits Arabia and

Syria.. Its eyes are very large, dark and lustrous, so that the Oriental
poets love to compare the eyes of a woman to those of a gazelle, just as
Homer constantly applied the epithet ox-eyed (fiovjns) to the more
majestic goddesses, such as Juno and Minerva. It is easily tamed when
young, and is frequently seen domesticated in the courtyards of houses
in Syria. Its swiftness is so great that even a greyhound cannot over¬
take it, and the hunters are forced to make use of hawks, which are
trained to strike at the head of the gazelle, and thus confuse it, and
retard its speed, so as to permit the dogs to come up. In several parts
of Syria, the gazelle is taken by driving a herd into a large enclosure
surrounded by a deep ditoh. A few gaps are made, through which the
terrified animals leap, and fall into the ditch, when they are easily taken.
ns NATURAL HISTORY

G AZ ELLA. The height of the ga¬

zelle is about one foot
nine inches; its colour
a dark vellowish brown
fading into white on
the under parts.

The Chamois is
found only in moun¬
tainous regions, espe¬
cially the Alpine chains
of Europe and Western
Asia. Jt lives on the
loftiest ridges, display¬
ing wonderful activity,
and leaping with cer¬
tainty and security on
places where the eye
can hardly discern room
Ariel (Or. proper name), the Gazelle. for feef^ 'ppg Q[m.
mois hunters are exposed to the most frightful dangers, to the chance
of falling from terrific precipices, to hunger and cold, and every imagin-
RDPiCAPEA.-(Lat. Rock-goat.) ab!e hards,hiP that
days spent among
Alpine precipices
can suggest. Yet a
kind of fascination
urges them on, al¬
though fewChamois
hunters finally es¬
cape the dangers
that surround them.
The skin of the
Chamois is used ex¬
tensively by shoe¬
makers.
Several genera
are omitted.

The Ibex inhab¬

its the Alpine re¬
gions of Europe and
Tragus (Gr. T pay os, a He-goat), the Chamois.
Western Asia. It
is instantly recognised by its magnificent horns, which curve with a
bold sweep from the head almost to the haunches. The horns are sur¬
rounded at regular intervals with rings, and are immensely strong,
 NATURAL HISTORY. 119
serving, as some say, to break the fall of the Ibex when it makes a leap
from a height. Capra.—(Lat. a Goat.)
When chased it is a dan¬
gerous animal, as after it has
led its pursuer over danger¬
ous heights and fearful
chasms, it will frequently
turn on him, and unless he
can shoot it before it reaches
him, will hurl him over the
precipice. It is very wary,
and, like many other animals,
posts a sentry to keep watch,
who, when he sees a sus¬
picious object, gives notice
by a kind of whistle, as a
warning, on hearing which
the whole of the herd in¬
stantly dash off to the high¬
est point they can find. The
height of the Ibex is two
feet six inches; the length
of its horns often three
feet.
Ibex, the Ibex, or Steinbok.
CAPRA.

Hircus (Lat. a Hc-goat), the Goat,

The common Goat is not in much request in England, but in some
120 NATURAL HISTORY.

other countries, as Syria and Switzerland, large herds of goats are kepi
for the sake of their milk, and in fact almost entirely take the place of the
cow. The most celebrated variety of this animal is the Cashmir goat,
which furnishes the beautifully fine wool from which the costly Cashmir
shawls are made. The shawls bear a high value even in their own
country, but in Europe the price is much increased by the various taxes
which are paid in every stage of the manufacture,—the average number
of taxes paid on each shawl being about thirty, several of which are
limited only by the pleasure of the collector.

The Sheep.—There are many kinds of Sheep, among which the common
sheep, the long-tailed sheep, and the Wallachian sheep are the most
conspicuous. Next to the cow, the sheep is our most useful animal.
England produces better wool than any country; for although the wool
of the Spanish sheep is finer than ours, it is much less in quantity.
/r + a Sheep.)
Ovis.—(Lat. o* \ The ,Merino, . 5 as
,,
this sheep is call¬
ed, is annually
conducted from
one part of the
country to another,
and back again.
The distance tra¬
versed is upwards
of four hundred
miles, and the time
necessary to com¬
plete the journey
about six or seven
weeks. The pro¬
prietors of the
llocks think that
these periodical
journeys improve
the wool; but it
Anes (Lat. a Ram.) is in M probability
a mistaken notion, as the stationary flocks of Leon and Estremadura
produce quite as fine a fleece. Of course such a body of sheep—nearly
six millions—do great damage to the lands over which they pass, and
many fall victims to fatigue or are destroyed by wolves.
The long-tailed sheep inhabits Syria and Egypt. Its tail is so large
and so loaded with fat, that to prevent it from being injured by dragging
on the ground, a board is fastened to the under side of it, and wheels
are often attached to the board. The peculiar fat of the tail is con¬
sidered a great delicacy, and is so soft as to be frequently used as butter.
The weight of a large tail is about seventy pounds.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 121
The Wallacliian or Cretan sheep is found in Crete, Wallachia, Hungary,
and Western Asia. Its horns are exceedingly large, and are twisted
in a manner resembling those of the Koodoo. It is very strong, and
extremely vicious and unruly. In this and several other sheep the
fleece is composed of wool and hair mixed. The hair of the Wallacliian
sheep is long and silky like that of a spaniel, and of great length, falling
almost to the ground.

The Giraffe.—This beautiful and extraordinary animal is found only

in South Africa. As the gnoo seems to combine the properties of the
antelope, horse, and
Sub-family b. Camelopardina.
buffalo, so the Gi¬
raffe appears to bear Camelopardalis.—(Gr. KdfXTjAos, a camel; irdpSaAts,
the characteristics a pard.)
of the antelope and
the camel. In the
opinion of modern
naturalists, it holds
a place by itself
between the deer
and antelopes;—it
forms, at all events,
a group to which no
other animals be¬
long.
The height of the
Giraffe varies from
thirteen to eighteen
feet. Its beautiful
long neck enables
it to browse on the
leaves of the trees
on which it feeds.
It is very dainty
while feeding, and
luckstheleaves one
y one with its long
and flexible tongue.
Giraffa (Arabic, Zarapha), the Giraffe.
On its head are two
very remarkable projections, closely resembling horns. These projections
are not horns, but only thickenings of the bone of the skull, covered
with skin, and bearing a tuft of black hair at the extremity of each. The
fore legs at first sight appeal longer than the hind ones, but this apparent
difference is only caused by the great length of the shoulder-blades, as
both pair of legs are of the same length at their junction with the body.
Its eyes are very large and prominent, so that the animal can see on
122 NATURAL HISTORY.

every side without turning its head. Just over and between the eyes is
a third bony prominence, resembling the projecting enlargements of the
skull, called horns. The use or these projections is not very well known, as
although in play the Giraffe will swing its head round and strike with it,
yet when it wishes to repel an assailant it has recourse to violent and
rapid kicks from its hind legs. So light and swift are these kicks that
die eye can scarcely follow them, and so powerful are they that the lion
is not unfrequently driven off by them. Vaillant relates that a Giraffe
which he was hunting, kept off his pack of dogs by its rapid kicks.
Indeed, it it were to venture its head too near the lion, a blow from his
tremendous paw would in all probability lay the animal prostrate.
The skin of this animal is an inch and a half in thickness, so that it
is necessary for the hunter to make very sure of
his aim before he fires at an animal so well
defended.
The Giraffe has much difficulty in reaching
the ground with its mouth, nor does it often
attempt to do so, unless it is bribed with some¬
thing of which it is very fond, such as a lump
of sugar. It then straddles widely with its fore
legs, and with some trouble succeeds in reaching
SKULL OF THE GIRAFFE.
the object aimed at. This attitude was noticed
and copied in the Prsenestine pavement.
The appearance of this animal in its native haunts is very magnificent.
“ These gigantic and exquisitely beautiful animals, which are admirably
formed by nature to adorn the forests that clothe the boundless plains of
the interior, are widely distributed throughout the interior of Southern
Africa, but are nowhere to be met with in great numbers. In countries
unmolested by the intrusive foot of man, the Giraffe is found generally in
herds varying from twelve to sixteen; but I have not unfrequently met
with herds containing thirty individuals, and on one occasion I counted
forty together; this, however, was owing to chance, and about sixteen
may be reckoned as the average number of a herd. These herds are com¬
posed of Giraffes of various sizes, from the young Giraffe of nine or ten
feet in height, to the dark chestnut coloured old bull of the herd, whose
exalted head towers above his companions, generally attaining to a height
of upwards of eighteen feet. The females are of lower stature, and more
delicately formed than the males, their height averaging from sixteen to
seventeen feet. Some writers have discovered ugliness and a want of
grace in the Giraffe, but I consider that he is one of the most strikingly
beautiful animals in the creation; and when a herd of them is seen
scattered tnrough a grove of the picturesque parasol-topped acacias which
adorn their native plains, and on 'whose uppermost shoots they are
enabled to browse by the colossal height with which nature has so
admirably endowed them, he must, indeed, be slow of conception who
fails to discover both grace and dignity in all their movements. There
 NATURAL HISTORY. 123
can be no doubt that every animal is seen to the greatest advar tage in
the haunts which nature destined him to adorn, and among the various
living creatures which beautify creation, I have often traced a remark¬
able resemblance between the animal and the general appearance of the
locality in which it is found.
“ In the case of the Giraffe, which, is invariably met with among vene¬
rable forests, where innumerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks and
stems occur, I have repeatedly been in doubt as to the presence of them,
until I had recourse to my spy-glass; and on referring the case to my
savage attendants I have known even their optics to fail, at one time
mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and again confounding
real camelopards with these aged veterans of the forest.”*
The first living Giraffes, in the possession of the Zoological Society,
were brought by M. Thibaut in 1835. He succeeded in taking four, all
of which he brought with him. One of them is still living. From this
stock, several Giraffes have been born, some of which are now in England,
and others have been sent to other countries.
One of the four originals killed himself soon after his arrival, by
striking his head against a wall as he was rising from the ground. An
accident of the same nature happened recently to another animal, one of
its horns being broken off, and bent backwards; but owing to the presence
of mind of the keeper, who immediately pulled the horn into its place
again, no bad results followed, the fractured parts uniting naturally.
The tongue of the Giraffe is one of the most remarkable parts of its
structure. It is very flexible and capable of great changes of form, the
Giraffe being able to contract it so that its tip could enter an ordinary
quill. The animal is very fond of exercising its tongue, and sometimes
pulls the hairs from its companions’ manes and tails, and swallows them;
no very easy feat, as the hair of the tail is often more than four feet
long.
The movements of the Giraffe are very peculiar, the limbs of each side
appearing to act together. It is very swift, and can outrun a horse,
especially if it can get among broken ground and rocks, over which it
leaps with a succession of frog-like hops.
In this country it endures the climate well. The Giraffes in the
Zoological Gardens which vrere born and bred in this country seem very
healthy and are exceedingly tame, examining the hands of their visitors,
and following them round the enclosure. They eat herbs, such as grass,
hay, carrots, and onions. When cut grass is given to them, they eat off
the upper parts and leave the coarse stems, just as we eat asparagus.

The Camel.—There is much confusion about the names of the

Camels.—The Bactrian Camel is distinguished by bearing two humps on
its back, the Aiiaeian Camel by bearing only one. The Arabian camel

* Cumming’s Adventures, vol. i. pp. 269, 270.

124 NATURAL HISTORY.

is sometimes, but erroneously, called the Dromedary, as the Dromedary,

or El-Heirie, is a lighter variety of that animal, and only used when
despatch is required.
The Camel forms the principal wealth of the Arab ; without it he could
never attempt to penetrate the vast deserts where it lives, as its remark¬
able power of drinking at one draught sufficient water to serve it for

Sub-family c. Caniellna.
Camelus.—(Gr. KffinjAos, a Camel.)

Arabicus (Lat. Arabian), the Camel.

several days, enables it to march from station to station without requiring

to drink by the way. The peculiar structure of its stomach gives it this
most useful power. In its stomach are a great number of deep cells, into
which the water passes, and is then prevented from escaping by a muscle
which closes the mouth of the cells. When the Camel feels thirsty, it
has the power of casting some of the water contained in these cells into
its mouth. The habits of this animal are very interesting. A recent
traveller, the llev. J. H. Pollen, most kindly forwarded to me the follow¬
ing interesting and amusing account of the habits of the Camel:—
“ My principal experience in camels has been during my travels through
the Arabian desert. I followed, after some interval of time, the route of
the Hajji—the Mecca pilgrimage.
“ The temper of the Camel is in general not very amiable. It is un¬
willing, jealous, and revengeful to the last degree. Of this latter quality
 NATURAL HISTORV. 125
curious tales are told: one, which was fully believed by the Arab that
narrated it to me, was as follows. A certain camel driver had bitterly
insulted (i.e. thrashed in some ignominious way.) the animal under his
charge. The camel showed no disposition to resent, but the driver, knowing
from the expression of its eye what was passing within, kept on the alert
for several days. One night he had retired for safety inside his tent,
leaving his striped abbaya or cloak spread over the wooden saddle of the
camel outside the tent.
“During the night he heard the camel approach the object, and after
satisfying himself by smell or otherwise that it was his master’s cloak, and
believing that the said master was asleep beneath it, he lay down and
rolled backwards and forwards over the cloak, evidently much gratified by
the cracking and smashing of the saddle under his weight, and fully
persuaded that the bones of his master were broken to pieces. After a
time he rose, contemplated with great contentment the disordered mass,
still, covered by the cloak, and retired.
“Next morning, at the usual hour for loading, the master, who had
from the interior of his tent heard this agreeable process going on, pre¬
sented himself to the camel. The disappointed animal was in such a rage,
said my informant, on seeing his master safe before him, that he broke his
heart, and died on the spot.
“ I had once to cross a very high range of rocks, and we had very great
difficulty in getting our camels to face the steeper part of the ascent,
though any horse would have made very light of it. All the riders had
to dismount, and the laden animals made the bare rocky solitudes ring to
the continual and most savage growls with which they vented their dis¬
pleasure. It is well on these occasions to keep out of reach of their long
necks, which they stretch out and bring their teeth within dangerous
proximity to the arm or side of any one but their master.
“While being laden they testify their dislike to any packet which looks
unsatisfactory in point of size cr weight as it is carried past them,
although when it is once on their backs they continue to bear it with the
patient expression of countenance which I fear passes for more than it
is worth. All camels are loaded kneeling, and can go from twenty-four
to sixty hours without rest, or more than a few mouthfuls of food, which
they can crop off a thorny bush as they pass, or a handful of barley given
them by their master. Parts of the desert are strewn with small, dry, drab-
coloured plants, thorny and otherwise, which the camels continue to crop
as they walk, jerking the rider not a little.
“ They are very sparing of drinking. I have taken camels for eleven
or twelve days without a drop of water. All of them did not drink even
when we came to water, nor did any drink a large quantity, or seem
disturbed by the want of it, although the sun was very powerful, and we
travelled twelve or thirteen hours daily.
“ At first they are difficult to ride. The rider mounts while the animal
is kneeling, and sirs like a lady, with the right leg round the fore pomme.
126 NATURAL HISTORY.

of the saddle. In rising, the Camel suddenly straightens its hind legs
before moving either of the fore legs, so that if the rider is unprepared,
he will be jerked over its ears. It moves the legs of each side alternately,
occasioning a long undulating motion, which sways the rider to and fro
from the loins. The motion, however, is soon learned, and when fatigued,
the rider can change sides, or shift his posture in various ways.
“ Sometimes a traveller places his whole family, wife and children, in
one pannier fastened to the saddle, puts himself in another pannier

CAMELUS.

Bactrianus (Lat. Bactrian), the Bactrian Camel.

fastened on the opposite side, and then falls in with a caravan and
accompanies it.
“ Dromedaries—the finer and better bred Camels—have sparer frames
and more endurance, and are principally led by the Bedouins of the desert.
They also object either to going up or down a hill.
“ They are fond of kneeling at night just behind the ring of Arabs who
squat round the fire, and they stretch their heads over their masters’
shoulders to snuff up the heat and smoke, which seems to content them
vastly.
“ Between Cairo and Suez I saw more than one camel dead or dymg.
They seem very tenacious of life, as they remain unable to rise from a
broken limb or other cause for very many days. T more than once
 NATURAL HISTORY. 12?
wished to go up and shoot the poor creatures to put them out ot their
misery, but the Arabs have superstitious notions on this point, and
would not suffer it. I did once find a camel that had been stabbed by
its master, and once only. The poor beast had been exhausted, and the
long, broad dagger struck into his heart. It must have been a very
short time before I reached the spot, as the blood was almost fresh.
“ The Camels at Grand Cairo are remarkably large and powerful, and
my informant told me that they are very proud, and will only eat tneir
food from their master’s hand—preferring to starve rather than receive
it from any other source.”
The foot of the Camel is admirably adapted for walking on the loose
sand, being composed of large elastic pads, which spread as the foot is
placed on the ground. To guard it from injury when it kneels down to
be loaded, the parts of its body on which its weight rests are defended
by thick callosities. The largest of these callosities is on the chest, the
others are placed on the joints of the legs.
The Bactrian Camel inhabits Central Asia, Thibet and China. It is
distinguished from the Arabian camel by possessing two humps.

Llama.—(Peruvian name.)

Pacos {Peruvian uame), the Llama.

The Llamas, of which there are several species, inhabit America, and
are used for the same purposes as the camel. When wild they are very
timid, and fly from a pursuer the moment that they see him; but their
curiosity is so great that the hunter often secures them by lying on the
ground and throwing his legs and arms about. The Llamas come to see
what the extraordinary animal can be, and give the hunter an oppor*
12S SUTURAL HISTORY.

tunity of firing several shots, winch the astonished animals consider as

part of the performance.
The Llamas, like the camels, have a series of cells in the stomach for
containing water, and can go for several days without requiring to drink.
If too heavily laden, or when they are weary, they lie down, and no
threats or punishment will induce them to rise, so that their masters are
forced to unload them. When offended they have a very unpleasant habit
of spitting at the object of their anger. Formerly it was supposed that
their saliva was injurious, and produced blisters if it touched the skin.
The fleece of the Llama is very long and fine, more resembling silk
than wrool. It is very valuable, and is extensively imported into this
country for tne purpose of making cloth and other fabrics. The fleece
of the Alpaca is considered the best, as it is sometimes twelve inches in
length, and very fine.
In Chili and Peru the natives domesticate the Llama, which in a state
of captivity frequently becomes white. It is by no means a large
animal, as it measures about four feet six in height. In general shape
it resembles the camel, but has no hump on its back, and its feet are
provided with sharp hoofs for climbing the rocky hills among which it
lives. In Peru, where it is most commonly found, there are public
shambles established for the sale of its flesh.

The Musk-deer inhabits many parts of India, and is famous for the
scent which it produces. This scent, called Musk, is secreted in a kind
of pouch, and is so very
Sub-family d. Moschlna. strong when recent, that
Moschus.—(Gr. Md<rxosi Musk.) the hunter, after killing
the animal, is forced to
bind his mouth and nos¬
trils with linen before
he ventures to open the
pouch, as the scent is so
intolerably powerful that
it causes violent bleeding

Moschiferus (Lat. music-bearing), the

SKULL OF THE MUSK DEER.
Mush-deer.

at the nose. When the merchants traffic for musk, they remain in the
open air, holding a handkerchief over their faces, and even with these
precautions it often causes headaches. The musk is never imported
 natural history. 129
pure into this country, being always adulterated by the merchants. It is
very costly, and forms an important article of commerce in the East.
Tbe Musk-deer is about two feet in height at the shoulders. The male
possesses two extraordinarily long teeth in the upper jaw, which project
from the lips at each side of the mouth.

The Roebuck was formerly common throughout the whole of England,

but is now only found in Scot¬
land, north of the Forth. It is Sub-family e. Cervina.
the smallest and most beautiful of Cervus (Lat. a Stag).
our British deer, it is not at
all adapted for confinement, as it
is never induced to be familiar
with its keeper, and will some¬
times attack any object which it
dislikes with its horns and hoofs
It does not live in herds like the
Fallow-deer, but singly, or in
pairs, driving off its young when
they are about nine or ten months
old. It is very cunning, and,
when hunted, sometimes baffles
the dogs by making a few enor¬
mous leaps, waiting until the
dogs have passed, and then re¬
turning on its previous track. Its
height is about two feet ; its
horns are divided into three small
branches, and are seldom more CapreSlus (Lat. a Wild Buck), the
than a foot in length. Roebuck.

The Red-deer, or Stag, is the largest of our deer. In the language

of hunters, it bears different names according to the size of its horns,
which increase year by year. All the male deer have horns, which they
shed every year, aud renew again. The process of renewal is most inte¬
resting- A skin, filled with arteries, covers the projections on which tlu
horns rest. This skin, called the “velvet,” is engaged in continually
depositing bone m the footstalks, which rapidly increase in size. As
the budding horns increase, the velvet increases also, and the course of
the arteries is marked on the horn by long furrows, which are never ob¬
literated. When the horn has reached its full growth, it cannot be at once
used, as the velvet is very tender,and would bleed profusely if wounded.
The velvet cannot be suddenly removed, as the blood that formed the ar¬
teries would rush to the brain and destroy the animal. A ring of bone
forms round the root of each horn, leaving passages through which the
arteries pass. By degrees, these passages become narrow, and finally close
K
130 NATURAL HISTORY.

CEHVU8. entirely, thus gra¬

dually shutting off
the blood. The vel¬
vet, being deprived of
its nourishment, dies
and is peeled off by
the deer, by rubbing
against a tree, leaving
the white hard horn
beneath.
Hunting the Stag
is a very favourite
amusement in this
country, and packs of
hounds, called stag-
hounds, are kept ex-
press'y for that pur¬
pose.

The Wapiti is one

of the largest of
the deer tribe, often
growing to the height
of our largest oxen.
It inhabits Canada
Elhpkus (Gr. VEAcapos, a Stag), the Stag.
and other parts of
North America, and has been confounded with the Moose. Its horns
are very large, measuring nearly six feet from tip to tip.
The hunters are acquainted with its peculiarities, and chase it from
their knowledge of its character. It is very fond of salt, and comes in
great numbers to the saline marshes, for the purpose of licking the salt
off the soil upon which it has settled. Such places are called “ licks,”
and to them the hunters resort, lying in wait for the deer, who are sure
to visit these places.
It frequents the woods and copses, in which it lies so well concealed,
that an inexperienced eye cannot perceive the animal even when it is
ointed out to him, so well does its colour agree with the tints of the
Irush among which it hides. From the branching horns which it bears, one
might suppose that it would find great difficulty in forcing its way through
the woods; but, in fact, its horns are a defence instead of an incumbrance,
and as it lays them flat on its back before plunging among the trees, they
defend its back from the branches through which it forces its way.
The skin of the Wapiti is very useful to the hunters, as they have
a method of dressing it so that it does not become stiff and harsh after
being wetted, but retains its original flexibility. This property makes it
very valuable for hunting dresses, which are generally made of leather.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 131
ft is very fierce, and boldly attacks an antagonist, especially it
wounded. An example of its ferocity, when wounded, is given by Pal-
liser in the follow¬
CERVUS.
ing passage:—“ We
were now about 150
yards from the nearest
of the band. I chose
a fine old stag, while
Boucharville, with an
eye to superior meat,
singled
o
out a doe. ,We
drew up our rifles
slowly, and both shots
went off together. The
smoke hung heavily
for a second or two ;
when it cleared away,
we espied one of the
Wapiti lying down:
the next instant down
rolled the stag also.
We agreed to advance
at the same moment,
lest one or other of
the animals should be
able to get up and
escape. On coming
near my stag, he Canadensis (Lat. belonging to Canada), the Wapiti.
struggled to rise, but
unable to regain his feet, rolled back again. I looked towards the
other, when what was my surprise at witnessing a regular combat
between Boucharville and his wounded elk,* now transformed into a very
formidable antagonist! Springing on her haunches, she was striking
furiously at him with her fore-feet; one hoof missed him, but the other
fell on his rifle, which he held up for his protection, and smashing both
his ramrod and his loading-stick, beat him down on his knees. Rising
a second time, she was about to repeat the attack, when my ball caught
her in the side of the head, behind the eye, and with a splendid bound
she fell lifeless on the broad of her back. I had made a quick and
necessarily a rather dangerous shot; but I was in luck that day. 1 Ah !’
exclaimed Boucharville, as he half rose from the ground, but looking ai
nothing till he had satisfied himself that his rifle was uninjured, ‘ Mais
qui l’aurait cru? Ala foi!’ continued he, ‘j’ai bien echappe; une biche
a une cote une balle a l’autre !’55

* This animal is often called an elk by the hunters

K 2
132 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Axis.—This beautiful Deer is an inhabitant of India, especially of

parts by the Ganges. It has frequently been domesticated in England,
.A‘UK—(Tat. the Axis Deer.)

Maculata i^Lat. spotted), the Axis.

aud thrives well even in open parks. The horns are slender, and are
divided into three branches. Its usual colour is a fawn yellow, spotted
regularly with white, and a black stripe runs down the back.

The Fallow-deer, are usually seen in parks, where they congregate

in large herds, and form a most pleasing addition to the landscape when
they are seen reposing under the trees, or chasing one another in graceful
play. One peculiarly large buck always takes the lead, and suffers none
but a few favourite does to approach his regal presence, all the other
bucks running humbly away directly
he makes his appearance. They are
generally tame, and will suffer people
to come very close to them; but at
certain times of the year they become
savage, and will not permit auy one to
approach their domains. If an intruder
is bold enough to venture within the proscribed distance, the buck
will instantly charge upon him, and if he does not make his escape,
will in all probability inflict considerable damage upon him. They soon
 NATURAL HISTORY. 133
become familiar with those who treat them with kindness, and will eat
from their hands. At Magdalene College, Oxford, where there are some
ji these deer, it used to be a common practice to let down a crust of

Dama.—(Lint, a Deer.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Fallow-deer.

bread by a string from one of the windows that overlooked the part.
The deer would speedily approach, and it was singular to see how they
would take a large crust in their little mouths, and continue to bite it
until they contrived to eat the whole of it without once letting it drop.

The Reindeer is found throughout the Arctic regions of Europe,

Asia, and America. The finest animals are those of Lapland and Spitz-
bergen. The Laplander finds his chief wealth in the possession of the
Reindeer, which not only serves him as a beast of burden, but furnishes
him also with food and clothing. A Laplander in good circumstances
possesses about three or four hundred deer, which enable him to live in
comfort. The subsistence of one who only possesses one hundred is
very precarious, and he who has only fifty, usually joins his animals with
the herd of some richer man, and takes the menial labours upon himself.
A gadfly {(Estrus Tarandi) annoys the Reindeer so much, that the
Laplander is forced to make periodical migrations to the mountains in
order to escape the dreaded gadfly, and the equally dreaded mosquitoes,
which are more ferocious in the cold climates than in the Tropics.
134 NATURAL HISTORY.

Reindeer feeds principally on a kind of lichen, which it scrapes from

beneath the snow. During the winter, its coat thickens, and assumes
a lighter hue, many deer being almost white. Its hoofs are divided very

Rangifer.—(Linnean generic name.)*

Tarandus (Gr. Tapauoos, a Reindeer), the Reindeer.

high, so that when the animal places its foot on the ground, the hoof
spreads wide, and as it raises the foot, a snapping noise is heard, caused
by the parts of the hoof closing together. When harnessed to a sledge,
it can draw from 250 to 300 pounds’ weight at about ten miles an hour.

The European Elk inhabits the northern parts of Europe. It was

considered at one time to be identical with the American Elk, but natu¬
ralists now believe it to be a distinct animal. Its usual pace is a high
awkward trot, but when frightened, it sometimes gallops. It is very
strong, and can destroy a wolf with a single blow of its large and
powerful horns. In Sweden it was formerly used to draw sledges, but
on account of the facility of escape offered to criminals by its great
speed, the use of it was forbidden under high penalties. The skin of
the Elk is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished with
waistcoats made of its hide, which could scarcely be penetrated by a
ball.
* Possibly a Latinized form of the Scandinavian word “ Ren-dyr,” the word “ dyx”
signifying “ beast,” like the Greek Otjp, to which it is evidently allied.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 135
The Scandinavians chase the animai through the deep snow, and
succeed in the chase, because they are mounted upon skidor, or wooden
skates several feet n .
in length, which AicEs.-(Gr. aak„, an Elk.)
glide over the sur¬
face of the frozen
snow, while the
great weight of the
Elk forces its legs
through the thin
crust, and causes it
to tire in a short
time. Like the rein¬
deer, the Elk makes
a great clattering
with its hoofs when
in rapid motion. It
is a good swimmer,
and is fond of ta¬
king to the water in
summer time. It is
a rather dangerous
antagonist when in¬
censed, as it fights
desperately with its
horns and hoofs,
with which latter
weapons it has been Palmatus (Lat. 'palmed), the Elk.
known to destroy
a wolf with a single stroke. There used to be a curious belief about the
foot of the Elk, namely, that it is a preservation against epilepsy and
other diseases.

The Horse.—We now arrive at the Pachydermata, or thick-skinned

animals, which do not chew the cud. The first on the list is the Horse,
an animal too well known in all its varieties to need much description.
The ancient war-horse, so magnificently described in the Book of Job, is
well represented by that most wonderful head in the British Museum, a
fragment from the Temple of Minerva at Athens. The ancients never
appeared to ride on the horse to battle, but fought from small open
chariots, to which two or more horses were harnessed.
The Arabian Horse is a model of elegance and beauty. The Arab
treats his horse as one of his family j it lives in the same tent with him,
eats from his hand, and sleeps among his children, who tumble about od
it without the least fear. Eew Arabs can be induced to oart with a
 ] 36 NATURAL HISTORY.

favourite horse. The Rev. V. Monro relates that an Arab, “the net value
of whose dress and accoutrements might be calculated at something under
seventeen pence halfpenny,” refused all offers made to purchase a beautiful
mare on which he rode, and declared that he loved the animal better than
his own life.
The plains of La Plata and Paraguay are tenanted by vast herds ol
wil'd horses. These are captured by the lasso, bitted, mounted, and
broken, within an hour, by the daring and skilful Gauchos.
The ponderous and powerful dray-horse is of the Flanders breed. These
huge animals, as they slowly pace along the streets, conducted by men

Family II. FquYdae.—(Lat. Equus, a Horse. Horse kind.i

EQUUS.

Caballus (Lat. a Sacldle-korsc.)

wno seem to be a Flanders race also, never fail to attract the attention of
admiring foreigners.
Wales and the Shetland Isles produce a breed forming a great contrast
to the Flanders horse. The Sheltie, as it is called, is very small, its height
sometimes being only thirty-four inches; but it is very strong and sure¬
footed, carrying its rider with perfect safety along the most terrific
precipices, and almost invariably choosing to walk on the very edge.
The Race Horse is supposed to have been originally derived from the
Arabian breed. The Godolphin Arabian, and the Flying Childers, are two
 NATURAL HISTORY. 137
of the most oelebrated racers. The skeleton of Eclipse, another cele¬
brated racer, is now in the Aslimolean Museum, Oxford.
The Ass.—The humble and hardy Ass is scarcely less serviceable to
man „i*an the more imposing
horse. In this country, AsYnus.—(Lat. an das.)
where it meets with harsh
treatment, is scantily fed,
and only used for laborious
tasks, it is dull and obsti¬
nate ; but in the East, where
it is employed by the rich
nobles, and is properly treat¬
ed it is an elegant and
spirited animal, with good
action and smooth coat.
White asses are always used
in the East for the especial
service of bearing persons
of distinction, a custom of
great antiquity, as appears
from Judges v. 10,—“ Speak,
ye that ride on white asses.” Vulgaris (Lat. common), the A as.
The Dzigguetai.—In Persia and other countries, there are herds of wild
asses. They are so fleet that no horses can come up to them, and even with
rifles the chase is very uncertain. The Persians esteem its flesh very highly,
considering it one of their greatest delicacies. Sir 11. Iver Porter gives
tne following amusing account of an unsuccessful chase after a wild ass :—
“The sun was just rising over the summits of the eastern mountains,
when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which my Persians
said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. I instantly put
spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave chase. After an unre-
taxed gallop of three miles, we came up with the dog, who was then within
a short stretch of the creature he pursued, and to my surprise, and at
first vexation, I saw it to be an ass. Upon a moment’s reflection, how¬
ever, judging from its fleetness it must be a wild one, a creature little
known in Europe, but which the Persians prize above all other animals
as an object of chase, I determined to approach as near to it as the very
swift Arab I was on would carry me. But the single instant of checking
my horse to consider had given our game such a head of us, that notwith¬
standing all our speed we could not recover our ground on him. I, how¬
ever, happened to be considerably before my companions, when, at a certain
distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and allowed me to approach
within pistol-shot of him; he then darted off again with the quickness of
thought, capering, kicking, and sporting in his flight, as if he was not
blown in the least, and the chase was bis pastime. When my followers of
138 NATURAL HISTORY.

the country came up, they regretted that I had not shot the creature when
he was within my aim, telling me that his flesh is one of the greatest
delicacies in Persia. The prodigious swiftness and peculiar manner in
which he fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description that
Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above all, it reminded
me of the striking
portrait drawn by
the author of the
Book of .Job. I was
informed by the
Mehmender, who
had been in the de¬
sert when making a
pilgrimage to the
shrine of Ali, that
the wild ass of Irak
Arabi differs m
nothing from the
one I had just seen.
He had observed
them often for a
short time in the
possession of the
Arabs, who told
him the creature
Dzigguetai (Native name), the JJzigguetai.
was perfectly un*
tameable. A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these
animals, and, pursuing it determinedly, had the good fortune to kill it.”
This animal, called the Dzigguetai, is also found in India, and is quite as
difficult to secure as its relations in Persia.
Prom the skin of the Dzigguetai is made the best shagreen.
There is a mixed breed between the Horse and the Ass, called the Mule,
an animal in no very great request in this country, but extensively used
in the East for riding, and in Spain it is the established beast of burden.
It is very sure-footed, and is on that account employed in the Andes
instead of the Llama.

The Zebra is found in South Africa. This beautiful animal lives in

troops among the mountains, shunning the presence of man. It is a very
conspicuous animal, and easily distinguished by the regular stripes of
brownish black with which its whole body is covered even down to the
hoofs. It is very wild and suspicious, carefully placing sentinels to look
out for danger. Notwithstanding these precautions, several zebras have
been taken alive, and some, in spite of their vicious habits, have been
trained to draw a carriage. In all probability it might be domesticated
like the ass, as the black cross on the back and shoulders of the latter
 NATURAJ- HISTORY. 139
asYnhs.

Zebra, the Zebra.

animal prove the affinity between them. The voice of the Zebra is very
peculiar, and can hardly be described.
The Quagga is asTncs.
also a native of
South Africa. It
bears some resem¬
blance to the Zebra,
but is at once distin¬
guished from that
animal by the pau¬
city and dulness of
the stripes, which do
not reach to the hind
quarters or legs at
all, and only faintly
mark the back, its
head and neck bear¬
ing the deepest
stripes. It is not
formed quite so
gracefully as the
zebra, — its hind Quagga {Native name), the Quagga.
quarters being slightly higher than its shoulders. The natives occa¬
sionally tame it for the purposes of draugut, but it is not to be de¬
pended on, being vicious and very wild.
140 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. Elephantidse.—(Gr. ’EAe(pas, an Elephant. Elephant kind.)

Sub-family a. Elephantina.
ELEPHAS.

Indicus (Lat. Indian), the Indian Elephant.

Of this magnificent animal, whose form is familiar to every eye. two

species are known, the Indian and the African. The anatomy ot this
huge quadruped is well worthy of consideration. Its head and tusKs are
so very heavy that no long neck would bear them; the neck is therefore
very short. But this shortness of neck prevents the Elephant from
putting its head to the ground, or from stooping to the water’s edge.
This apparent defect is compensated by the wonderful manner in which
its upper lip and nose are elongated, and rendered capable of drawing up
water or plucking grass. In the proboscis or trunk there are about
forty thousand muscles, enabling the Elephant to shorten, lengthen, coil
up, or move in any direction this most extraordinary organ. The trunk
is pierced throughout its length by two canals, through which liquids
can be drawn by suction. If the Elephant wishes to drink, after drawing
She liquid into its trunk, it inserts the end of the proboscis into its mouth,
and discharges the contents down its throat; but if it merely wishes to
wash itself or play, it blows the contained liquid from the trunk with
great violence. Through the trunk the curious trumpet-like voice of the
Elephant is produced. At the extremity is a finger-like appendage, with
which it can pick up small objects. In order to sustain the muscles of
 NATURAL HISTORY. 141
the jaw and neck, the head must be very large : were it solid, it would be
very heavy. The skull is therefore formed of a number of cells of bone,
forming the necessary expanse without the weight, leaving but a very
small cavity for the brain.
This fact will account for the numberless bullet wounds which an ele¬
phant will endure in the skull. The ball, instead of penetrating to the
brain, merely lodges among the bony cells, and does no great mischief.
Not long since, a ball was found firmly imbedded in the tusk of an ele¬
phant ; it was thoroughly impacted, and there was no apparent opening
by which it could have reached the place that it occupied. It was
afterwards found that the ball must have struck the elephant at the
base of the tusk, so as to have sunk among the soft and as yet unformed
ivory. This by degrees was pushed on as the tusk grew in successive
years, until it was at last surrounded closely by hard ivory. A spear¬
head has been also found similarly imbedded.
The Indian Elephant is almost invariably taken from its native haunts
and then trained. The Indian hunters proceed into the woods with two
trained female elephants. These advance quietly, and by their blandish¬
ments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate male that they meet,
that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and fasten him to a
tree. His treacherous companions now leave him to struggle in impotent
rage, until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue that the hunters can
drive him home between their two tame elephants. When once captured
he is easily trained. Bribes of sugar and arrack, a kind of spirit, are the;
usual means of inducing an Elephant to attempt some new art, or to
labour with particular assiduity. In its wild state it endeavours to
gratify its taste for sweets, at the expense of the sugar planters.
“The Elephant has a natural partiality for sugar, which he finds
abundant means to gratify in the plantations of sugar-cane. A curious
instance is recorded of his liking for sweetmeats, and of a method adopted
in his savage state to gratify this propensity. It chanced that a Cooley,
laden with jaggery, which is a coarse preparation of sugar, was surprised
in a narrow pass in the kingdom of Candy by a wild elephant. The
poor fellow, intent upon saving his life, threw down the burthen, which
the elephant devoured, and being well pleased with the repast, determined
not to allow any person egress or ingress who did not provide him with
a similar banquet. The pass formed one of the principal thoroughfares
to the capital, and the elephant, taking up a formidable position at the
entrance, obliged every passenger to pay tribute. It soon became
generally known that a donation of jaggery would ensure a safe conduct
through the guarded portal, and no one presumed to attempt the passage
without the expected offering.”
It has before been mentioned that the Indian elephant is trained for
tiger hunting. When the tiger springs, the elephant always raises his
proboscis out of reach of the tiger’s claws and teeth.
In captivity, it is very docile and gentle, but sometimes, when £tD-
142 NATURAL HISTORY.

t-oxed, will take a very ample revenge. Of this propensity, many anec¬
dotes are told.
“Avery characteristic action of D’Jeek, the famous elephant of M.
Hnguet, was lately near costing the life of a young man, a native of
Bruges. The elephant, it is well known, is very fond of sweetmeats,
and this young man amused himself at Madame D’Jeck’s expense,
baulking her by offering her some, which, whenever she reached out her
trunk to take, he immediately withdrew. This trick having been noticed
by M. Huguet, he observed to the young man how foolish such conduct
was towards an animal at once so susceptible and vindictive. But not
taking warning from this remark, the Belgian again invited the elephant
to approach, and not only again deceived her, but gave the sweetmeats
to Mademoiselle Betsy. Madame D’Jeck now lost her patience, and
regardless of the presence of her master and a numerous assemblage of
spectators, lifted her trunk and knocked the young man down, tearing
open his cheek, and rending his clothes to tatters. Happily, M. Huguet
interposed his authority, and the elephant left her hold, but the imprudent
sufferer was long confined to his bed from the effects of his absurdity.”
The tusks and teeth of the Elephant furnish exceedingly fine ivory,
which is used for various purposes, such as knife-handles, combs, billiard
balls, &c. There is a great art in making a billiard ball. Some parts of
the tusk are always heavier than others, so that if the heavy part should
fall on one side of the ball, it would not run true. The object of the
maker is either to get the heavier portion in the centre, or to make the
ball from a piece of ivory of equal weight. In either case, the ball is
made a little larger than the proper size; it is then hung up in a dry room
for several months, and finally turned down to the requisite dimensions.
It is rather singular that the substance of ivory is almost exactly
imitated by a vegetable production, the ivory nut, just about half the
size of a billiard ball, which when young is soft, but hardens as it
becomes old, until it is as hard as real ivory, and closely resembles it.
All elephants are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge them¬
selves so far, that nothing but the tip of the proboscis remains above the
surface. In a tame state, the elephant delights in concealing itself below
the water, and deluging the spectators with a stream sent from its trunk.
The following account of Elephant catching in Nepal was sent to me
by a medical gentleman residing at Segouly :—
“ The whole batch, tame and wild ones, then rushed into a deep river
close by, where it was a splendid sight to see them swimming, fighting,
diving, plunging, kicking, and bellowing in a most frantic manner; the
mahouts (the riders on the tame ones) sticking to them like monkeys,
and dexterously taking the opportunity of the confusion to secure the
dreaded noose round their necks.
“ One of the wild elephants in the struggle got half-drowned, and then
entirely strangled; she just staggered to the shore, and then dropped
dead without a struggle. It was really quite piteous to see her poor
 NATURAL HISTORY 143
little young one, about ten days old; she kept walking round the body,
pushing it, and trying to coax her dead mother to rise up; then uttering
the most heart-rending cries, and lying down by her side as it were to
comfort her.
“ When the contest was over, and the other elephants, tame ones,
were brought up near the corpse, the poor little thing, with the most
indignant, though, of course, unavailing valour, charged on all sides at
any elephant who came near, determined evidently to defend its mother,
even though dead, to the last. The tame ones, of course, were too saga¬
cious to hurt it with their tusks, and looked on with the most curious
air of pity and contempt, as they gradually, despite its violent struggles,
pushed it away from its mother to a place where it could be properly
secured and taken care of. Really its moans and endeavours to remain
with its mother were quite affecting. It is too young to be weaned with
safety, and will probably die; at least I am very much afraid so. I shall
always feel an interest in the poor little animal in future, should it live;
it was so devotedly and heroically brave, never attempting to leave its
mother in order to procure its own escape, which it might easily have
done unseen during the confusion.”
On this occasion Jung Bahadoor, the Nepaulese ambassador, distin¬
guished himself greatly by his dexterity and courage, and secured several
elephants with his own hands.

The African Elephant.—This species is distinguished from the

Indian Elephant by the markings of its teeth and some differences in
form. Much interesting information respecting the habits of this animal
has been given by Cumming, from whose work the following extracts
are taken:—
“The African Elephant is widely diffused through the vast forests,
and is met with in herds of various numbers. The male is very much
larger than the female; consequently, much more difficult to kill. He is
provided with two enormous tusks. These are long, tapering, and beau¬
tifully arched; Iheir length averages from six to eight feet, and they
weigh from sixty to a hundred pounds each.
“ The females, unlike Asiatic elephants in this respect, are likewise
provided with tusks. The price which the largest ivory fetches in the
English market is from 23/. to 32/. per hundred-and-twelve pounds.
Old bull elephants are found singly or in pairs, or consorting together
in small herds, varying from six to twenty individuals. The younger
bulls remain for many years in the company of their mothers, and these
are met together in large herds of from twenty to a hundred individuals.
The food of the Elephant consists of the branches, leaves, and roots of
trees, and also of a variety of bulbs, of the situation of which he 'is
advised by his exquisite sense of smell. To obtain these he turns up the
ground with his tusks, and whole acres may be seen thus ploughed up.
Elephants consume an immense quantity of food, and pass the greater
 144 NATURAL, HISTORY.

part of the day and night in feeding. Like the whale in the ocean, the
Elephant on land is acquainted with, and roams over, wide and extensive
tracts. He is extremely particular in always frequenting the freshest and

ELEPHAS.

Africanus (Lat. African), the African Elephant.

most verdant districts of the forests; and when one district is parched
and barren^ he will forsake it for years, and wander to great distances in
quest of better pasture.
“The Elephant entertains an extraordinary horror of man, and a child
can put a hundred of them to flight by passing at a quarter of a mile
to windward; and when thus disturbed, they go a long way before they
halt. It is surprising now soon these sagacious animals are aware oi
the presence of a hunter in their domains. When one troop has been
attacked, all the other elephants frequenting the district are aware of the
fact within two or three days, when they all forsake it, and migrate to
distant parts.5*
“ They choose for their resort the most lonely and secluded depths of
the forest, generally at a very great distance from the rivers and
fountains at which they urink. In dry and warm weather they visit
these waters nightly; but in cool and cloudy weatner they drink only
once every third or lourth day. About sundown the elephant leaves his
 .NATURAL HISTORY. 145
distant midday haunt, and commences his march towards the fountain,
which is probably from twelve to twenty miles distant. This he gene¬
rally reaches between the hours of nine and midnight; when, having
slaked his thirst and cooled his body by spouting large volumes of water
over his back with his trunk, he resumes the path to his forest solitudes.
Having reached a secluded spot, I have remarked that full grown bulls
lie down on their broadsides, about the hour of midnight, and sleep for
a few hours. The spot which they usually select is an ant-hill, and they
lie around it with their backs resting against it; these hills, formed by
the white ants, are from thirty to forty feet in diameter at their base.
The mark of the under tusk is always deeply imprinted in the ground,
proving that they lie upon their sides.
“The appearance of the wild elephant is inconceivably majestic and
imposing. His gigantic height and colossal bulk, so greatly surpassing
all other quadrupeds, combined with his sagacious disposition and pecu¬
liar habits, impart to him an interest in the eyes of the hunter which no
other animal can call forth. The pace of the
Elephant when undisturbed is a bold, free,
sweeping step; and from the peculiar spongy
formation of his foot, his tread is extremely
b’ght and inaudible, and all his movements are
attended with a peculiar gentleness and grace.
“ The under skin is of a tough and pliant
nature, and is used by the natives for making
water bags, in which they convey supplies
of water from the nearest vley or fountain
'which is often ten miles distant). They re- skull of the elephant.
move this inner skin with caution, taking care
not to cut it with the assagai; and it is formed into water Dags by
gathering the corners and edges, and transfixing the whole on a pointed
wand.”

The Tahr forms one of the links connecting the elephant with the
hog. The snout is lengthened into a kind of proboscis like that of the
elephant, but it is comparatively short, and has no finger-like appendage
at the extremity. Many of the remaining links are supplied by the
various species of the fossil genus Palseotherium.
The Common Tapir is spread throughout the warmer regions of South
America. It sleeps during the day, and wanders about at night in search
of its food, which consists of water melons, gourds, and other vegetables,
it is very fond of the water, and can remain below the surface for a
considerable period. It is a very powerful animal, aud as it is furnished
with a very thick hide, it plunges through the brushwood, breaking its
way tlmn.gR any obstacles that may oppose its progress.
Its disposition is gentle, but when annoyed, it sometimes rushes at
its antagonist, and defends itself vigorously with its powerful teeth
i,
14C NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Tapirlna.
tapirus.—(From Native name.)

Malayanus (Lat. Malay.)

The jaguar frequently springs on it, but

is often dislodged by the activity of the
\ Tapir, who rushes through the bushes irn-
' mediately that its feels the claws of its
enemy, and endeavours to brush him off
against the thick branches. The height
of the American Tapir is from five to six
feet. The Malay Tapir is somewhat larger,
SKULL OF THE TAPIR. and is known by the greyish white colour
of the loins and hind quarters, which give
the animal an appearance as if a white horsecloth had been spread
over it.

The Boar.—The animals composing the Hog tribe are found in

almost every part of the globe. Their feet are cloven and externally
resemble those of the Ruminants, but an examination of the bones at
once points out the difference.
The Wild Hog or Boar inhabits many parts of Europe, especially
the forests of Germany, where the chase of the wild boar is a common
amusement. It has become extinct in this country for many years. Its
tusks are terrible weapons, and capable of being used with fatal effect.
They curve outwards from the lower jaw, and are sometimes eight or
ten inches in length. In India, where the Boar attains to a great size,
the horses on which the hunters are mounted often refuse to bring their
 natural history. 147
riders within spear Sub-family c. Suina.
stroke of the infuriated •Sus.—(Lat. a Soxv.)
animal, who has been
known to kill a horse
and severely injure the
rider with one sweep
of its enormous tusks.

The Domestic Hog

scarcely needs any de¬
scription. It is by no
means the unclean and
filthy animal that mo¬
ralists love to repre¬
sent it. It certainly
is fond of wallowing
in the mire, as are the Scrofa (Lat. an old Sow), the Boar.
elephant, tapirs, &c.,
but no animal seems to enjoy clean straw more than the Hog. We
shut it up in a dirty narrow crib, give it any kind of refuse to eat, and
then abuse it for being a dirty animal and an unclean feeder. While,
however, it should be rescued from these unjust imputations, it should
bear the weight of an accusation never before made. I have seen pigs
suck the cows in a farmyard while they were lying down and chewing
the cud, nor did the cows attempt to repel them.

The Babyeoussa slJ3

inhabits the Molucca
Islands and Java. It
is remarkable for pos¬
sessing four tusks, two
of which proceed from
the upper jaw, and do
not pass out between
the lips, but 'through
an aperture in the skin,
half way between the
end of the snout and
eyes. The sockets of
the two upper tusks
are curved upwards,
and give a singular ap- Babyroussa (Native word, Hog-deer), the
pearance to the skuii Babyroussa.
of the animal. It looks
a ferocious animai, nor do its looks contradict its habits, as it is very
savage, and cannot be hunted without danger. Yet when taken young
Tj 2
148 NATURAL HISTORY.

it can be tamed without much difficulty, and conducts itself much aftei
the manner of a well-behaved pig.
Only the male possesses the remarkable double pair of tusks, the
female being destitute of the upper pair, and only possessing those
belonging to the under jaw in a rudimentary degree. It lives in troops,
as do most of the hog kind, and thus does great damage to the culti¬
vated grounds, especially to the maize, a plant to which it is, unfortu¬
nately, very partial. It is a good swimmer, and often voluntarily takes
to the water in order to cross to another island. The size of the animal
when full grown, is about that of a very large hog.

The Common, or Collared Peccary, is an inhabitant of South

America. This animal is both dreaded and hated by the residents, for it
is so exceedingly ferocious, and so utterly devoid of all sense of fear,
that it will always charge at any object that comes in its way; an
elephant would not scare it, if an elephant were to be transported to
South America. So it puts to flight those whom it attacks, and they fly
before it in mixed fear and wrath against the pugnacious little animals
which are pursuing them. It is a small animal, rarely exceeding eighteen
inches in height, and yet is not less dreaded than the most savage wild boar
would be. Its jaws are armed with tusks, like those of the boar, but they
are straight instead of curved, are sharp at the edges, and although only
- .. .. , , .. v about an inch and a
dicotyles.—(Gr. Sis, double ; kotv\t), a hollow cup.)* half in length inflict

horrible wounds, on
account of the mus¬
cular strength of
the creature’s neck.
When a body of
them charge against
an enemy, fancied
or real, they will
never be driven
away, but will fight
till the last is slain.
On this account, no
one will willingly
Taja5u (Native name), the Peccary.
oppose them; and if
a herd of Peccaries
comes in the way, men, horses, and dogs, all fly in haste, as even the
horses would be soon brought down, for their legs would be cut to
pieces. The best method of attacking them is that described by Webbei
in the following passage:—
“ But with ail its other peculiarities to answer for, the drollest i* yet

In allusion to the hollow gland on the back.

 NATURAL HISTORY. 141)
to come. 1 refer to their mode of sleeping. They usually frequent
those heavy canebrakes, through which are scattered, at wide interval^
trees of enormous size and age. These, from their isolated condition,
are most exposed to the fury of storms, and therefore most liable to be
thrown down. We find their giant stems stretched here and there
through the canebrakes of Texas, overgrown with the densest thickets
of the cane, matted together by strong and thorny vines. In these old
trees the peccaries find their favourite lodgings. Into one of these logs
a drove of twenty or thirty of them will enter at night, each one backing
m, so that the last one entering stands with his nose at the entrance.
The planters, who dread them and hate them, as well on account of the
ravages on their grain crops which they commit, the frequent destruction
or mutilation by them of their stock—their favourite dogs, and sometimes
even their horses, as on account of the ridiculous predicaments, such as
taking to a tree, or running for their life, to which they have been sub¬
jected themselves, seek their destruction with the greatest eagerness.
“ When a hollow log has been found which bears the marks of being
used by them, the hunters wait with great impatience till the first dark,
cloudy day of rain; a dark drizzle is the best, as it is well known that
on such days they do not leave their lodgings at all. The planter, con¬
cealing himself just before day carefully out of view, but directly in
front of the opening of the log, awaits in patient silence the coming of
sufficient light. Soon as the day opens, peering cautiously through the
cane, he can perceive the protruded snout, and sharp, watchful eyes of the
sentinel-peccary on duty, while his fellows behind him sleep. Noise¬
lessly the unerring rifle is raised, the ring of its explosion is heard, and,
with a convulsive spring, the sentinel leaps forward out of the hole, and
rolls in its death-struggle on the ground. Scarcely an instant is passed,
a low grunt is heard, and another pair of eyes is seen shining steadily
in the place the others had just held. Not a sound is heard, the
planter loads again with such dexterity that not even a branch of the
embowering cane is stirred. Again with steady nerve the piece is fired,
out springs the second victim as the first had done; then another takes
its place, and so on to the third, fourth, fifth, and twentieth, even to the
last of the herd, unless the planter should happen by some carelessness
to make a stir in the cane around him, when out it springs with a short
grunt, without waiting to be shot this time, and followed by the whole
herd, when they make a dash at the unlucky sportsman, who is now glad
enough to take to his heels, and blesses his stars if he should be able to
climb a tree or a fence in time to save his legs. If during the firing,
the sentinel should happen to sink in the hole without making the
usual spring, the one behind him roots out the body to take its place.
They do not understand what the danger is, or whence it comes.
Neither do they fear it, but face its mysterious power to the last. They
never charge towards unseen enemies, until guided either by the sight
of some disturbance caused by a motion in the thicket or by those
150 NATURAL HISTORY

sounds with which they are familiar, indicating their position. Incredible
as this account may appear, it is actually the method in which the
settlements along Caney Creek: and in the Brazos Bottoms have been
of late years in a great measure relieved of this dangerous annoyance.’'
The Peccary alone of all animals appears to have resisted the terrors
of the gun, and a herd of them will attack men with fire-arms, and only
seem to be more enraged by the report and flash of the guns. The
Indians eat the animal, but its flesh is not considered to be particularly
excellent, especially as the gland which the animal bears in its haunches
has an evil effect on the meat, and causes it to become unfit for use in
a very short time. Its colour is a greyish black, caused by the colour of
the bristles, which are ringed at intervals with grey, straw-colour, and
black.
Sub-family d. Rhinocerina.
Rhinoceros.—(Gr. 'PtV, or pis, a nose; Kepas, a horn.)

Unicornis (Lat. Unus, one ; cornu, a horn), the Rhinoceros.

The Rhinoceros.—There are, apparently, six species of this formidabla

animal. Their chief peculiarity, the so-called horn, is a mass of fibres
matted together, and closely resembling the fibres of whalebone. Their
feet are divided into three toes, incased in hoofs. Tire best description
of the various species of the African Rhinoceros is given in Cumming. _
«**>£ the Rhinoceros there are four varieties in South Africa, distin-
guisned t»y the Bechuanas by the names of the ‘ borele,’ or black rhino-
INDIAN RHINOCEROS.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 161
ceros, the ‘keitloa,’ or two-horned black rhinoceros, the ‘ muchocho,’ or
common white rhinoceros, and the ‘ kobaoba,’ or long-horned white
rhinoceros. Both varieties of the black rhinoceros are extremely fierce
and dangerous, and rush headlong and unprovoked at any object which
attracts their attention. They never attain much fat, and their flesh is
tough, and not much esteemed even by the Bechuanas. Their food

RHINOCEROS.

Hicornis (Lat. bis, twice; cornu, a horn), the Two-horned Rhinoceros, or

Rhinaster.

consists almost entirely of the thorny Dranches of the wait-a-Oit* thorns.

Their horns are much shorter than those of the other varieties, seldom
exceeding eighteen inches in length. They are finely polished with con-
stant rubbing against the trees. The skull is remarkably formed, its
most striking feature being the tremendous thick ossification in which it
ends above the nostrils. It is on this mass that the horn is supported,
The horns are not connected with the skull, being attached merely by
the skin, and they may thus be separated from the head by means of
a sharp knife. They are hard, and perfectly solid throughout, and are a
line material for various articles, such as drinking cups, mallets for rifles,
bandies for turners’ tools, &c. &c. The-, horn is capable of a very high
* The reader must know that these are the thorns of a kind of acacia, which being se¬
veral inches in length, v,ery strong and very sharp, generally do cause any one who has
fallen among them, to “ wait a bit ” until he finds himself free from them.
 152 NATURAL HISTORY.

polish. The eyes of the rhinoceros are small and sparkling, and do not
readily observe the hunter, provided he keep to leeward of them. The
skin is extremely thick, and only to be penetrated by bullets hardened
with solder. During the day, the rhinoceros will be found lying asleep,
or standing indolently, in some retired part of the forest, or under the
base of the mountains, sheltered from the power of the sun by some
friendly gtove of umbrella-topped mimosas. In the evening, they com¬
mence their nightly ramble, and wander over a great extent of country.
They usually visit the fountains between the hours of nine and twelve
o’clock at night, and it is on these occasions that they may be most suc¬
cessfully hunted, and with the least danger. The black rhinoceros is
subject to paroxysms of unprovoked fury, often ploughing up the ground
for several yards with its horn, and assaulting large bushes in the most
violent manner. On these bushes they work for hours with their horns,
at the same time snorting and blowing loudly; nor do they leave them in
general until they have broken them into pieces. All the four varieties
delight to roll and wallow in mud, with which their rugged hides are
encrusted. Both varieties of the black rhinoceros are much smaller and
more active than the white, and are so swift that a horse with a rider on
its back can rarely overtake them. The two varieties of the white rhino¬
ceros are so similar in habits, that the description of one will serve for
both, the principal difference consisting in the length and set of the
anterior horn; that of the common white rhinoceros averaging from two
to three feet in length, and pointing backwards; while the horn of the
long-horned white rhinoceros often exceeds four feet in length, and
inclines forward from the nose.
“ Both these varieties of rhinoceros attain an enormous size, being the
animals next in magnitude to the elephant. They feed solely on grass,
carry much fat, and their flesh is excellent, being preferable to beef.
They are of a much milder and more inoffensive disposition than the
black rhinoceros, rarely charging their pursuer. Their speed is very
inferior to that of the other varieties, and a person well-mounted can
overtake and shoot them.”
Several travellers have mentioned that there are certain birds which
constantly attend the rhinoceros, and give him warning of approaching
danger. Their accounts were either received with silent contempt, or
treated with open ridicule, as preposterous extensions of the traveller’s
privilege of romancing. Here, however, we find the same author who
has just been quoted, corroborating in every respect these disbelieved
tales. His description of these birds is so interesting that I give it
entire.
“ Before I could reach the proper distance to fire, several c rhinoceros
birds,’ by which he was attended, warned him of his impending danger,
by sticking their bills into his ear, and uttering their harsh, grating cry.
Thus aroused, lie suddenly sprang to his feet, and crashed away through
the jungle at a rapid trot, and I saw no more of him.
 nailis\l history. 15:3
H These rhinoceros birds are constant attendants upon the hippopota¬
mus and the four varieties of rhinoceros, their object being to feed upon
the ticks and other parasitic insects that swarm upon these animals.
They are of a greyish colour, and are nearly as large as a common
thrush: their voice is very similar to that of the misseltoe thrush.
Many a time have these ever-watchful birds disappointed me in my stalk,
and tempted me to invoke an anathema upon their devoted heads. They
are the best friends the rhinoceros has, and rarely fail to awaken him,
even in his soundest nap. ‘ Chukuroo’ perfectly understands their warn¬
ing, and, springing to his feet, he generally first looks about him in every
direction, after which he invariably makes off.”
The organs of scent of the rhinoceros are very acute, and as the
creature seems to have a peculiar faculty for detecting the presence of
human beings, it is necessary for the hunters to use the greatest circum¬
spection when they approach it, whether to avoid or to kill, as in the
one case it may probably be taken with a sudden fit of fury, and charge
at them, or in the other case, it may take the alarm and escape.
The Indian Rhinoceros is chiefly remarkable for the very deep foldings
of the skin, which is so hard at the folds, that an ordinary leaden ball
will often fail to penetrate sufficiently to cause a deep wound, and the
hunters are consequently forced to harden their bullets with tin or solder.
It may be here remarked, that the so-called “ horn ” is not a true horn,
being nothing but a process from the skin, and composed of a vast
assemblage of hairs. If a thin transverse section of the horn of a rhino¬
ceros is placed under a microscope, it will be seen that it is composed of
a series of minute tubes, exactly like those of hair. Indeed it is possible
to make an artificial rhinoceros horn, by gluing together a bundle of
hairs, and if a transverse section of this composition is placed under the
microscope, it almost exactly resembles the section of the rhinoceros
horn. Round the base of the horn, and wherever it has been injured,
the broken ends of the hairs stand out separately, and can be cut off.
The contempt with which the hunters, at all events the British
hunters, appear to treat the rhinoceros is very amusing. If they want
the skin or the horn, why, then they shoot it; but if they do not stand in
need of such articles, and a rhinoceros comes
in their way, they are obliged to pelt it away
or drive it off as they would a cow.
Goblets, made of the horn, were formerly in
high estimation as perservatives against poison.
The Indian kings were accustomed to have
their wine served up in these goblets, as they
imagined that if any poison were introduced
into the cup, the liquid would boil over, and SKULL OF THE RHINOCEROS
betray its presence.
The upper lip is used by the rhinoceros as an instrument of prehension,
with which it can grasp the herbage on which it feeds, or pick up smal1
154 NATURAL HISTORY.

fruit from the ground. The very tame rhinoceros in the Zoologica.
Gardens will take a piece of bun or biscuit from a visitor’s hand by
means of its flexible upper lip.

The Hippopotamus.—There is, in all probability, but one species of

the Hippopotamus. It inhabits Africa exclusively, and is found in plenty
Sub-family e. Hippopotamlna.
Hippopotamus.--(Gr.‘,l7r7ros,a Horse; iroTa.iJ.us, a River.)

Ampliibius (Gr. ’Aucpl, on both sides; Plow, I live), the Hij/popOtamus.

on the banks of many rivers in that country, where it may be seen gam¬
bolling and snorting at all times of the day.
These animals are quiet and inoffensive while undisturbed, but if at¬
tacked, they unite to repel the invader, and have been known to tear
several planks from the side of a boat, and sink it. They can remain
about five or six minutes under water, and when they emerge they make
a loud and very peculiar snorting noise, which can be heard at a great
distance.
The hide is very thick and strong, and is chiefly used for whips. The
well-known “ Cow-hides” are made of this material. Between the skin
and flesh is a layer of fat, which is salted and eaten by the Dutch
colonists of Southern Africa. When salted it is called Zee-koe speck,
or Sea-cow’s bacon. The flesh is also in some request.
The Hippopotamus feeds entirely on vegetable substances, such as
 NATURAL HISTORY. 155
grass and brushwood. The fine animal now in the possession of the
Zoological Society eats all kinds of vegetables, not disdaining roots.
This individual is peculiarly interesting from being the first Hippopotamus
brought to Europe for many hundred years, and is in all probability the
first that has ever reached this country.
A young Hippopotamus has been introduced into the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris, but it is not so fine an animal as ours. Our specimen
is fast losing its docility and gentle bearing, and is apparently likely to
Decome a savage animal, which from its great strength will be trouble¬
some to manage. There is rather a curious story respecting its capture,
which is too long to be related here at length, but which will exhibit
the character of eastern despots. Its actual capture was caused by a
boathook run into its flank, the mark of which wound was very con¬
spicuous for a year or two after its arrival in England, but which is
gradually becoming fainter. It was very young when taken, and was
fed on milk, of which article it consumed so much, that all the cows on
its route had to be forced into its service, and the tax which it seemed
disposed to levy on the milk of the cows, was hardly less oppressive
than that laid by the ruler on the person and purses of their owners.
In Harris’s Sports of South Africa, a very good and accurate account
is given of the habits of the Hippopotamus.
“ This animal abounds in the Limpopo, dividing the empire with its
amphibious neighbour the crocodile- Throughout the night the un¬
wieldy monsters might be heard snorting and blowing during their aqua¬
tic gambols, and we not unfrequently detected them in the act of sallying
from their reed-grown coverts, to graze by the serene light of the moon;
never, however, venturing to any distance from the river, the stronghold
to which they betake themselves on the smallest alarm. Occasionally,
during the day, they were to be seen basking on the shore, amid ooze
and mud ; but shots were most constantly to be had at their uncouth
heads, when protruded from the water to draw breatli; and, if killed,
the body rose to the surface. Vulnerable only behind the ear, however,
or the eye, which is placed in a prominence, so as to resemble the garret
window of a Hutch house, they require the perfection of rifle practice,
and after a few shots become exceedingly shy, exhibiting the snout
only, and as instantly withdrawing it. The flesh is delicious, resembling
pork in flavour, and abounding in fat, which in the colony is deservedly
esteemed the greatest of delicacies. The hide is upwards of an inch and
a half in thickness, and being scarcely flexible, may be dragged from the
ribs in strips like the planks from a ship’s side.”
Erom the construction of the head, the animal is enabled to raise its
eves and nostrils above the water at the same time, so that it can survey
the prospect and breathe without raising more than an inch or two of its
person from the water. In order to attain this object, the eyes are very
small, and placed very high in the head, while the muzzle is very large
and the nostrils open on its upper surface.
156 NATURAL HISTORY.

Cumming relates that the track of the Hippopotamus may be readilj

distinguished from that of any other animal by a line of unbroken herbage
which is left between the marks of the feet on each side, as the width o\
the space between the right and left legs causes the animal to place its
feet so considerably apart, as to make a distinct double track.
The teeth of the Hippopotamus are the mainstay of the dentist, who
cuts from the tusk of a Hippopotamus those series of elegant teeth whicli
replace those that age or accident has struck out of the human mouth.
The ivory is exceedingly hard, and does not readily lose its beautiful
whiteness, being properties which render it especially valuable for such
purposes.
This is supposed by many to be the animal called Behemoth in
Scripture.

Family IV. Bradypldse—(Gr. Bpadvs, slow; novs, a foot.)

BRADYPUS.

Iridactylus (Gr. TpidauTvhos, three-fingered), the Sloth.

The Sloth.—The Edentata include the ant-eaters and the pangolins

which possess no teeth at all, and the sloths, armadillos, &c., whose teeth
are small and of peculiar structure.
The Sloths form the first division of the Edentata—the leaf-eaters.
The Sloth or Ai, is another example.of the errors into which even great
naturalists are led from hasty observation. The great Cuvier himseli
 NATURAL HISTORY. 167
condemns the Sloth as a degraded and miserable animal, moving with pain,
and misshapen in form. Yet no animal is more fitted for its position than
the Sloth. “The Sloth,” says Waterton, “in its wild state spends its
whole life in the trees, and never leaves them but through force or acci¬
dent, and what is more extraordinary, not upon the branches, like the
squirrel and monkey, but under them. He moves suspended from the
branch, he rests suspended from the branch, and he sleeps suspended from
the branch.” In fact, as Sydney Smith observes, he passes a life of sus¬
pense, like a young clergyman distantly related to a Bishop.
To render it fit for this singular mode of life, its long and powerful
arms are furnished with strong curved claws, which hook round the
branches, and keep the animal suspended without any effort. When on
the ground, these claws are very inconvenient, and it can barely shuffle
along; but when it is among its native branches, it moves with exceeding
rapidity, particularly in a gale of wind, when it passes from branch to
branch and from tree to tree with an activity which its movements on the
ground by no means portend.
It is gifted with great tenacity of life, surviving under injuries which
would have proved instantly mortal to any other animal. It even sur¬
passes the opossum in endurance. Waterton gives an interesting account
of a sloth which he kept in his house for some time. The animal usually
lived on the back of a chair to which it slung itself by its curved claws.
After keeping it for some time, he was desirous of killing it, as its skin
was required tor the purpose of stuffing, and the death warrant was issued
against the sloth. But how to kill it was the difficulty: and its owner,
being a naturalist and therefore a merciful man, in spite of popular pre¬
judices on the subject, was much perplexed in his mind. At last he
determined on trying the effect of the wourali poison-, used by the Indians
to give their weapons of war and the chase a more deadly effect. Even
a sloth could not resist the wourali. A very small wound was made
through the animal’s skin, and inoculated with the poison. Soon the sloth
began to droop, its head sunk upon one side, and after a few minutes one
of its reel lost its hold of the chair on which it was hanging. The other
foot soon gave way under the influence of the poison, and the dying
jmimal fell to the ground. It lav there perfectly quiet, and after a few
minutes had elapsed, gently closed its eyes and was dead. Its whole
demeanour was that of an animal overcome with sleep, and it never
appeared to suffer the slightest pain.
Such indeed seems to be the effect of this singular composition upon
any living creature. If an animal is wounded, although slightly by a
weapon charged with this poison, it runs a few paces, staggers, and lies
down as if to sleep, and in a few minutes is dead. The effect is the same
upon man. Two Indians were hunting after birds, and one of them had
just launched a poisoned arrow at a bird nearly above him. The arrow
missed its mark, glanced against a bough, and in its fall struck into the
arm of the man who had thrown it. He looked at his arm, took off his
 158 NATURAL flISTORY

quiver of arrows, remarked that he should never use them again, laid him¬
self down, and was dead almost immediately.

Family V. . Dasypldse.—(Gr. Aacnjs, hairy; noils, a foot. Hairy-footed.)

Sub-family a. Manina.
Manis (Native name).

Tetradactyla (Gr. TerpadciKTvKos, four-fingered), the Pltatagin, or Long-

tailed Mann.

The ManidjK or Pangolins are immediately known by the peculiar,

strong, horny plates with which their bodies are defended, giving them
manis. the appearance of ani¬
mals enveloped in a suit
of scale armour. When
attacked, they roll them¬
selves up, wrap their tails
round them, and raise
the whole array of sharp-
edged scales with which
their body is covered,
and bid defiance to almost
any enemy except man.
They live on ants, and
termites, or white ants,
as they are called, which
they take by thrusting
Pentadactyla (Gr. nevTaSatcTvKos, five-fingered), their long slender tongue
the Short-tailed Manis. . among the ants, which
adhere to it by a gummy saliva. When the tongue is covered it is
rapidly retracted, and the ants swallowed. To obtain the ants, the Pan-
 natural history. 15 9
golins are famished with powerful claws to tear down the dwellings oi
their prey.
The Long-tailed Manis is widely scattered through Africa, but is not
very common. The length of its body is about two feet, and that of its
tail rather more than three.
The Short-tailed Manis, or Bajjerkeit, is very common in India. Its
entire length is about four feet.

The Armadillos live exclusively in the warmer parts of America.

They eat carrion, insects, and sometimes lallen fruit. The great mainstay
ol these animals lies in the number of bisons annually slaughtered for the
sake of their hides. The carcases of these animals are left to rot on the
plain, and would speedily do so did not the combined effect of birds and
beasts, soon destroy every
trace of the animal and Sub-family b. Dasyplna.
only leave a heap of Dasvpus.—(Gr. Aaavs, hairy; ttovs, & foot.)
bones. In this work the
Armadillo takes his full
share.
The armour that covers
them, instead of resem¬
bling scale armour like
that of the Manis, for-
ciblv reminds the ob-
V

server of the modified

plate armour worn in the
time of Charles I. They
burrow with great ra¬
pidity, and can only be
forced from their reluge Sexcinctus (Lat. six han/ded), the Armadillo.
by smoke or water. When
they are hunted and are very close pressed, they either endeavour to escape
their foes by rapidly burrowing into the earth, or try to oppose a partial
resistance by rolling themselves up and trusting to the protection of their
armour. The natives and colonists consider them great delicacies when
roasted in their shells.
The Armadillos are all small except the Gigantic Armadillo, which is
well described in the following extract. c< I found that an Armadillo of
gigantic size had caused the commotion. It was lying a round, misshapen
mass, its head partly buried under its armour, the feet drawn together,
and its body pierced by numerous arrows. It offered not the slightest
resistance to its tormentors, whom I desired to end its sufferings by a
heavy stroke of a club. Two men were required to carry it, and Mr.
Schomburgh estimated its weight at from 110 to 120 pounds; its height
was about three feet, its length five and a half. Its tail was about four¬
teen or sixteen inches long, and its root nearly as thick as a man’s thigh
160 natural history.
tapering very abruptly. The middle one of the five toes of the fore fool
was seven and a half inches in length. In size it greatly surpasses the
largest Giant Armadillo known (Dasypus giganteus, Desm.), though Mi.
Schomburgh does not mean to assert it is a different species from the
giganteus; yet its enormous size will attract the attention of naturalists
and geologists to the fossil genera.”

Sub-family c. Myrmecophagina.
Myrmecophaga.—(Gr. /£, an Ant; cpaye7u, to eat.)

Jubata (Lat. crested), the Ant-eater.

The Ant-eater.—This curious animal inhabits Guiana, Brazil, and
Paraguay. As its name imports, it lives principally upon ants and
termites, which it procures in precisely the same manner as was related
of the Manis. Its short legs and long claws would lead an observer to
suppose that its pace was slow and constrained, but when chased, it runs
off with a peculiar trot, and with such rapidity, that it keeps a horse to
its speed to overtake it.
The tongue of this animal looks exactly like a great red worm, and
when the creature is engaged in devouring its food, the rapid coiling and
twisting of the tongue add in no small degree to the resemblance.
The claws are very long and curved, and as they are used in tearing
down the habitation of the termites or white ants, as they are called, are
 NATURAL HISTORY. 161

exceeding strong. They are placed on the foot in such a manner that
when the animal is walking, its weight rests on the outside of the fore
feet and the outer edge of the claws, which make a great clattering if the
ant-eater is walking upon a hard surface.
When it sleeps, it lies on one side, rolls itself up, so that its snout rests
on its breast, places all its feet together, and covers itself with its bushy
tail. The fur of the animal at all times resembles hay, and when it is
thus curled up in sleep, it is so exactly like a bundle of hay, that any one
might pass it carelessly, imagining it to be nothing but a loose heap of
that substance.
Schomburgh relates that a tame Ant-eater, in his possession, by no
means restricted itself to ants, but devoured meat, when minced, with
much avidity. The same naturalist also discovered a Julus, or Millipede,
in the stomach of an ant-eater which he dissected. The ordinary length
of this animal is about three feet seven inches, and its height about three
feet.

The Middle Ant- Tamandua (Native name).

Eater, or Taman-
dua, is not so large
as the preceding ani¬
mal, from which it is
readily distinguish¬
ed by the tail, which
is long and tapering,
and almost devoid of
hair except at the
base. The tail in¬
deed is used as an
organ of prehension,
to assist it in climb¬
ing trees, a feat
which it sometimes
performs, although
not so often as the
Little Ant-Eater.
This animal pro¬ Tetradactyla (Gr. four-fingered), the Tamandua.
duces a strong scent
of musk, which is generally excited when it is enraged. The scent is not
pleasant, like that of the musk deer, but very disagreeable, and can be
perceived at a considerable distance.

The Little Ant-eater also inhabits Guiana and Brazil. The principal
characteristics of this animal are the shortness of its muzzle, and the pre¬
hensile power of iK tail, 'which it twists round the branches on which it
principally resides. It often attacks the nests of wasps, pulling them to
M
162 NATURAL HISTORY

pieces with its claws, and devouring the grubs. The length of its body
is ten inches
Cyclothurus (Gr. kvkAos, a circle, 8vpa,a
The skeleton of this littie
door, or boards put together like a door).* animal presents a very sin¬
gular appearance, as its ribs
are very flat and very wide
in proportion to the size of
the creature, and envelop
each other in such a manner
that the interior of the
thorax is protected by a
bony mail, no interstices
being perceptible between
the ribs.

The Duck-billed Pla¬

typus. f—Australia, where
everything seems to be re¬
versed, where the north
wind is w'arm and the south
Didact^la (Gr. AiScf/croAos, two-fingered),
wind cold, the thick end of
the Little Ant-eater. a pear is next the stem, and
the stone of a cherry grows outside, is the residence of this most extra¬
ordinary animal. When it was first introduced into Europe, it was fully
c ■, j, 7 ^ believed to be the
iSub-tamuy d. Ornithorhunchma. c , c
J . , manufacture ot some
Ornithorhyncus. (Gr. Oovis, a bird, fivyxos, impostor, who with
a snout.) much ingenuity had
fixed the beak of a duck
into the head of some
unknown animal. It
will however be seen
by the woodcut repre¬
senting the skull of
the animal, that this
duck-like beak really
belongs to the animal,
and is caused by a pro¬
longation of some of
the bones of the head.
It lives by the banks
Paradoxus (Lat, puzzling), the Duck-billed of rivers, in which it
Platypus. burrows like the water
•In allusion to the form of the ribs
t The word “ Platypus" signifies broad-footed, and is derived from the Greek words.
«\arvr, broad, and irovt, a foot.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 163
rat Curiously enough, it finds no difficulty in this labour, although its
house is always very deep, for the feet are so constructed that the animal
can fold back the web at pleasure, and thus the foot is enabled to perform
its task. It feeds upon water-insects and shell-fish, always rejecting the
crushed shells after swallowing the inhabitant.
Mr. Bennet attempted to rear some young Ornithorhynci at Sydney,
but they died in a short time. They were very fond of climbing between
a press and the wall, placing their backs against the press and their feet
against the wall. They used to dress their fur with their beak and feet,
just as a duck prunes its feathers.
The male has a sharp spur on its hind feet.
The learned have given the animal several names. Some follow Shaw,
and call it Platypus Anatinus; some give it the name of Ornithorhyncus
rufus or fuscus, or crispus or brevirostris, with other titles. The native
name for the creature is “Mullingong,” a title which, although not
euphonious, is perhaps little less so than the scientific names, while it
certainly has the advantage over them in point of brevity.

skull of the platypus.

 164 NATURAL HISTORY.

Division II. AVES- (Lat. Birds.)

Order I. . . A CClPITRES.— (Lat. Hawks.)
Sub-order I. AootpTtkes diurnl—(Lat. Hawks of the day.)
Family I. . Gypaetidse.—(Gr. rvip, a Vulture; ’Aeros, an Eagle. Vulture
eagle kind.)

OYPAETUS.

Barbatus (Lat. bearded), the Bearded Vulture or Lammergeyer

Birds are immediately distinguished from the Mammalia by theii

general form, their feathery covering, and by producing their young
enclosed in eggs.
The different orders of birds are principally known by the character of
tne claws and beak, examples of which will be seen in the progress of the
work. Before we pay attention to any individual species, we will first
examine some of the structures common to all birds.
One of the first great marks of distinction in birds is the wing. This
organ is a modification of the arm or forelitnb of mammalia, clothed with
teathers instead of hair.
The bones of adult birds are not filled with mariow like the bones of
mammalia, but are hollow and filled with air, and are therefore rendered
very light, a bone of a goose being barely half the weight of a rabbit’s
bone of the same size, after the marrow has been extracted. In this
formation, strength as well as lightness is consulted, as a tubular rod is
well known to be very much stronger than the same quantity of matte*
 NATURAL HISTORY. 165
tormed into a solid bar. The bones forming the wing are worthy of
notice for the beautiful manner in which they are jointed together, and
arranged so as to give great strength together with lightness. Unscien¬
tific individuals are apt to make certain mistakes in their ideas of birds,
and especially as regards the formation of their legs. Most persons
veem to fancy that the foot of the bird is that part which grasps the
branch, or by means of which it walks on the ground—that the joint
:\hove that member is the knee—and that the thigh is the feathered
portion of the limb that proceeds from the bird’s body. Now, all these
.deas are wrong; with this method of arrangement, the knee of the bird
would bend backwards, a thing which no perfectly formed knee ever did
or ever will do.
The leg of a bird is formed on much the same principle as the hind leg
of a quadruped, the part that grasps the branches being composed of the
toes, the so-called knee-joint being the heel bone of the foot, so that the
whole foot reaches half-way from the perch to the bird. The knee-joint
is placed high up against the body, and is buried in the feathers. In the
following figure, the limbs of a man and of a bird are compared, the
corresponding divisions of each being marked by similar letters.

As many important characteristics are drawn from the plumage, it

will be necessary to give a figure, (p. 166,) exhibiting the feathers of
the different parts, together with their names:—a, primaries, or great
quill feathers of the wing; b, secondaries; c, tertials; d, lesser coverts ;
e, greater coverts; r, winglet, or bastard wing; g, scapularies; h, upper
tail coverts; I, under tail coverts; x, rectrices or tail-feathers.
In the above engraviug is also a figure, showing the method by which
birds hold on the perch while sleeping. It will be seen that the great
tendon a, which is connected with all the toes or claws, passes over the
joints in such a manner that when the leg is bent, the tendon is short¬
ened and the claws drawn together, so that the weight of the bird while
perched, pressing on the tendon, holds it firmly on the branch. This
action of the tendon is easily observed by watching a common fowrI walk
166 NATURAL HISTORY.

At each step that it makes, on lifting its foot, the claws are seen to be
draw?\ together. It is partly by this power that the birds of prey are
enabled to fix their talons so forcibly into the bodies of their prey
When, for example an eagle wishes to drive his claws into its prey, he

PLUMAGE. STERNUM.

perches on it, and then sinks down with the whole weight of his body
by which movement the tendon is shortened, and the claws forcibly
pressed together.
As the wing presents a very broad surface to the air, it is necessary
that very powerful muscles must
be used to move it with sufficient
rapidity. The pectoral muscles
are therefore enormously deve¬
loped, extending almost the
whole length of the body, as
every one who has carved a fowl
must have seen; and in order to
CLAW AND BEAK OF RAPACIOUS BIRD.
form an attachment for these im¬
mense muscles, the ridge of the breastbone is equally enlarged. It is
the want of these enlarged muscles that prevents man from flying, even
when he has attached wings to his arms.
The principal characteristics of birds are taken from their foot and
beak. I therefore give the reader a figure representing the general
character of the head and foot of the rapacious birds.
The Lammergeyer, (Germ. Lamb's-vulture,) or Bearded Vulture,
inhabits most mountain ranges, and is very common in the Alps of Swit¬
zerland and Germany, where, from its depredations on the kids ana
lambs, it has earned its name of Lammergeyer.
Although called the Bearded “ Vulture,” it is not strictly a vulture,
as its head and neck are feathered, and it rejects putrid flesh^unless
hard pressed by hunger.
It destroys hares, and young or sickly sheep and goats, Aor, when
rendered fierce by hunger, does it fear to attack the adult chamois, or
even man. It is said to destroy the larger animals by watching until
they are near the brink of a presipice, and then suddenly driving them
 NATURAL HISTORY. 167
over the rocks by an unexpected swoop. In this manner the strong and
swift chamois falls a victim to the craft of its winged foe, and instances
are not wanting where the chamois hunter himself has been shuck from
a narrow ridge into the valley beneath by a blow from this ferocious bird.
It is exceedingly bold, and shows but little fear of man. While Bruce
was preparing his dinner on the summit of a mountain, one of these
birds, after scalding its feet in seveiai unavailing attempts to extract
some meat out of the boiling water, actually seized a piece from a
platter, and went off with it.
The name of “ Bearded” Yulture is given to it on account of the
long tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed. The length of its
body is about four feet, and the expanse of its wings from nine to ten.
The second and third primary feathers are the longest.
It lays two eggs,—white, marked with brown blotches.

Family II. Sarcorhamphidm.—(Gr. 2ap£, flesh; beak.)

SA RCORH AMPHOS.

Gryphou (Gr. a GrilTon}, the Condor.

The Condor,—The Sarcorhamphidae are distinguished by a fleshy tuft

growing on their beaxs, somewhat resembling the wattles of a turkey,
168 NATURAL HISTORY.

The genus Sarcorhamphos includes the Condor, the King Vulture, and
the Californian Vulture. These birds are distinguished by the wattles
on their beaks, their naked necks, and the size of the nostrils. The
third primary feather is the longest.
The Condor inhabits the Andes of South America, always choosing
its residence on the summit of a solitary rock. It appears that this bird
does not build any nest, but lays
its two white eggs on tne bare
rock after the manner ol many sea
birds. It is a very large bird, but
by no means the gigantic creature
some former naturalists relate, with
wings twenty feet iu length, and
powerful enough to carry off a
horse. The real expanse of wing
is about nine or ten feet, and the
length of the bird about four feet.
It is, however, exceedingly strong
and tenacious of life. Two Con¬
dors will attack and kill the llama,
or even the puma; for by their re¬
peated buffeting and pecking they
weary it so completely that it
yields to their perseverance.

Papa, the King Vulture.

The King Vulture is also a
native of South America, seldom
if ever being seen north of Florida. Travellers relate that this species
keeps the other vultures under subjection, and does not suffer them
to approach a dead animal until he has completely satisfied his own
appetite, which is certainly none of the smallest.

We now arrive at the true Vultures. These birds are the repre¬
sentatives of the carrion-devouring animals, such as the hyenas, wild
dogs, &c. They however do not, as the hyenas and wild dogs, attack
living animals. The neck of the Vulture is almost naked, very slightly
sprinkled with down, and from the formation of the lower part of the
neck, the bird is enabled to draw its head almost under the feathers of
its shoulders, so that a hasty observer would conclude that the creature
had no neck at all.
The marvellous quickness with which the vultures discover a dead
animal has caused many discussions among naturalists as to the sense
employed; some, as Audubon, declaring entirely for sight, and others, as
Water ton, asserting that the scent of putrid animal matter leads the
vultures to their prey.
 JNATUKAJ. I1I8TOKY. 169
He especially ridicules one experiment tried by Audubon, by stuffing
a deer’s hide, and placing it in the open air. The vultures soon came to
the stuffed skin, and one of them tore open the skin, just as if the
animal had been really lying dead, and continued to pull out large quan¬
tities of straw until it became tned and went away. Audubon argues
from this experiment, that the vultures were led to the bait by the sight,
and not by the scent, or they would not have been so taken in as to

Family III. . Vulturidse.—(Lat. Vultur. Vulture kind.)

Sub-family a. Vulturince.
O Y PR.

Fulvus (Lat. tawny), the Griffon Vulture.

work for so long a time at a stuffed skin However, few people see the
same incident in the same light, and Wat.erton’s inferences are widely
different from those drawn by Audubon. He declares that the experi¬
ment of stuffing a deer’s hide, and placing it exposed in the open air,
was by no means conclusive, as the hide, however dry, must have given
out some odour, and the vulture certainly acted very properly in pull¬
ing out the straw, and endeavouring to get at the inside.
The probability is that both senses are used, one aiding the other; for
in another experiment, where a dead hog was hidden under canes and
briars, aumbers of vultures were seen sailing in all directions over the
170 NATURAL HISTORY.

spot, evidently directed by the scent, but unable to discover by their

eyes the exact position of the animal. The olfactory nerves of the Vul¬
ture are beautifully developed, so that Waterton had reason for his
pathetic remark,—“ I never thought I should have lived to see this bird
deprived of its nose.”
The Griffon Vulture* is found in almost all parts of the old world.
It is one of the largest of its group, measuring upwards of four feet in
length. Like most of the vultures, it does not appear to move its wings
while flying, but soars on expanded pinions in large circles, apparently
gaining the necessary impetus by the movements of its head and body,
just as an accomplished skater uses but little force in his various evolu¬
tions—an imperceptible inclination of the head, or sway of the body,
sufficing to keep up the impetus gained at starting, and to bring him
round in any direction he chooses.
Vultures are generally protected by the natives of the countries where
they reside on account of their great utility in clearing away the putrid
animal matter, which would otherwise be exceedingly injurious as well as
disagreeable. The Turkey Buzzard or John Crow (Cathartes Aura), or
Jamaican Vulture, is protected by a fine of five pounds, inflicted on any
one who destroys the bird within a certain distance of the principal
towns. Waterton’s account of this bird is very interesting, and well
worthy of notice. There are many species of vultures inhabiting dif¬
ferent countries, but their habits as well as their forms are so similar
that a detailed description of each is needless.

Eagles.—The Vultures seem to hold the same place among birds as

the Hyenas among the Mammalia; and in like manner the Ealconidae fill
the same position in the ornithological kingdom, as do the Felidae among
the quadrupeds. The beak of this family is strong and curved, and the
feet furnished with sharp talons, just as the Eelidae are armed with long
sharp teeth and powerful claws. The Ealconidae differ from the Vul-
turidae in having feathered necks, and in killing their prey themselves,
and devouring it while fresh.
At the head of the Ealconidae the Eagles are placed. In them the
wings are large, powerful, and slightly rounded, the fourth primary
feather being longest. The feet of the genus Aquila are feathered to
the toes.
The Golden Eagle is found in most parts of Europe, and is not un¬
common in Great Britain, especially in the mountainous parts of Scotland
and the Hebrides. The flight of this magnificent bird is peculiarly
beautiful and imposing, but its gait when on land is rather awkward; for
its long talons encumber it in the same manner that the Sloth and Great
Ant-Eater are impeded by their long curved claws when they attempt to
walk with anv rapidity.
* See p. 169
THE GOLDEN EAGLE. P. 171
 NATURAL, HISTORY-. 171
Its food is usually sea birds and the smaller quadrupeds, such as hares,
rabbits, &c., but it does not hesitate to carry off young lambs, or some¬
times to destroy a sickly sheep. Some instances have been related of
children that have been carried away by this eagle, but they are very
doubtful. Eagles certainly have pounced upon children, and carried them

Family IV. . . . Falcomdae.

Sub-family a. . . Aquillnce.

AquIla_(L::t. an Eagle.)

Chrysaetos (Gr. XfjvoatTus, Golden Eagle), tlce Golden Eagle.

a little way, but there are no authenticated accounts of children having

oeen actually taken to the eagle’s nest, although there are many pretty
6tories founded on such a supposition.
It generally hunts in pairs, one eagle watching from some height
while the other courses along the ground, and drives the game from the
bushes. The male and female remain together all the year, and very
probably for life. It lays two eggs of a yellowish white colour with pale
brownish spots, on a nest composed of a great mass of sticks, rushes,
and grass, and the young are fledged about the end of July. While the
young are in the nest it is very dangerous to approach the spet., as the
Eagles are then extremely fierce and daring.
172 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Rev. Mr. Inglis gives the following account of an adventure with
an eagle :—“ The farmer of Glenmark, whose name was Miln, had been
out one day with his gun, and coming upon an eagle’s nest, he made
a noise to start her and have a shot. She was not at home, however,
and so Miln, taking off his shoes, began to ascend, gun in hand. When
about half-way up, and in a very critical situation, the eagle made her
appearance, bringing a plentiful supply to the young which she had in
her nest. Quick as thought she darted upon the intruder, with a ter¬
rific scream. He was clinging to the rock by one hand, with scarcely
any footing. Making a desperate effort, however, he reached a ledge,
while the eagle was now so close that he could not shoot at her. A lucky
thought struck him: he took off his bonnet and threw it at the eagle,
which immediately flew after it to the foot of the rock. As she was
returning to the attack, finding an opportunity of taking a steady aim,
he shot her.”
The eye of this bird, and of most of the birds of prey, is provided
with an arrangement for enabling it to see a.11 object near or at a great dis¬
tance. The old tale of the eagle delighting to gaze at the sun is equally
poetical and false, the true fact being that the eye is shaded from the
sun by the projecting eyebrow. As to the nictitating membrane, which
some assert to be given to the
PandIon (Gr. Proper name).
Eagle in order to enable it to
gaze at the sun, all birds have
it, and the owl, who is blinded
by ordinary daylight, possesses
it in perfection.
The feet of the genus Pan-
dion are naked, armed with
very long curved talons, the
outermost of which can be drawn
together, so as to hold their
slippery prey. The wings are
ample, and the second and third
primary feathers the longest.

The Osprey, or Fishing

Hawk, is spread over the whole
of Europe, part of Asia, and
some portions of North Ame¬
haliagtus (Gr. "AAy, the sea, ae-rds, an
rica. As its name imports, its
Eagle), the Osprey. food consists entirely of fish,
which it obtains by dashing into
the water, and seizing them with its curved talons. The Osprey,
although it takes the fish, is not the only bird that has a predilection for
that diet, as the bald-headed eagle frequently waits until the osprey has
seized the prey, and then deprives him of it. I should like to present
 NATURAL HISTORY. 173
my readers with the entire spirited passage from Wilson’s Ornithology,
describing the chase and capture, but as want of space compels me to
compress as much as possible, there will only be room for a very small
extract. He relates that the eagle, after watching the osprey as it
dashes into the water after its finny prey, starts off in pursuit as it
emerges, bearing a fish in its talons. “ Each exerts his utmost to mount
above the other, displaying, in these rencontres, the most elegant and sub*
lime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is
just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream,
probably of despair and houest execration, the latter drops his fish: the
eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim,
descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the
water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods.”
When the Osprey plunges after its finny prey, it never attempts to
seize them while they are leaping out of the water, but plunges down¬
wards with such force, that it disappears below the surface, throwing up
the foam around it.
Its nest is made of an enormous heap of sticks, grass, &c., laid among
the branches of a tree, and large enough to make a fair cart-load. In
this nest it lays its eggs, which are a yellowish white, sprinkled with
brown blotches.
The length of this bird is about two feet, and the expanse of its wings
about five feet and a half. Its feet are of a pale greyish blue colour, which
unfortunately fades in a stuffed spe¬
ITALIAETTJS.
cimen. Indeed, it is generally useless
to attempt to obtain the slightest
conception of the colours of mem¬
brane or skin from stuffed animals.
The ears, lips, and eyelids of quad¬
rupeds, always present a most
miserable appearance, while the legs
and heads of birds look equally
wretched from the same cause. The
skin not only loses its colour, and
assumes a dingy brown hue, but it
also shrivels up, and is puckered up
into wrinkles, that entirely obliterate
it former appearance while the
animal was living; even a very few
hours will make this change.

The White-headed Eagle, or

Bald Eagle, as it is called by Wil- Leucoceph&lus (Gr. AewoK^aAoi,
son, inhabits most parts of America, white-headed), the White-headed Eagle.
and especially frequents the cataract of Kiagara. It is very accommo¬
dating in its appetite, and preys indiscriminately on lambs, pigs, swans.
174 NATURAL history.

and the fish whi:h, as related above, it takes away irorn the unfortunate
osprey. Sometimes it can take fish honourably for itself in shallow
water, by wading as far as it can, and snatching up the fish with its
beak. Audubon gives a splendid description of the chase of a swan by
an eagle, but want of space again prevents its insertion.
Like the Golden Eagle, this bird lives constantly with its mate, and
hunts in company. It lays from two to four eggs, of a dull white
colour, in a huge nest placed on a tall tree.
The claws of this bird are grooved beneath, and the hind claw is the
longest. The feet are half-feathered, and the fourth primary feather of
the wing is the longest. When full grown, the general colour of the
bird is a deep brownish black, but its head, neck, tail, and upper tail
coverts are white.

The Buzzard.—The family of the Buzzards are distinguished by

their short beaks, large rounded wings, and squared tails. They all live
on small animals, reptiles, and various insects.
The Common Buzzard occurs through-
Sub-family c. Buteonince.—(Lat. out most of Europe and part of Asia,
Buteo, a Buzzard.) being frequently found in England.
BUTEO. When searching for food, it rests upon
some high branch, keeping a keen watch
on the ground, and waiting patiently
until some small animal, such as a rat
or young rabbit, makes its appearance,
when it instantly sweeps down from its
elevation, seizes its prey without set¬
tling on the ground, and returns, if not
disturbed, to the same spot, very much
in the same manner that the fly-catcher
may be observed to act.
It generally builds in high trees, but
has been known to make its nest among
rocks. Its eggs are usually three in
number, of a whitish colour, spotted
with pale brown, and almost devoid of
the peculiar red tinge that generally
characterises the eggs of the diurnal
birds of prey. The length of this bird
is from twenty to twenty-two inches:
the fourth primary feather is the longest
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the
Buzzard The Honey Buzzard.—The genus
Pernis is distinguished by the feathered
lorum or band round the eyes, The Honey Buzzard is found in the
warmer parts of Europe and in Asia, seldom visiting our shores.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 175
Sub-iamily d. Milvlnce (Lat. Milvus, a Kite). Its food does not consist of
Pernis.—(Gr. irepitris, a Hawk.) honey, as its name might
seem to indicate, hut of bees,
wasps, and their larvae. In
the stomach of one that
was shot in Scotland, a great
number of bees and grubs
were found, but no honey or
wax. It does not, however,
refuse small quadrupeds, or
sometimes small birds, if
pressed by hunger. It is a
bird of passage, leaving Eu¬
rope at the commencement
of winter. Its nest is built
in high trees, and its eggs
are two or three in number,
grey, spotted with red at
Apivorus (Lat. Bee-eating), the Honey Buzzard. one encj au(j surrounded
with a red band. Its length is about two feet, and the expanse of its
wings fifty-two inches. The third primary feather is the longest.
Milvus.—(Lat a Kite.)
The Kite, Glede,
or Gled, is not un¬
common in England,
and is spread over
Europe, Asia, and Nor¬
thern Africa. It is
especially hated by the
farmer for its depre¬
dations on his poultry,
and its appearance is
the signal fora general
outcry among the ter¬
rified poultry, who per¬
ceive it long before
the keenest-eyed man
can distinguish it from
a casual spot in the
distant sky. The
sportsman also de¬
tests it for the havoc
which it makes among
the game, — possibly
the kite hates the Regalis (Lat. royal), the Kite.
sportsman for the same reason.
176 NATURAL HISTORY.

It builds in tall trees, and lays three eggs, white, spotted with reddish
brown at the larger end. Its length is rather more than two feet; the
fourth primary feather is the longest, the first and seventh nearly equal.

The Swallow-tailed Ealcon is an inhabitant of North America, but

has been more than once,taken in England. It feeds on the wing, like
the swallows, pursuing the large moths and other insects with an east-
and rapidity for which its formation eminently fits it. These insects are,
however, not the only food of this bird. Audubon mentions that “ their
principal food is large grasshoppers, grass caterpillars, small snakes,
lizards and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, sometimes seeming
to secure a snake, and holding it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour
it in the air.” This act is shown in the figure below. Its nest is built
on the summit of an aged pine or oak, and its eggs are from four to six
in number, of a greenish white colour, irregularly spotted with brown
at the large end. The length of this bird is two feet. It should properly
be called the Swallow-tailed Kite, as it belongs to the family of the kites.
Elanoides.—(Gr. «=Aav6s, a Kite. lilce a kite.)

Furcatua (Eat. forked), the Swallow-tailed Falcon.

Falcons.—In the genus Ealco, the second primary feather is the

longest, the first and third being of equal length. The Gyr-talcon may
be considered the type of the British Ealconidae. It is, however.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 177

extremely rare in England, those intended for hawking being principally

brought from Iceland. On the rocky coasts of Norway and Iceland its
eggs are laid. These birds are Sub-family e. Fulcomnce.
very courageous in defending Falco.—(Lat. a Falcon.)
their young. A pair of them
attacked Dr. Richardson while
he was climbing near their
nest, flying in circles round him,
and occasionally dashing at
his face with loud screams.
The entire length of the Gyr-
falcon is twenty-three inches.

The Peregrine Falcon,

an inhabitant of most parts of
Europe, Asia, and South
America, was, in the palmy
days of hawking, one of the
favourite falcons chosen for
that sport. Its strength and
swiftness are very great, en¬
abling it to strike down its
prey with great ease ; indeed,
it has been known to disable
hve partridges in succession.
From its successful pursuit
of ducks the Americans call . /T ^,
it the Duck Hawk. Gyr-faleo (Lat.) the Oyr-fateon.
There is a peculiarity in the method of attack which this bird employs
when pursuing small game. Instead of merely dashing at its prey,
and grasping it with its claws, the Peregrine Falcon strikes its victim
with its breast, and actually stuns it with the violence of the blow
before seizing it with its claws. The boldness of the Peregrine Falcon
is so great that it was generally employed to take the formidable Heron.
After the Heron had been roused from his contemplations by some
marsh or river, the Falcon, who had previously been held hooded on its
master’s hand, was loosed from its bonds and cast off. A contest then
generally took place between the Heron and the Falcon, each striving
to ascend above the other. In this contest the Falcon was always
victorious, and after it had attained a sufficient altitude, it swept, ov
“ stooped,” as the phrase was, upon the Heron. When the Falcon had
closed with its prey, they both came to the ground together, and the
sportsman’s business was to reach the place of conflict as soon as pos¬
sible, and assist the Falcon in vanquishing its prey. Sometimes, how¬
ever, the wary Heron contrived to receive its enemy on the point of its
sharp beak, and transfixed it by its own impetus.
178 NATURAL HISTORY.

FALCO. It changes the colour of its

plumage several times before it
arrives at full maturity, and in
the days of falconry was known
by different names, such as “ hag¬
gard ” when wild, “ eyass,” “ red
falcon” when young, “tiercel”
or “tassel-gentle” when a full-
grown male; a term forcibly re¬
calling the words of Juliet, “Oh
for a falconer’s voice, to lure this
tassel-gentle back again! ”
It builds on ledges of rocks,
laying four eggs of a reddish
brown colour. Its length is from
fifteen to eighteen inches.

The Hobby is a summer visitor

in this country, appearing in April
Peregrinus (Lat. wandering), (he and leaving in October. It was
Peregrine Falcon. formerly trained to fly at larks,
quails, and other small birds When wild it seems to feed principally
on small birds and large beetles, the
'Hypotriorchis.
common dor-beetle being a very favourite
(Gr. 'Yiroroiooxys.) article of food. It builds its nest at the
summit of a high tree, usually appro¬
priating the deserted habitation of a
crow. The eggs are four in number, of
a dirty white colour speckled with red¬
dish brown. The length of the bird is
from twelve to fourteen inches.

The Merlin, the least of our Falcons,

was considered in olden times as the
lady’s bird, every rank being obliged to
content itself with the bird allotted to its
peculiar station, royalty alone having
the privilege to bear an eagle into the
field.
The spirited little Merlin seizes with
great dexterity small birds such as
buntings, thrushes, and blackbirds, itself
really hardly larger than its prey, its
entire length being barely eleven inches.
Even the partridge falls before a trained
Subbuteo (Lat. the Hobby.)
bird. Its eggs are four in number, of
 NATURAL HISTORY. 179
a reddish mottled brown, laid in a rude HYPOTRIORCniS.
nest among the heather.

The Kestrel, or Windhover as

it is often called, frequently falls a
victim to the mistaken zeal of the
farmer, who takes every opportunity
of destroying it, as he confounds it
with the sparrow-hawk. The natural
food of the Kestrel is field-mice, so
that the farmer should protect instead
of remorselessly murdering his bene¬
factor. These birds are not uncommon.
Many live close to Oxford, and especially
in Bagley Wood, where they may be seen
almost daily. They also live in great
numbers among the precipices in Dove-
dale. Their nest is usually built in the
deserted mansion of a crow or magpie.
The eggs are four in number, of a dark
reddish brown. The length is from yEsiilon (Gr. AiaaAuv), the

thirteen to fifteen inches. Merlin.

Tinnunculus.—(Lat. a Kestrel.)

Alaudarius (Lat. of a Lark), the Kestrel.

The Goshawk is found plentifully in most of the wooded districts of

Europe, but is comparatively rare in the British Isles. If seldom breeds
sou.h of Scotland, but its nest is not unfrequently found in that country,
built upon lofty trees, principally fiis, and containing three eggs of a
bluish white colour with reddish brown marks. VVnen in pursuit of
N 2
 180 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family/. Accipitrince
Astur.— (Lat. proper name.)

Palumbarius (Lat. of the Dove), the Goshawk.

prey, it strikes its victim to the ground by the force with which it dashes
through the air. Should the terrified quarry hide itself, the Goshawk
takes up its station on some elevated spot, and there patiently waits
until the game takes wing. Its principal food consists of hares, squirrels,
pheasants, and other large birds, which its great strength enables it to
destroy. Its length is about two feet; the fourth primary feather is the
longest.

The Sparrow-hawk is common throughout Europe. It displays

great pertinacity in pursuit of its prey, which it will chase for a long
while, skimming along a few feet above the ground. One of these
hawks was known to dasli through a window in pursuit of a small bird.
When taken young it is easily tamed, and will then associate with the
most incongruous companions. A gentleman had a young Sparrow-
hawk which used to live in his dovecote among his pigeons, would ac¬
company them in their flights, and was uneasy if separated from its
strange friends.
Although a brave little bird in its wild state, it sometimes becomes
sadly degenerate when domesticated. I had a tame Sparrow-hawk,
which was purchased for the ostensible purpose of frightening birds from
the vegetables in the garden. But unfortunately, his presence was
 NATURAL, HISTORY. 181

rather an attraction than otherwise, for besides the pleasing excitement

caused by mobbing him, he was AccipIter.—(Latp
invaluable to the tomtits, who
always ate his meat if he were not
protected by some human being.
He would fly in terror before the
wagtails, and the tomtits regularly
charged at him when he was fed,
and then made a dash at his saucer
of provisions.
But all tame Sparrow-hawks are
not so demoralised. I know one of
these birds, which, although young,
is the acknowledged master of an
establishment consisting of three
dogs and a cat. He flies at the
dogs if they approach too near his
throne, and sometimes dashes at
them without any apparent reason.
The length of this bird is from Nisus (Lat. proper name),
twelve to fifteen inches. The fourth the Sparrow-hawk.
and fifth primary feathers are the longest. It builds upon lofty trees,
laying five eggs, of a whitish colour blotched with variable reddish
brown markings, usually collected towards the large end, and often
forming a deep reddish irregular band.
The Secretary Bird * derives its name from the tufts of feathers at
the back of its head, which bear a fanciful resemblance to pens stuck
behind the ear. This extraordinary bird, whose true position in ornitho¬
logy has been such a stumbling-block to naturalists, inhabits South Africa,
Senegambia, and the Philippine Islands. Probably a different species
inhabits each of these countries. It feeds on snakes and other reptiles,
of which it consumer an amazing number, and is on that account pro¬
tected. When battling with a snake, it covers itself with one wing as
with a shield, and with the other strikes at the reptile until it falls
senseless, when a powerful blow from the beak splits the snake’s head
asunder, and the vanquished enemy is speedily swallowed. In the crop
of a Secretary bird that was dissected by Le Vaillant were found eleven
large lizards, three serpents, each a yard in length, eleven small tortoises,
and a great quantity of locusts and other insects. Besides these, the
bird had just overcome another serpent, which would in all probability
have been transferred to the same receptacle had it not been killed.
The Secretary is easily tamed, and is then exceedingly useful. It builds
on high trees, laying three large eggs, almost white. Its length ia
about three feet.
See page 181
132 NATURAL HISTORY

Sub-family g. Circincc.
Serpentarius.— (Lat. of a Serpent.)

ReptilivQrus (Lat. Reptile-eating), the Secretary Bird.

The Harriers are remarkable for the peculiar feathered disk round
Circus.—(Lat. a Falcon.) their eyes, something
resembling that of the
owl. The Hen Harrier
is a native of England,
and lives principally
about forests and
heaths. Its length is
about seventeen inches,
the first primary fea¬
ther is very short, the
third or fourth is the
longest.

Owls.—A large round

Uyaneus (Lat. azure), the Hen Harrier.
head, with enormous
eyes looking forward, is a distinguishing mark of the Owl family.
Many species possess two feathery tufts plac d on the head, greatly
 NATURAL HISTORY. 183
resembling horns. The Owls are nocturnal birds, pursuing their prey
by night, and sleeping during the day. In order to enable them te see
their prey, their eyes are enormously
large, and capable of taking in every Sub-order II. Accipitr.es noc¬
turne
ray of light. Their power of vision is
also increased by the method in which Family I. StrigTdge.—(Lnt.Strix,
a Screech-owl. Screech-owl
the eye is fixed in a kind of bony socket,
kind.)
just like the watchmaker’s glass. The
Sub-family a. Surnince.
nictitating membrane is very conspicuous
in these birds. The power of hearing SURNIA.

is also very delicate, and greatly assists

them. In order to protect them from
the cold, they are furnished with a dense
covering of downy feathers, which also
prevent the movements of the wing
from being heard by the wary mouse;
and so noiseless is their flight that they
seem to be borne along by the wind like
a tuft of thistle-down.
The Hawk, or Canada Owl, inhabits
the arctic portions of Asia and America.
Its head is not so round, nor its face
so broad, as those of the other owls, from
which it is also distinguished by its
habit of hunting by day. In face it bears
some resemblance to the harriers. It
builds in trees, and lays two eggs—
white, as are those of all owls. The
eggs of owls are easily distinguished
from other white eggs by a peculiar
roughness of surface, which cannot be Ulula (Lax. howling), the Hawk-
mistaken. The length of the Hawk- owl.
Owl is from fifteen to eighteen inches.

The Snowy Owl* is properly an inhabitant of the north of Europe,

but has more than once been discovered in Great Britain. It is also
found in North America. Wilson relates that it is a good fisher, snatch¬
ing its prey from the water by a sudden grasp of the foot. It also preys
on lemmings, hares, ptarmigans, &c., chasing and striking at them with
its feet. It makes its nest on the ground, and lays three or four white
eggs, of which more than two are seldom hatched. Its length is from
twenty-two to twenty-seven inches, the expanse of wing four feet; the
third primary feather is the longest.
The Burrowing Owl accompanies the prairie dog, and wherever that
* See page 184.
184 NATURAL HISTORY.

Nyctea.—(Gr. Nuktios, nightly.)

Nivea, (Lat. snowy), the Snowy-owl.

animal chooses to live, there is the Burrowing Owl. This singular little
Athene.—(Gr. proper name.) bird finds that to take possession of
the ready-made burrows of the prairie
dog is much more agreeable than to
dig a hole for itself; so it takes
unfurnished lodgings in a deserted
dwelling, undisturbed by anything
except a casual lizard or rattlesnake.
So numerous are these little owls,
that they may be seen in small flocks
seated on the tops of the mounds in
which the entrance of the burrows
is formed. It is said that the owls,
marmots (or prairie-dogs), lizards,
and snakes, all live harmoniously in
one happy family. Such, however,
is not really the case, as the Bur-
_ rowing Owls prefer holes unoccupied
by any other tenant, and have been
Cunicuiaria (Lat. of the Babbit), the seen with something most suspi-
Burrowing Owl. ciously like a young snake struggling
 natural history. 185
in tneir mouths. The bottom of its Sub-family b. Bubonince.
hole is generally comfortably tilled Ephialtes.—(Gr. proper name.)
with dried hay and roots.
The legs of this bird are longer
than those of other owls. It is by
no means large, measuring but ten
inches in length.

The Scops Eared-Owl has been

once or twice found in Yorkshire,
but usually resides in the southern
parts of the Continent. It is re¬
markable for the regularity with
which it utters its monotonous
cry, as if a person were constantly
repeating the letter Q, at regular
intervals of two seconds. It does
not seem to prey upon mice and
other animals, like most of its rela¬
tions, but feeds on large insects, Scops (Gr. SKaiip, an Owl), the Scops
such as beetles and grasshoppers. Eared-owl.
The size of this owl Bubo.—(Lat. an Owl.)
is very small, as it
only measures seven
inches in length ; the
third primary feather
is the longest. It
lavs from two to four
white eggs in a sim¬
ple nest made in a
hollow tree or in a
cleft in the rock.

The Great Eared-

Owl or Eagle Owl,
is the largest of the
family. This powerful
bird,not satisfied with
the “ rats and mice
and such small deer”
which content the
English owls, boldly
attacks young fawns,
hares, and rabbits,
together with small
birds. It inhabits the Maximus (Lat. greatest), the Great Eared-owl
186 NATURAL HISTORY.

north of Europe, but has been several times observed in Great Britain.
It lays its eggs in the clefts of rocks or in ruined buildings. The length
of this bird is upwards of two feet.

The Barn Owl affords another instance of mistaken persecution.

This beautiful and most useful bird, whose carcase we so often see tri
umphantly nailed to the barn, actually feeds upon and destroys in incal
culable numbers the rats and mice which bear it company in its unde¬
served punishment. Waterton remarks, “ When farmers complain that
the Barn Owl destroys the eggs of
Sub-family d. Striglnce.
their pigeons, they lay the saddle on
Strix.—(Lat. a Screech-owl.) the wrong horse. They ought to
put it on the rat. Formerly 1 could
get very few young pigeons till the
rats were excluded from the dovecote.
Since that took place, it has pro¬
duced a great abundance every year,
although the barn owls frequent
it, and are encouraged all around it.
The barn owl merely resorts to it
for repose and concealment. If it
were really an enemy to the dove¬
cote, we should see the pigeons in
commotion as soon as it begins its
evening flight, but the pigeons heed
it not, whereas if the sparrow-hawk
or hobby should make its appearance
the whole community would be up
at once. ... I am amply repaid for
Flammea (Lat.flaming), the Barn-owl. the pains I have taken to protect
and encourage the barn owl; it pays
me an hundred fold by the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys
throughout the year.”
It also devours great numbers of beetles and other insects. It is
ossible that it may, also, destroy young birds, but not probable, as
eathers and birds’ bones are never found among the rejectamenta. It
will, however, when domesticated, devour a dead sparrow or linnet when
presented to it.
Few people know what a little bird this owl really is. The thick
loose plumage is so deceptive, that no one unacquainted with the
structure of the bird would imagine that it is hardly so large as a pigeon.
The head, too, when deprived of its feathery covering, completely loses
its previous aspect, being long and narrow, like that of a hawk. In fact,
few creatures look more contemptible than an owl stripped of its
feathers.
The domestic habits of the bird are very curious. When irritated or
 NATURAL HISTORY. 187
alarmed, it has a habit of snapping its beak loudly, and making a hissing
sound, something like that of a cat when very much provoked. Indeed,
there is something very cat-like in the whole aspect of the owl. Its
round soft looking face, in which are set two great eyes that shine in the
dusk of the evening with an almost phosphoric gleam, and are capable of
taking in every feeble ray of light; its noiseless movements in pursuit of
its prey, all strongly remind the observer of the feline character.
The plumage of this bird is very thick, in order to defend it from the
cold night air, and very soft, in order to admit of its flight with such
silence that even the quick and wary ear of the timid field-mouse may
not perceive the approach of its enemy. This noiselessness is caused by
the formation of the feathers, which, instead of being stiff and smooth,
like those of the diurnal birds of prey, are loose and furnished at their
extremities with a delicate fringe, which completely prevents that rushing
sound which accompanies the flight of the eagle or the hawk.
White, in his Natural History of Selborne, gives some interesting
accounts of the habits of this owl. He watched them leave their homes
about an hour before sunset in search of the mice, which begin to run
about at that time, and saw them quartering their ground like a pointer
dog, with the greatest regularity. He had the curiosity to count the
number of mice caught by a single pair, and found that upon the average,
one was brought to the nest every five minutes. With his usual accuracy
of observation, he noted the manner in which the birds were enabled to
reach their nests, although encumbered with a mouse. Their nest was
made under the roof of the church, so that the owls had to crawl up by
their feet in order to rise under the eaves. This they managed by
perching on the church roof, shifting the mouse from their claws to their
bill, and thus leaving their feet at liberty.
Its method of devouring a mouse is quite different from the mode in
which it eats a bird. If a mouse is given to an owl, the bird seizes it
across the back, and gives it one or two smart bites, much as a terrier
handles a rat. The mouse is then jerked upwards, and caught again head
downwards. A second jerk sends the mouse half down the owl’s throat,
while its tail remains sticking out of the side of its bill, where it is rolled
about as if the owl were smoking. After some time has been spent in
this amusement, another jerk causes the mouse to disappear altogether,
and the owl looks very happy and contented. But if a small bird is
presented to it, the owl tears it up and devours it piecemeal. Such, at
least, was the conduct of a barn-owl belonging to myself.
This bird is easily tamed, if taken young, and is a valuable assistant in
a garden, only a place of refuge must be provided for its retreat during
the day-time, or the little birds will mob it unmercifully.
The Barn Owl lays three or four eggs upon a mass of those pellets
which all the owls disgorge. There is a rough chalky look about the
eggs of the owl, which renders them different from the eggs of all other
birds, from which they can be distinguished bv the touch alone. There
188 NATURAL HISTORY.

is a peculiarity m the domestic economy of this owl, for it often has at

the same time in the nest, young owls almost fledged, and eggs on which
the hen bird is sitting.
The length of the bird is rather more than twelve inches; the second
primary feather is the longest. Its colour is a bright yellowish brown,
marked with dots and lines of various tints, the lines being generally
dark, and the dots light. The under parts of the bird are very variable,
and seldom exactly the same in any two individuals, the white feathers
being sometimes greyish white, sprinkled with brown dots; sometimes
pure white, without any marks at all; and sometimes white very slightlj
dotted indeed.
When it is threatened or attacked, it throws itself on its back and
Qghts vigorously with its claws and bill.

Order II. . . . PASSERES. (Lat. Sparrow kind.)

Tribe I.FISS1ROSTRES.—(Lat. Split-bills.)
Sub-tribe I.. . Fissirostres nocturne.
Family I. . . . Caprimulgldae.—(Lat. Goat-sucker kindA
Sub-family a.. Caprimulgince.
CAPRIMULGUS.

Europaeus (Lat. European), the Goatsucker.

The Accipitres, it will be remembered, possess strong hooked beaks

and sharp curved claws. The foot and head of the Passeres are entirely
 NATURAL HISTORY. 189

different;—the beak being without the lormidable curved tip, and the
claws being of a quiet and peaceful character.
The first tribe of this order, the Pissirostres, are so called from the
peculiar formation of their mouths, which appear as if they had been slit
up from their ordinary termination to beyond the eyes, much resembling
the mouth of a frog. In the insect-eating Pissirostres this formation is
admirably adapted for capturing their active prey, and in the Kingfishers
it is equally adapted for securing the slippery inhabitants of the waters.
The Caprimulgidm are nocturnal in their habits, chasing their insect
prey by night or at the dusk, when the chaffers and large moths are on
the wing. In order to prevent the escape of the insect when taken, the
mouth is fringed with long stiff bristles, called “ vibrissse.” The name
of Goat-sucker is derived from a silly notion that they suck goats, a piece
of credulity only equalled by the hedgehog’s supposed crime of sucking
cows, and the accusation against the cat of sucking the breath of children.
The genus Caprimulgus is furnished with a kind of comb on the middle
claw of its foot, but for what purpose is not clearly ascertained. The
power of wing in these birds is very great, and hardly surpassed by that
of the swallow, both birds obtaining their food in a similar manner.
The Nightjar, or Goat-sucker, sometimes called the Pern Owl, is
spread over Europe, and is tolerably common in England. It may be
seen at the approach of evening, silently wheeling round the trees,
capturing the nocturnal moths and beetles; then occasionally settling
and uttering its jarring cry. When flying, the bird sometimes makes its
wings meet over its back, and brings them together with a smart snap,
it arrives in this country at the beginning of May, and leaves in
December. It makes no nest, but lays two mottled eggs on the bare
ground. Its length is ten inches. The Whip-poor-Will and the Chuck-
Will’s-Widow both belong to this family.
These two birds derive their singular names from their cry, winch is
said closely to imitate the words that have been assigned to them as
their names. Of course the English language must feel itself highly
honoured that an American bird should prefer the language of tha
“Britisher” to that of the Delaware or the Sioux. Both the birds fly
by night, or rather in the dusk of the evening, and like the owl are much
distressed by being forced to face a brilliant light. The Chuck-Will’s-
Widow is partially migratory, and dwells in the more southern parts of
America during the winter. Audubon relates that this bird applies its
enormous mouth to rather an unexpected use, viz. that of removing its
eggs if it finds that they have been disturbed. Of this curious
circumstance he was an eye-witness. He saw the bird that first
discovered that an intruder had touched the eggs wait for its mate, and
then saw each of them take an egg in its mouth and convey it off.
Martins.—The Hirundinidse are remarkable for their great power of
* I have seen it near Amiens, accompanying a train, and apparently hawking after the
saoths that were attracted by the lights.
 190 NATURAL HISTORY.

wing, their wide mouths, aud short legs. In the genus Cypselus, the
toes are all directed forward, and the tarsus is thickly feathered. The
whole of their plumage is constructed with a view to rapid and active
motion. The feathers of their bodies are firm and close, so as not to
impede their passage through the air; their wing feathers are long, stiff
and pointed, and their tails are long and forked; all which properties we
know to belong to great speed.

Sub-tribe II. . . Fissirostr.es diurnje.

Family II. ... Hirundinldse.—(Lat. Hirunclo, a Swallow. Swallcw kind!

Sub-family a. . Cypullnce.

Cypselus.—(Gr. /nh/zeAos, a Martin.)

\r»

Melba. {The Alpine Swift.)

The Alpine Swipt has several times been found in England, and is
therefore admitted into the calendar of British birds. It may at once
be distinguished from the common Swift by the white throat and abdo¬
men, its breast being crossed by a brown band.
Its nest is generally built in the crevices of lofty towers, and is made
of straw and moss, glued together and hardened by some matter fur¬
nished by the bird, which when dry forms a compact mass.
The length of this bird is rather more than eight inches.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 191
The Common Swift, popularly called “ Jack Screamer,” is the largest
and swiftest of the British Hirundinidse. It seems to spend the whole
day on the wing, wheeling with wonderful velocity, and occasionally
soaring until it is hardly perceptible, but screaming so shrilly that the
sound is plainly heard. The number of insects wnmh it destroys is
almost incredible; they are retained in a kind of pouch under the
tongue, and when taken out, can hardly be pressed into a tea-spoon. These

CYPSELUS.

A.pus (Gr. airovs, without feet), the Swift.

are intended for the young, and the supply is constantly renewed. It lays
from two to four long white eggs, on a nest composed of grass, straws,
feathers, silk, &c. The colour of this bird is a dusky black. The length
is eight inches, the expanse of wing eighteen inches, and its weight
barely one ounce.
The foot of the Swift is of a singular form, unlike that of any other
bird. All the toes are directed forward, there being no hinder toe at all.
Some naturalists say that the object of this formation is that the bird
may be enabled to climb up the eaves under which its nest is made. If,
however, that is the case, we may ask, Why is not the same shape of foot
found in the sparrows and other birds, which build in precisely similar
localities ?

The Chimney Martin or Swallow is the most common of its family,

and too well known to need much description. When skimming over
192 NATURAL HISTORY.

ponds or rivers in search of insects, the snap with which it closes its bill
may easily be heard. In the course of ’ts flight over the surface, it also
dashes up the water with its wings, which action gave rise to the opinion
that Swallows passed the winter under water, and rose in the spring. It
Sub-family b. Hirundinlnce. is so eager after its prey,
that it may be easily
Hirundo.—(Lat.)
caught with a rod and
line baited with a fly,
after the manner of
anglers.
When I was at school,
we used to knock down
plenty of swallows with
stones in the follow¬
ing manner. We went
to a bridge, or some
such place, where many
swallows were flying
about. Where they ap¬
peared in the greatest
Rustica (Lat. rustic), the Chimney Martin. numbers we threw a
small white stone, and immediately hurled a larger one after it. The
swallows all dashed at the little stone, taking it for some entomological
luxury, and one or two were generally struck down by the big stone
following in its wake.
It breeds twice in the year, building a nest of mud against a wall or
other convenient situation, and laying five very pale pink eggs, spotted
with reddish brown, the pink of which vanishes when the egg is emptied
of its contents, as it is caused by the light passing through the yolk, and
has to be renewed by artificial means if the egg is placed in a collection.
Such is also the case with most small light-coloured eggs. The bird
appears regularly to return, year by year, to its old nest. The whole of
its upper surface is a deep purplish black, its forehead and throat chest¬
nut.
Humboldt, in his “ Travels,” relates that he saw a swallow perch on
the rigging of the vessel when it was one hundred and twenty miles from
the land.
The Sand Martin is the smallest of our British Swallows, but makes
its appearance before any of its brethren. It principally builds in cliffs
of sandstone, boring holes three feet or more in depth, and often winding
in their course, most probably to avoid a casual stone or spot too hard
for its bill, which, although small and apparently unfitted for the task,
makes its way through the sandstone with extraordinary rapidity.
Where a convenient sand-cliff exists, hundreds of these pretty little birds
aay be seen working away at their habitations, or dashing about in the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 193
air, looking at a distance like white butterflies, and occasionally returning
to the rock, which is often completely honeycombed by their labours.
Near Ashbourn in Derbyshire there are plenty of these rocks, where
the Sand Martins build „ w
m myriads, tolerably Cot,le.-(Qt. k»t/a«, twittering.)
safe except from the
school-boy, who will
clamber up and down
the crumbling surface,
and thrust his arm into
the holes, perfectly re¬
gardless of the danger,
and content with grasp¬
ing a tuft of grass or a
root of blackberry as an
anchorage. 1 have seen
the Sand Martins there

sparrow - hawk°bbl vidio! RiParIa (Lat- °f a bank)> the Sand Martin.

after being buffeted about for some time, retaliated by seizing a too
daring Martin and carrying it off, when the whole scene was changed—
the triumphant jeerings turned into cries of fear, and the place was
deserted except by the crafty hawk and his screaming prey. The eggs
are five, pinkish white, with an almost imperceptible dotting of red.

The Martin or Win- Chelidon.—(Gr. XeAibalv, a Swallow.)

dow Swallow reaches
this country a little
after the swallow, and.
almost invariably takes
possession of its old
nest, which it repairs
about May. It lays
five eggs closely resem¬
bling those of the sand
martin. About Septem¬
ber immense numbers
may be seen perched
upon houses and trees
preparatory to their de- Urblca (Lat. of the city), the Martin.
parture. Thedomeofthe . ,
Radcliffe Library at Oxford is a favourite assembling place for these birds,
where they may be seen lingeiing for several days after most of their
fellows have vanished. At these times every available point is covered
with them. The dome of St. Paul’s is also a favoured spot.
M
194 NATURAL HISTORY,

The Esculent Swallow, whose nests are considered such a delicacy

among the Chinese, builds its singular habitation in the sidesof almost
inaccessible cliffs, so that the business of procuring them is a most
dangerous task. The nature of the jelly-like transparent material of
which, the nests are made is not yet known. The nests are found in
Java.

Family III. . Coraciidte.

Sub-family a. Coraciince.
Cohacias. — (Gr. Kopaidas, like a Raven.)

Garrula (Lat. talkative), the Roller.

The Roller is plentifully found in most parts of Europe, but has

seldom been seen in England. Its mouth is slightly furnished with
vibrissae or long bristly hairs, like those of tlie nightjar. It is a very shy
bird, frequenting the depths of the forests. It builds its nest in hollow
trees—some say in banks—and lays from four to seven white eggs, very
like those of the kingfisher. Its legs are short, and the upper mandible
is bent over the lower at the extremity. The colouring is brilliant, shades
of blue and green prevailing. Its length is about thirteen inches.

The Trogon.—The magnificent family of the Trogons stands preemi¬

nent in beauty and brilliancy of plumage, the usual tint being a metallic
golden green, boldly contrasted with scarlet, black, and brown. The toes
ure placed two behind and two before, like those of the woodpeckers.
The Resplendent Trogon is the most gorgeous of all this gorgeous
 NATURAL HISTORY. 195
ramily. Its long and gracefully curved tail, nearly three feet long; the
whole of the upper surface, and the throat, are a glowing green; the
breast and under parts are bright crimson; the middle feathers of the
tail black, and the outer feathers wnite. This splendid bird is an inhabi¬
tant of Mexico, and was used by the Mexican nobles as an ornament to
their head-dress.
From the feathers of these and other Trogons the mosaic pictures of
the Mexicans were made. One of these, most delicately and beautifully

Family IV. Trogonidae.

Trogon.— (Gr. rpciyu, I gnaw.)

Resplendens (Lat. shining), the Resplendent Trogon.

executed, containing many figures, is now in the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford, and is there said to be made of humming-birds’ feathers. The
subject is “ Christ fainting under the cross.” The whole picture is
about the size of the palm of the hand, and the figures are barely half
an inch in height.
This is a very difficult bird to stuff, on account of the delicate texture
of the skin, which is so fragile, that it tears almost as easily as wet
blotting paper.
o 2
196 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Kingfisher.—The peculiarities of their form immediately distin¬

guish the Kingfishers from other birds. The disproportionate length ot
the bill is tlieir chief characteristic.
The Common Kingfisher is found in most parts of England. Scarcely
,, , anything more beautiful can
Family V. Alcediniche.—(Lat. Alcedo, -be conceived- than
- ■ **■
- metallic
the
a Kingfisher.)
glitter of its plumage as it
Sub-family a. A Icedimnce. shoots along the banks of
ALCEDO. the river, or darts into the
waterafter its strugglingprey.
Its usual method of fishing
is by placing itself on a
stump or stone overhanging
the water, from which spot it
watches for the unsuspecting
fish beneath. After a fish is
caught, the bird kills it by
beating it several times
against its resting-place, and
then swallowing it, head
foremost. Sometimes it does
not exercise sufficient caution
in its devouring propensities.
A heedless Kingfisher was
Hispida (Lat. rough), the Kingfisher. exhibited at the Ashmolean
Society, which had been
found dead with a peculiarly large minnow firmly fixed in its throat.
It lays its eggs in holes bored in the banks of rivers or ponds, and
appears to build no nest. A pair of kingfishers, for two successive
years, inhabited a bank of a very small stream, little more than a drain,
at Little Hinton,Wiltshire, where no fish lived, nor were there any to be
found within a considerable distance.
The eggs are from four to seven in number, of a pearly whiteness, and
remarkably globular in shape. In many parts of the country it is fully
believed that if a kingfisher is dried and suspended by the beak, the breast
will always turn in the direction of the wind. This belief has caused the
death of no few kingfishers, whose suspended bodies may be seen in many
a cottage, their brilliant blue and red plumage rotating in a most im¬
partial manner. The length of this bird is seven inches.

The Bee-eater is common on the Continent, but seldom visits this

country. In appearance it is not very unlike the kingfisher, both in
shape and its brilliant colours. It has long been celebrated for the
havoc it causes among the inhabitants of the hive, although it does not
restrict itself to those insects, but pursues wasps, butterflies, &c., on the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 197
wing, with great activity. Like the kingfisher, it lays its eggs in holes
bored in banks. The eggs are white and from four to seven in number
Its length is eleven inches.

Family VI. . . Meropfdae.

Sub-family a. . Meroplnce.
Merops.— (Gr. Mepoip.)

Apiaster (Lat. Bee-eater).

The Hoopoe,* one of the most elegant birds that visit this country, is
unfortunately a very rare guest, and seldom, if ever, breeds here. Its
beautiful crest can be raised or depressed at pleasure, but is seldom
displayed unless the bird is excited from some cause. Its food consists of
insects, which it first batters aud moulds into an oblong mass, and then
swallows, with a peculiar jerk of the head. In Yarrell’s British Birds,
there is a very interesting account of a tame Hoopoe in the possession of
Mr. Bartlett.
In France Hoopoes are very common, and may be seen examining old
and rotten stumps for the insects that invariably congregate in such
places. There they may be seen in flocks, but they never seem to
come over to England in greater numbers than one pair at a time.
M. Bechstein gives a curious account of the attitude assumed by tne
Hoopoe on perceiving a large bird in the air. “ As soon as they per¬
ceived a raven or even a pigeon, they were on their bellies in the twink¬
ling of an eye, their wings stretched out by the side of the head, so that
the large quill feathers touched the head, leaning on the back with the
bill pointing upwards. In this curious posture they might be taken ior
an old rag 1 ”
* See page jys.
198 NATURAL HISTORY.

These birds of which he is speaking are two young Hoopoes whom he

mid taken from the nest and was rearing. They lived for some time, but
both died of civilization. The
Tribe II. TENUIROSTRES.—(Lat. Slen¬ female had a habit of drag¬
der-billed.)
ging her food about the floor,
Family I. Upupidjc.— (Gr. uwoif/, contracted
so that it became covered
from, 6 vE7roi|/, the Hoopoe, Hoopoe kind.)
Sub-family a. Upupince. with rubbish. This formed a
hard mass nearly the size of
UPfrPA.
an ordinary nut in the
bird’s stomach, something
like the balls of hair found in
the stomach of a cow, and
soon killed the poor Hoopoe.
The male bird lived through
the winter, but becoming
attached to the warmth of
the stove, its beak became
so unnaturally dry, that the
two mandibles separated from
each other and curved out¬
wards, having an interval o{
nearly an inch between their
tips. The bird of course
soon died of absolute starva¬
tion.
The Hoopoe lays from four
to seven grey eggs in the
hollow of a tree. Its length
is one foot.

Epops (Gr. “'Erro\p), the Hoopoe.

The Humming-bird.—These little living gems are exclusively found

in the New World, especially about the tropical parts, becoming gradually
scarcer as we recede from the tropics in either direction. Only two
species are known to exist in the northern parts, but in the central
portions and in the islands about Florida they absolutely swarm. They
glance about in the sunshine, looking like streaks of brilliant light, and
so rapid is the vibration of their fine and elastic wings, that when hover¬
ing over a flower, a humming or buzzing sound is produced, from
which peculiarity the name of Humming-bird has been given them in
almost every language. Waterton’s description of the appearance of the
Humming-bird in the sun is very characteristic.
“ Though least in size, the glittering mantle of the Humming-bird
 NATURAL HISTORY. iyy
entitles it to the first place in the list of the birds of the New World.
It may truly be called the Bird of Paradise; and had it existed in the
Old World, it would have claimed the title instead of the bird which has
now the honour to bear it. Family II. Trochilidae.
See it darting through the
Trochilus.—(Gr. TpoylAo?.)
air almost as quick as
thought! now it is within a
yard of your face—in an
instant gone—now it flut¬
ters from flower to flower to
sip the silver dew—it is
now a ruby—now a topaz—
now an emerald—now all
burnished gold.”
It is a singular fact, that
a common insect called the
Humming-bird Moth is form¬
ed on precisely the same
principle, and flies in just
the same manner. This moth
is furnished, like the Hum¬
ming-oird, with rigid sharp
wings ; instead of the long Colubris (Lat. like a snake), the Ruby-thruaied
Humming-bird.
lender bill and longer tongue
jf the Humming-bird, the moth is furnished with an exceedingly long
and flexible proboscis, which it uses in the same manner, i.e. in thrusting
into the interior of flowers while the creature is hovering above them.
The moth also possesses a kind of moveable tail, wherewith to direct its
course. The description of a Humming-bird hovering over a flower will
exactly serve for the moth, save that the moth lacks the brilliant plumage
of the bird. Gardens are a great attraction to this moth, and if the ob¬
server is very quiet, while looking at a flower, he suddenly sees an insect
apparently suspended over it exploring the flower with its proboscis. It
moves from blossom to blossom, always balancing itself over them by its
wings. Let the observer move but his hand, and it is gone—has van¬
ished as mysteriously as it came.
In the same way, the Humming-bird hovers over flowers, not only to
extract the honey and dew, but to search for the little insects that are
always to be found in such places. Speaking of the Iluby-throated
Humming-bird, Waterton observes :—
“It seems to be an erroneous opinion that the Humming-bird lives
entirely on honey-dew. Almost every flower of the tropical climates
contains insects of one kind or other; now, the Humming-bird is most
busy about the flowers an hour or two after sunrise, and after a shower
of rain, and it is iust at this time that the insects come out to the edge
°f the flower in order that the sun’s rays may dry the nocturnal, dew and
200 NATURAL HISTORY.

rain which they have received. On opening the stomach of the Hum
ming-bird, dead insects are almost always found there.”

Ornismya.—(Gr. yOpuis, a bird; a moused

Gouldii (Lat. of Gould), Goulds Humming-Bird

Sappho (Gr. proper name), the Bar-tailed Humming-bird.
Cora (proper name), the Cora Humming-bird.
Chvysolopha (Gr. Xpvaos, gold; \6(pos, a crest), the Double-crested
Humming-Bird!.

The tongue of the Humming-bird is formed much like that of the

woodpecker, being curled round the head, under the skin, and thus
capable of being darted to a considerable distance.
There is a fable of a wren and an eagle. The two birds entered into a
contest respecting the height to which they could severally attain. A
day was fixed, and the birds started. Away went the eagle, soaring in
lessening spires, until his form was lost in the clouds. But where was
the wren ? The eagle had lost sight of his pigmy opponent long ago, but
in his pride to show what he could do, he still soared on and on until the
lighter air would scarcely bear his weight. As he hovered with wearied
and rapidly beating wings, unable to gain another yard, up sprang the
wren from among the eagle’s feathers, where it had sat very comfortably
all the while, and fluttered above his head with a song of triumph.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 201
But truth, as has been often said, is stranger than fiction, as appears
from the fact that the eagle can be vanquished by a more insignificant
foe than even the wren, by the Humming-bird, which is not content with
a mere racing victory, but drives the eagle before it. The R^by-throated
Humming-bird has been seen to dart between the wings of a flying eagle,
to perch upon its head, deliberately to strip off the feathers, and send them
floating in a stream after the flight of the persecuted eagle, which seemed
almost driven to madness by its tiny foe.
Like many other little creatures, the assurance and impudence of the
Humming-bird is remarkable. It is easily tamed for that very reason,
and has been known to domesticate itself in an hour from the time of its
capture, and even when released, it has returned again to partake of the
dainties which it had tasted during its captivity.
There are an immense number of species of these exquisite birds, vary¬
ing from the size of a swift to that of a humble bee. Any description of
them is impossible—they must be seen. Fortunately, the magnificent
collection brought to England by that most indefatigable and enterprising
naturalist, Mr. Gould, places it in the power of every one to view these
living gems in all the attitudes of life, and surrounded with the appro¬
priate vegetation. They need nothing but motion. It appears that cold
is destructive to the Humming-birds. Wilson says :—
“ This little bird is extremely susceptible of cold, and if long deprived
of the animating influence of the sunbeams, droops, and soon dies. A
very beautiful male was brought me this season, which I put into a wire
cage, and placed in a retired shaded part of the room. After fluttering
about for some time, the weather being uncommonly cool, it clung by
the wires, and hung in a seemingly torpid state for a wdiole forenoon.
No motion whatever of the lungs could be perceived on the closest in
spection ; though at other times this is remarkably observable; the eyes
were shut, and when touched by the finger it gave no signs of life or
motion. I carried it out to the open air, and placed it directly in the
rays of the sun in a sheltered situation. In a few seconds respiration
became very apparent; the bird breathed faster and faster, opened its
eyes, and began to look about with as much seeming vivacity as ever.
After it had completely recovered I restored it to liberty; and it flew off
to the withered top of a pear-tree, where it sat for some time, dressing
its disordered plumage, and then shot off like a meteor.”
Fear will also produce the same effect, as they have repeatedly died
when caught in a common gauze net, which does not injure even the
delicate scales of the butterfly’s wing. They are very quarrelsome litt’e
creatures, and frequently fight with expanded crests and ruffled feathers
until they fall exhausted to the ground.
The nests are very neat and beautiful, and, as may be imagined from
the diminutive size of the little architect, exceedingly small. They are
composed of down, cotton, &c., and are sometimes covered on the outside
with mosses and lichens. Water ton relates a curious formation of the
202 NATURAL IllSTOLU

nest of one particular species, whose habitations are built at the ex¬
tremity of thin branches.
“Instinct teaches one species, which builds its nest on the slender
branches which hang over the rivers, to make a rim round the mouth o(
the nest, turned inwards, so as to prevent the eggs from rolling out. . .
The trees on the river’s bank are particularly exposed to violent gusts of
adnd, and when I have been sitting in the canoe and looking on, I have
seen the slender branch of the tree which held the Humming-bird’s nest so
violently shaken, that the bottom of the inside of the nest has appeared,
and had there been nothing at the rim to stop the eggs, they must in
evitably have been jerked out into the water.”

The Creepers are remarkable for their long slender bills and claws.
Family III. . Certhidse.—(Gr. KepOios. Creeper adapted lor climbing
kind.) trees, and capturing in-
Sub family a. Certhlnce. sects. The common
certiha.
Creeper may often be
seen in this country,
running spirally up the
trunks of trees, and pro¬
bing the bark with its
bill, and so firmly do the
claws hold, that when
shot it does not always
fall, but remains clinging
to the tree. The nest of
this elegant little bird is
made in a decayed tree.
The eggs are from seven
to nine in number, grey
with dusky spots.
Familiaris (Lat. familiar), the Greener.

The Nuthatch.—The term Nuthatch well explains the habits of this

interesting little bird. As may be imagined from its name, nuts form
a considerable portion of its food, but it also feeds largely on insects,
pecked from the bark of trees. While searching after insects, it displays
an activity even surpassing the creeper, as it runs up and down the
trunk, mostly descending with its head downwards, a feat beyond the
capacity of either creeper or woodpecker. In order to break the shell of
the nuts, it contrives to fix the fruit in some crevice, and then grasping
with its powerful feet, it swings its beak against the nut with the whole
force of its body, and soon splits the shell in pieces. In spots frequented
by this bird, heaps of nut-shells may be seen, as it usually resorts to
a place where it has found a convenient resting-place for the nut, just a?
 NATURAL HISTORY. 2-03
neaps of snail-shells may be often found by stones which the thrush has
found fitted for breaking them.
It has hitherto been found impossible to keep the Nuthatch in cap¬
tivity. Its restless spirit and
obstinate perseverance m Sub-family b. Sittlnce.
pecking at its prison speedily Sitta.—(Gr. 'SiTTT].)
kill it; and although several
have been placed in confine¬
ment, none have been re¬
corded to survive beyond the
third day. The Rev. Mr.
Bree relates that the bill of a
Nuthatch which he had taken
in a common brick trap was
worn away to barely two-
thirds of its usual length by
the unremitting attempts of
the bird to escape from its
prison.
The nest of this bird is
usually made in a hole in a
decayed tree, and as is usual
with nests made in holes, it is Europaea (Lat. European), the Nuthatch.
a very rough fabrication, com¬
posed of a few dried leaves. The bird is also remarkable from its habit
of plastering up the hole with mud when it is too large to suit it. The
eggs are from five to seven in number, of a whitish colour, spotted with
reddish brown.

The Wren shares with the robin some immunity from juvenile sports¬
men. Although it may be fearlessly hopping about in the hedge, jerking
its funny little tail, and playing its antics just at the muzzle of the gun,
few boys will fire at it—a privilege for which it is difficult to give a
reason, except, perhaps, the very incomprehensible assertion that “ The
robin and the wren are God Almighty’s cock and hen;” although why
these two birds, both proverbially quarrelsome and pugnacious, should
be selected, to the exclusion of others, is difficult to say. Perhaps the
robin enjoys his immunity from the “Babes in the Wood,” and the wren
makes a convenient rhyme. Be this as it may, it is to be wished that
a similar rhyme existed, including the owl and the kestrel.
A singular anecdote is related of this bird.
“In the end of June, 1835, a person was shooting in the neighbour
hood of Bandrakehead, in the parish of Colton, Westmoreland: he
killed a brace of blue titmice (Parus caeruleus), which some time before
nad been observed to be constructing a nest, in the end of a house be¬
longing to a Mr. Innes of the same place. In the course of the day, it
204 NATURAL HISTORY.

was ascertained that the titmice had completed the time of incubation,
and that their death had consequently left their offspring in a state of
utter destitution. This,
Sub-family c. Menurlnce.—(Gr. Mrjvv'j*, I dis- however, was not long
play; ovpa, a tail.) permitted to continue, for
Troglodytes.—(Gr. Tpu>y\o8vrris, a creeper the chirping of the young
into caves.) birds attracted the atten¬
tion, and excit ed the com¬
passion of a wren; which,
since that period, adopted
the nestlings, and was
daily engaged in rearing
and feeding them, with
the affectionate kindness
and unremitting assiduity
of a parent bird.”
The nest of the Wren
is built in any conve¬
nient cranny ; an ivy-
covered tree, the thatch
Parvulus (Lat. very small), the Wren. of a barn, or a warm
scarecrow, are all used by
Ihis fearless little bird. The nest is usually of an oven-like shape,
always covered on the out-
Tribelll. . DENTIROSTRES.—(Lat. tooth- side with some material re-
billecl.) sembling the colour of the
Family I. . Luscimdse.—(Lat. Luscinia, a objects round it, such as
Nightingale. Nightingale kind.) green moss if built among
Sub-family a. Lusclnince. ivy, or brown lichen if built
on a rock or in the fork of a
Calamodyta.- —(Gr. Ka\ap.oSvTTis, a diver
withered branch. The eggs
into reeds.) • . . oo
are six or eight m number—
white, speckled with reddish
brown.

The Grasshopper War¬

bler.—While walking along
the hedges during the spring,
an incessant cry, closely
resembling that of the grass¬
hopper, and easily to be taken
for it, is heard proceeding
from the hedge. This cry
proceeds from a little bird,
Locustella, the Grasshopper Warbler. called on that account the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 205
Grasshopper Warbler. The little creature keeps so close that it is very
difficult to catch even a casual glance at it, as it flits along the bottom of
the hedge.
The nest is carefully concealed, and very difficult to find. It is com¬
posed of dried grass, and is usually hidden by the tufts of herbage
among which it is built. The eggs are from five to seven in number;
white, speckled with red. The length of the bird is five inches and
a half; the third primary feather is the longest.

The Nightingale.—
“ Tiuu tiuu tiuu tiuu—Spe tiu zqua—
Tio tio tio tio tio tio tio tix—Qutio qutio qutio qutio—
Zquo zquo zquo zquo—Tzii tzii tzu tzii tzu tzii tzii tzii tzii tzi—
Quorror tiu zqua pipiquisi—Zozozozozozozozozozozozo zirrhading ! &c. &c.”
So does a well-known naturalist endeavour to express the wild and
spiritual melody of this most exquisite of British song-birds, the Night¬
ingale. And in truth it is perhaps as good a description as can be
given without the aid of
music. Even its own
marvellous notes sound
comparatively weak un¬
less backed by the ac¬
companiments of night
and tranquillity; for the
inimitable song of this
Mendelssohn among birds
loses great part of its
beauty when uttered by
day, deadened and con¬
fused with other sounds.
There are some people
who cannot appreciate
the song of this bild. Philomela (Gr. <IuAo/z?7Aa, proper name), the
There is a story that a Nightingale.
man who was engaged
as gardener in a gentleman’s family, was permitted to live within the
grounds. In a short time he asked to be allowed to change his house,
and on being asked his reason for giving up so good a situation, answered
that he could get no sleep at night, because those nasty Nightingales
kept up such a continual guggling.
In some counties of England it is never found, but in many its nightly
strains are frequently heard. The fields and College gardens of Oxford
are full of Nightingales, whose songs add greatly to the effect of the
scene. Well may Isaak Walton say in his delightfully quaint language:
“ But the Nightingale, another of my airy creatures, breathes such
sweet, loud music out of her instrumental throat, that it might make
mankind to think that miracles are not ceased. He that at midnight,
206 NATURAL HISTORY.

when the very labourer sleeps securely, should hear, as I ha\e very
often, the clear airs, the sweet descents, the natural rising and falling,
the doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well be lifted above
earth, and say, ‘ Lord, what music hast thou provided for the saints in
Heaven, when thou affordest had men such music on earth !5 ”
It must be borne in mind, that not only in this bird, but in other
singing birds, the male is the vocalist, so that Milton’s address to the
“ sweet songstress ” is unfortunately not quite so correct as poetical; a
misfortune of frequent occurrence.

Sylvia.—(Proper name.) The Warblers are spread

over almost the entire globe,
and many gladden this coun¬
try with their pleasant songs.
The Dartford Warbler de¬
rives its name from the
place where it was first noticed
as a British bird. It is ex¬
tremely small, hardly larger
than a wren, but the length
of its tail increases its apparent
size. Furze-bushes form its
usual residence. There it may
be seen hovering over the tops
of the bushes, uttering its
curious quavering song, at
,T . \ r, j tt7 the same time erecting the
undata (Lat. wavy), the Dartford Warbler. r \ j JP c
J J leathers ol its head, and pul-
sylvTa. fing UP its throat. It lays its
eggs in a nest carefully con¬
cealed in the centre of a
furze-bush. The eggs are of
a greenish white, speckled
with brown spots. Its length
is five inches.

The pretty little White-

throat is one of the migra¬
tory birds, remaining with us
during the summer. Few
copses are without the sin¬
gular and pleasing song of
the Whitethroat. It derives
its name from the white colour
of its throat and abdomen,
CinerSa (Lat. ashy), the Whitctkroat. which renders it a conspi-
 NATURAL HISTORY. 207

cuous bird, ana even if that proof were wanting, its curious habit of
flying upwards from its perch, and again descending on the same spot,
immediately points it out.
It builds a small nest, mostly among brambles or on a stump densely
covered with weeds. The eggs are five in number—a greyish white
thickly spotted with brown. The length of the bird is not quite six
inches.

The Blackcap, almost a rival to the nightingale, is at once recognised

by the black colour of the crown of the head. Only the males, however,
are thus decorated, the crown SYLVIA.
of the head of the female
being dark brown. Its sweet
notes are poured forth from
the concealment of some
thicket or tuft of trees,
where it trusts to the density
of the foliage to elude disco¬
very. Like the mocking-bird
of America, it can imitate the
songs of oilier birds with such
perfect inflection that it is
almost impossible to detect
the imposture.
Among bushes and bram¬
bles it builds its nest, which
is made of dried grass, moss,
and hairs. The eggs are five Atricapilla (Lat. ■blackhaired), the Blackcap
in number — reddish brown, Warbler.
marked with dark spots. The length of the bird is nearly six inches;
the third primary feather is the longest.

The Garden Warbler.—This bird is one of our sweetest songsters,

and is supposed by some to be little inferior to the Nightingale itself.
So we may well pardon its occasional depredations on our garden fruit
for the sake of its melody.
It is a migratory bird, arriving in England in April, and leaving
towards the end of August or the beginning of September. Almost
every part of England is visited by this bird, and especially those
counties where are thick woods and plenty of water.
The colour of this rettichaps is an olive green, shot, as the ladies say,
with a greyish shading; while some parts of the body, such as the sides
of the neck, the throat, and under parts, are either ash grey or greyish
white. The length of the bird is about six inches.
Its nest is built in hedges, and situated near the ground. In it are
208 natural history.

laid four or five eggs, of a whitish grey colour, spotted with brown, the
spots being collected towards the larger end.
sylvTa.

Hortensis (Lat. belonging to the garden), the Garden Warbler, or Greater

Pettichaps.
This is the Beccafico of the Italians, so celebrated as a dainty for t ne
table.
The Chiff-chaff, so called from its peculiar cry, is almost the first ol
the Warblers that visits us in the spring, and one of the last to leave us
in the autumn, sometimes
sylvia. remaining here until the
middle of October. This
little bird is found in most
of the southern counties of
England, and in Wales, but
has not been noticed north
of Northumberland. On its
first arrival it feeds on the
leaf-rolling caterpillars that
infest the leaves and early
buds of trees, thereby doing
great service to the gardener,
Rufa (Lat. ruddy), the Chiff-chaff. tuflhefe
insidious little devourers.
The nest of the Chiff-chaff, like that of the wren, is oval or rounded,
and entered by a hole at the side. It is placed near the ground in a
bush, or sometimes resting on the hedge-bank. Its eggs are six in
number, speckled with purplish red on a white ground. The length of
 NATURAL flISTORY. 209
the bird is not quite five inches; the third and fourth primary feat hers
are the longest.
The Willow Warbler, sylyTa.
or Willow Wren, is one
of our early visitors, reaching
this country at the same time
as the blackcap. It much
resembles the chiff-chaff* and
the wood warbler, but may
be distinguished from the
former by the comparatively
light tint of its legs, and from
the latter by the yellow tinge
of the under parts.
It is an useful bird to the
gardener, as it is entirely
insectivorous, never touching
the fruit or seeds, and should,
therefore, be protected by
him.
Its nest is oval or roundish
in its form, and is entered by Trochilus (Gr. rpox^os), the Willow
a little hole in the side. Warbler.

The Golden-crested Regulus, as it ought properly to be called, is

one of the smallest of British birds. Fir plantations are its favourite
resort, and there it may be
Regultjs.—(Lat.)
seen hopping about the bran¬
ches, or running round them,
head downwards, in search
of the insects hidden beneath
the bark. Its name is derived
from the orange-coloured tuft
of feathers on the crown of
its head, for which reason it
is often called the Kinglet.
Its note is weak, but very
pleasing, and much resembles
that of the common wren.
The female is very bold while
sitting, and will permit close
observation without quitting
the nest. The nest itself is
an object of great beauty. It
Cristatus (Lat. crested), the Golden-crested
is usually placed on the under
Wren.
side of a fir branch sheltered
r
210 NATURAL HISTOKf.

by the overflanging foliage, and sometimes further protected hv a large

bunch of cones forming a kind of roof over it. The eggs are from six
to ten in number, very small, and of a reddish white colour. The length
of the bird is three inches and a half. The fourth or fifth primary
feather is the longest.

The Wheatear is one of our early visitors, appearing at the beginning

of March. It is a very con-
Sub-fiamily b. Evythannat (Gr. ’Epidanos, a spicuous bird,
. - and- can be
Redbreast).
readily distinguished by the
Saxicola.—(Lat. Stone inhabiting.) black mark that surrounds
the eye, and stretches from
the base of the bill, to beyond
the ear coverts. It is a very
pretty songster, its notes
being soft and sweet, although
wanting in power.
It is killed in great num¬
bers for the table, as its flesh
is so delicate as to entitle it
to the name of the English
Ortolan. In the proper sea¬
son, the bird is covered with
fat to such an extent, that
the plumage is often spoiled
by the fat running from the
holes caused by the shot.
The nest of the Wheatear
Giuanthe (Gr. oii'avOii), the Wheatear.
is made of the usual materials,
and is placed in some shel¬
tered spot where it is well concealed from prying eves. The eggs are
five or six in number, of a delicate faint bluish tinge, and very smooth
on the exterior.

The Redstart derives its name from the bright reddish chestnut colour
ol the upper tail coverts and tail feathers, which appear very conspicuous
as the bird flits from one tree to another, or dashes off when startled.
It inhabits the skirts of forests, copses, gardens, and especially frequents
old ivied walls, where numbers of the nests may be found. In 1847, I
found a Redstart’s nest built in a hole of a wall, forming one side of a
narrow passage in Merton College, Oxford. The eggs were nearly hatched,
and the birds did not seem to be disturbed by the constant passing of
servants with their paraphernalia of brooms, pails, and other implements.
The nest was so placed that every passer by could not fail to perceive it,
but the birds sat on their eggs quite unconcernedly.
The song of this bird is not very powerful, but the notes are peculiarly
 NATURAL HISTORY. 211
sweet. While singing, it often changes its situation, occasionally singing
as it flies.
The nest is placed usually in a hole in a wall, or in a hollow tree. The
eggs are five in number, of
Ruticilla.— (Lat. spat lcling.)
a greenish blue colour, closely
resembling those of the Hedge
Accentor. The length of the
bird is rather more than five
inches. The fourth primary
feather is the longest.

The Redbreast, or Robin

Redbreast, as it is affection¬
ately termed, has, by its fear¬
less conduct, earned itself
golden opinions from all kinds
of men. Every nation seems
to protect it. Even the Ameri¬
can Redbreast lives unharmed,
possibly on account of its con¬
nexion with its English rela¬ Phoenicura (Gr. <hah«, I display; ovoa,
tion, whose oft-told charity to¬ a tail), the Redstart.
wards the Babes in the Wood
has turned aside from its posterity even the unsparing hand of the sporting
schoolboy.
In the winter, when the berries are gone, insects dead, and the worms
hidden under the hard frozen Erythacus.* — (Gr. 'Epidanos, a Redbreast.)
soil, then the Robin flies lor
refuge to the habitations of
man for shelter and food. It
is very amusing to see the
half trusting, half fearful
look with which it hops to
the window-sill for the first
time. After a while, it be¬
comes bold, and taps at the
window, if the expected
crumbs are not thrown out.
Before very long, it ventures
to enter the room, hops about
on the table, and quite seems
to consider as a right what
was first merely a favour. Rubeciila (Lat. a Redbreast), the Redbreast.
When once established, it is
* This word ought properly to he spelled Erithacus, but I have taken the etymology
af the r ritish Museum Catalogue.
212 natural history.

very jealous, and will not suffer a friend to be partaker of the same
comforts, but attacks him with the greatest fury; so the unfortunate second
comer has to wait shivering outside the window, with his feathers puffed
up, and his little bright eye glancing from the depths of the plumage.
About the year 1843, a Robin used to frequent our house. He was so
tame as to answer to his name “ Bob,” and continued his attachment even
through the summer. When the rabbits were fed, Bob always came to
assist, and usually contrived to perch on the edge of the pan from which
the rabbit was eating. Both parties seemed perfectly satisfied, and Bunny
and Bob always continued very good friends.
The nest of this bird is built in a crevice of an old ivied wall, in a
bank, sheltered by the roots of trees, or in a mass of ivy clinging to an
old tree. The eggs are five in number, of a pale grey colour, profusely
marked with reddish spots.

Sub-family c. A ccentorlnce.
The Hedge Accentor, or
Accentor.—(Lat. a Singer.) Hedge Sparrow, is one of
our commonest English birds,
closely resembling the com¬
mon sparrow in appearance.
The nest is built in holes, and
contains five blue eerqs like
those of the Redstart, but
stouter in shape, and of a
deeper blue.
It is often very bold when
engaged in sitting, and will
permit a near approach with¬
out leaving the nest. I have
repeatedly visited the nest of
of one of these birds while
the female was sitting, and
have parted the boughs of the
Modularius (Lat. warbling), the Hedge
shrub where the nest was
Accentor. placed, in order to get a
good view, while the hen bird
still sat quietly in the nest anxiously watching every movement, but not
attempting to stir.

The Tits. — The birds of the family of the Tits are remark¬
able for their active habits among the branches of trees. There
are few who have not seen these beautiful and interesting little birds
twisting round the branches, perfectly unconcerned at the presence of
the spectator, sometimes hanging, head downwards, sometimes chasing
*n unlucky beetle along the bark, and invariably catching it, in spite of
its swift limbs and active wdngs ; sometimes twisting off a bud, and
 NATURAL HISTORY. 213
pulling it to pieces with Sub-family d. Parinaz.
marvellous rapidity, in
order to secure the lurk¬ Parus.—(Lat. a Titmouse.)
ing caterpillar within;
sometimes pecking away
at a piece of loose bark,
and extracting an un¬
willing spider by one of
its legs left incautiously
projecting from its lurk¬
ing-place. Pity it is that
their funny little sharp
beaks should ever be put
to worse uses ; but they
lie under a grave impu¬
tation of using these very
beaks in the slaughter
of the defenceless young Major (Lat. greater), the Great Titmouse.
of other birds.
The Great Titmouse is common in this country, frequenting gardens
orchards, copses, &c. During the spring it is very active in the capture
of insects, but in autumn and winter it is forced to content itself with
grains and seeds of various descriptions. Gilbert White, in his “ Sel-
borne,” mentions that he has seen the Great Tit “ while it hung with its
back downwards, to my no small delight and admiration, draw straws
lengthwise from the eaves of thatched houses, in order to pull out the
Hies that were concealed among them, and that in such numbers that
they quite defaced the t hatch, and gave it a ragged appearance.”
The nest of this bird is built in a hole of a wall, or a decayed tree, and
in it are placed six or eight eggs, of a white colour, spotted with reddish
brown. The length of the bird is about six inches.
The little Blue Titmouse is so well known as hardly to require any
description. It is most amusingly courageous, and from the strenuous
resistance it offers to its capturer, has acquired from rustic boys the
name of “Billy-biter.” The angry hiss of the female lias frequently
caused an intruding hand to be rapidly withdrawn, for the sound is so
exceedingly like the hiss of an irritated snake, and the little beak is so
sharp, that few have the courage to proceed with their investigations.
A pair of these birds built their nesi in the coping of the Great Western
Railway, at the Shrivenham station, not two feet from the fiery and
noisy engines, which were constantly passing. The men respected the
courage of the little birds, and this whole brood was hatched, and
suffered to fly at liberty.
The utter contempt which this bird entertains for fire-arms often leads
to its destruction, for when he disappointed schoolboy has been wastiug
21 i NATURAL HISTORY.

PARUS. his powder and shot in at*

tempting to hit larks and
such large game, he con¬
soles himself by shooting
the unfortunate Titmouse,
who will allow him to
come so close that few
vestiges of it remain ex¬
cept a tuft of blue feathers.
The eggs of the Blue
Titmouse are from six
to eight in number, white,
marked with reddish
brown spots. Its length
is about four inches and
CoBruleus (Lat. Mae), the Blue Titmouse.
a half.

The Long-tailed Titmouse is another well-known species of this

amusing family. Unlike the other Tits, it does not frequent human
habitations during the
PATUJS.
winter, but may be
seen in great numbers
twisting and creeping
about the branches of
hedge-rows and field
trees. In the summer
they are quite as bold
as their relations, and
especially favour ap¬
ple-trees, for the sake
of the diseased buds,
which they pick off
and devour, thereby
drawing upon them¬
selves the vengeance
of the gardener, who
prepares his gun, fires
at the supposed de¬
Caudatus (Lat. tailed), the Long-tailed Titmouse. predators, and possi¬
bly succeeds in killing
them; but he has also succeeded in doing more damage to the healthy
buds by ms spare shot, than a score of Tits would injure during the
entire season.
Tne beautiful and elaborate nest which this bird constructs is one of
its chief peculiarities. It is oval in shape, and entirely closed, except
one small hole at the side, iust large enough to admit the bird. Ths
 NATURAL HISTORY. 215
exterior of the nest is usually covered with lichens, and it is lined with
a thick layer of solt feathers. In this warm and elegant habitation are
laid from ten to fourteen eggs, which are small and very delicately
spotted. The entire length of the bird is about five inches and a half.

The Pied Wagtail.—The Wagtails, so named, from the almost incessant

vibration of their tails, are exclusively confined to the Old World. The Pied
Wagtail is the most common of its race. We often see it pass rapidly,
with its peculiar dipping flight; it settles on the ground and wags its tail •
it runs a few paces, and
wags its tail again; pecks Sub-family e. Motacillince.
at an insect, and its tail Motacilla.—(Lat. a Wagtail.)
again vibrates. It does
not hop, like the war¬
blers, finches, &c., but
runs with great rapidity,
and altogether looks very
like a diminutive mag¬
pie. Sand banks by the
sides of rivers are the
usual resort of these
birds, where they may
almost always be seen,
running about by the
water’s edge, sometimes
snatching at an incau¬
Yarrellli (Lat. of Yarrell), the Pied Wagtail.
tious may-fly, sometimes
wading into the water after a caddis-worm or a stray grub, or pecking
at an unfortunate little minnow, which has come too near the surface—•
and then it flies off to another spot to repeat the same manoeuvres. This
bird also greatly frequents pastures, and may be seen running about
among the cows in the most nonchalant manner imaginable, catching the
flies that torment those animals in the summer, or flying off to its unfi¬
nished neH with a beak full of hairs. Their nests are built near the
water, in crevices among stones, or in the hole of a wall. Frequently
when stones are piled by a wet quarry, several nests may be found in
one heap of stones. The eggs are four or five in number, of a dusky
white colour, spotted with ashy brown. The length of the bird is seven
inches and a half.

The Yellow Wagtail* is verv similar in habits to the more common

•/

Pied Wagtail, but the yellow tints of some of its feathers, somewhat
resembling those of the Yellow Hammer, at once distinguish it.

* Spp page 216.

216 NATURAL HISTORY.

MOTAOILLA.

Flava (Lat. yellow), Yellow Wagtail.

The Meadow Pipit, more commonly called the Titlark, resembles the
true Larks in the long hind claw and peculiar plumage, but is pointed
out as distinct, bv the dif-
Anthus.—(Lat. a Titlarh.) ferent colour of the bill.
Like the skylark, it sings
while in the air, but some¬
times also pours forth its
musical strains while set¬
tled upon the ground. It
feeds principally on slugs,
worms, and insects, which
it chases with much acti¬
vity, after the manner of
the wagtails, even vibratiug
its tail like them. Hilly
grounds, commons, and
meadows are its chief re¬
PratensiB (Lat. of a Meadow), the Meadow
sort in summer, but during
Pipit. September and October
llocks of these birds may
be seen congregated in turnip fields, and in the winter they seek the
protection of the warm hedge-rows.
The nest of the Titlark is made on the ground, and concealed by
a tuft of grass. There are usually bve or six eggs, light brown in
colour, spotted with a darker tint. The length of the bird is six inches.

The Water Ouzel, or Dipper, is one of the most interesting of our

native birds. It is found principally in hilly places where there are clear
and rapid streams, such as in Derbyshire and Lorkshire. There it may
 NATURAL HI8T0RY. 217
be seen to go through Family II-Turdid®. - (Lat. Tardus a
its far-lamed movements Thrush. Thrush kind )
under the water, which Sub-family a.. Formicarince. (From Lat. For.
have given rise to so mica, an ant.)
much controversy.
dives for considerable
It
,
IIydrobata.—(Gr. Y5a>p, water j Bcurw I go.)
distances with apparent
ease, and has a habit cl
dipping and rising re¬
peatedly, from which
practice its name has
been derived.
The nest is usually
built by the water side,
and is most carefully
concealed. In general
appearance it is not un¬
like that of the wren,
being made of inter¬
twined mosses, with an Cinclus (Gr. Kiy/cAos), the Dipper.
entrance at the side. It
lays five largish eggs, of a pure white. The length of this bird is
about seven inches.

The Missel,orMis- Sub family h. Turdince.

seltoe Thrush, or
TURDUS.
Stormcock, accord¬
ing to Waterton,
“ surpasses all other
thrushes in size, and
is decidedly the larg¬
est songster of the
European birds. He
remains with us the
whole of the year,
and he is one of three
birds which charm
us with their melody
during the dreary
flonths of winter,
when the throstle
and lark are silent,
and all the migratory
birds have left us, to
sojourn in warmer Viaeivbrus ^Lat. Viscus, a Miaseltoe ; voro, 1 devour),
climates, Reappears tht Misseltoe Thrush.
218 NATURAL HISTORY.

to be gregarious in the months of August and September.” “ This bird,

though usually known by the name of the Misseltoe Thrush in many
parts of England, is invariably called the Stormcock by all the lower
orders in our neighbourhood: not that it delights in storms more than in
fine weather; but that nature has taught it to pour forth its melody at
a time of the year when the bleak winds of winter roar through the
leafless trees.”
It is very fond of the berries of the misseltoe, but when they fail it
turns its attention to those of the mountain ash, which are almost certain
to attract this beautiful and powerful songster. In the summer it
devours all kinds of garden-fruits, especially cherries and raspberries.
During the breeding season it is very pugnacious, attacking and
driving away not only small birds, but the crow, the magpie, or even the
prowling cat. The nest is very large, almost as large as a “wide-awake”
hat, is always built in a tree, and contains about five reddish spotted
eggs. The length of the bird is eleven inches.

The Fieldfare is properly a native of the cold regions of Europe,

and only visits this country during the cold winter months. Erom its
excellence as an adjunct to the table, it is perseveringly sought after, but

turd us.

Pilaris (Lat. like a ball), the Fieldfare.

is so shy, that unless the bird is very busy satisfying its hunger, there i&
some difficulty in approaching within gun-range.
It builds in fir or pine-trees, and lays several bluish-green eggs, spotted
with brown. Its length is about ten inches.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 219
The Song-Thrush, Throstle, or Mavis, is deservedly considered one
M our best singing birds. Its powerful and rich notes may be heard
even during the month of January, when most of the other singing birds
are either silent, or have departed. Its nest is built almost before any
other bird has commenced, and may often be seen conspicuously placed
in a bush, some time before the leaves have begun to sprout. In ordei
to defend the callow young from the cold winds of the season when they
are hatched, the nest is more substantial than birds are accustomed to
build, being thickly plastered within with a coating of mud, effectually
keeping out the chilly blasts. Were it only for its singing powers, the
Thrush would de- tordus
serve protection ;
but the services it
renders to the gar¬
dener in devouring
insects, snails, and
other destructive
creatures, entitle it
to a double share
of regard.
It is very amusing
to watch a Thrush
listening for the
sound of the earth¬
worm working his
way through the
ground, or the gnaw-

cockcliaffer ^grub! Musicus (Lat. musical), the Song-Thrush.

The grub he unearths and devours without further ceremony, but he
knows that if he is not cautious, the earth-worm will withdraw itself
out of his reach. He therefore gives several hops near the worm,
which, fancying that it hears its enemy the mole pursuing it, comes to
the surface, and is instantly seized in triumph by the crafty thrush.
It clears the shells from snails by beating them against a stone, and
when it has found a convenient place for that purpose, it invariably
returns to the same spot with its prey, so that heaps of broken snail-
shells may often be found where the thrushes have been at work.
The eggs of the Thrush are five in number, of a bluish-green colour,
spotted with a deep reddish brown. Sometimes the spots are altogether
absent.

The Blackbird is another delightful songster whose jetty hue and

“ orange-tawny bill ” are too well known to need description. It is a very
shy bird, and if disturbed in a hedge, has a habit of darting through it,
and then escaping on the other side, uttering a sharp cry of alarm. The
220 NATURAL HISTOR/.

TDRDUS. habits of this bird are not

unlike those of the thrush,
especially in its zeal for un¬
earthing the cockchaffer-grubs,
and possibly for eating cherhes
when they are ripe.
Its nest is built usually at
the foot of a hedge, frequently
in the very centre of a holly
bush, safe from most, enemies,
except weasels and schoolboys.
A beautiful King Charles’
dog of my acquaintance was
accustomed to search for
thrush’s and blackbird’s nests,
and bite out the bottom of
them, so that the eggs rolled
quietly into his mouth, he
having discovered that when
he tried to take them from the
mouth of the nest, he invari¬
ably broke them. The eggs
are five in number, of a bluish-
MerQla (fiat. a Blackbird), the Blackbird. green colour, profusely spotted
with brown.

The Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush, is a native of most parts

of America. This wonderful bird stands preeminent in powers of song.
Not only are its natural notes bold and spirited, but it has the faculty of
imitating with deceptive fidelity every sound it hears. To its flexible
organs, the harsh setting of a saw, the song of a nightingale, the creaking
of a wheel, the whistled tune of a passer-by, the full and mellow notes
of the thrush, the barking of a dog, the crowing of a cock, and the
savage scream of the bald eagle, are each equally easy of execution, and
follow one another with such marvellous rapidity that few can believe
that the insignificant brown bird before them is the sole author of these
varied sounds. The Virginian nightingale and the canary hear their
exquisite modulations performed with such superior execution, that the
vanquished songsters are silent from mere mortification, while the trium¬
phant Mocking-bird only redoubles his efforts. Wilson, whose animated
description of this bird has never been surpassed, says;—“ His ex¬
panded wings and tail glistening with white, and the buoyant gaiety of
his action arresting the eye, as his song does most irresistibly the ear,
he sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstasy, and mounts and descends a3
his song swells or dies away. He often deceives the sportsman, and
sends him in search of birds that are not perhaps within miles of him,
 NATURAL HISTORY. 221
but whose notes he exactly imitates: even birds themselves are fre¬
quently imposed upon by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by the
fancied eails of their mates, or dive with precipitation into the depth of
thickets at the scream of what they suppose to be the sparrow-hawk.”
While sitting on its eggs it is an exceedingly courageous bird, at¬
tacking without discrimination man, dogs, or any animal who may
approach too near the nest. But the black snake is the special object of
its vengeance. The snake, who has perhaps just arrived at the vicinity
of the nest, and is contemplating a pleasant breakfast on the young or
eggs, is violently attacked by the enraged Mocking-bird, who, by re¬
peated blows on the head, generally destroys its enemy, and then
mounting upon a bush, pours forth a triumphant song of victory.

Orpheus.—(Gr. proper name of a famous musician.)

Polyglottus (Gr. rioAus-, many; yXcorra, a tongue), the Mocking Bird.

Weober’s account of this magnificent songster is so pleasing that

I insert part of it here:—“ I saw it now leaping up from its favourite
perch on a tree-top, much in the manner I had observed before; but
now it was in a different mood, and seemed to mount, thus spirit-like,
upon the wilder ecstasies, and floating, fall on the subsiding cadence of
that passionate song it poured into the listening ear of love, for I could
see his mate, with fainter bars across her wings, where she sat upon
a thornbush near and listened.
“When this magnificent creature commenced to sing, the very air
was burdened with a thousand different notes, but his voice rose clear
and melodiously loud above them all. As I listened, one song after
another ceased suddenly, until in a few minutes, and before I could
oo>?
W W -J NATURAL niSTORY.

realize thai I was so, 1 found myself hearkening to that solitary voice.
This is a positive fact! I looked around me in astonishment. What!
are they cowed f but his song only now grew more exulting, and, as if
feeling his triumph, he bounded yet higher with each new gush, and, in
swift and quivering raptures, dived, skimmed, and floated round, round,
then rose to fall again more boldly on the billowy storm of sound.
“No wonder the other birds were silent to listen, for, one after one, he
hurled the notes of each upon its ear, so alchemyzed with splendour that
they knew not their own song.
“ This curious phenomenon I have witnessed many times since. Even
in the morning choir, when every little throat seems strained in emula¬
tion, if the mocking-bird breathes forth in one of its mad, bewildered,
md bewildering extravaganzas, the other birds pause almost invariably,
and remain silent until his song is done. This, I assure you, is no
.igment of the imagination or illusion of an excited fancy ; it is just as
substantial a fact as any other one in Natural History. Whether the
other birds stop from envy, as has been said, or from awe, cannot be so
well ascertained; but I believe it is from the sentiment of awe; for as I
certainly have felt it myself in listening to the mocking-bird, I do not
know why these inferior creatures should not also. It must be known
that these creatures differ from each other as do men and women in their
vocal powers, and there is usually one bird in a neighbourhood that
supremely surpasses all the rest. It is another remarkable fact, that all
other mocking-birds retire from the immediate neighbourhood of this
acknowledged monarch, to such a distance that you can hear but the
faintest note from them in the pauses of his song, and it sounds as if
they but prolonged the echo.”
The nest is made generally in a bush or apple-tree, frequently close to
nouses, as the bird is protected by the inhabitants. The Mocking-bird
is often kept tame, in which case, so far from its imitative powers
showing any decrease, the variety of domestic sounds heard about the
house is often very perplexing.

The Golden Oriole.*—The genus Oriolus has the beak notched and
rather bent at the tip. The Golden Oriole is only an occasional visitor
to this country, and has never as yet been seen in Scotland. It is a very
shy bird, frequenting the skirts of woods, especially copses that border
on larger woods. In the fruit season it leaves the woods for the
orchards, and makes no small havoc among the fruit, particularly the
figs, grapes, and cherries.
The nest is made of wool and fine hay; it is generally placed on the
fork of a bough. The eggs are five in number, of a purplish white spotted
vith reddish marks. The length of the bird is rather more than ten
inches.

* page 223.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 223
Sub-family c. Oriollnn?.
Ori5lus.—(Linnean generic name.!

Galbula (Lat.), the Golden Oriole.

The Spotted Flycatcher Family III. . Muscicapldse.—(Gr. Musca, »

may be considered as the Fly ; capio, I take. Fly ■
type of the entire family. It catcher kind.)
may be constantly seen in Sub-family a. Muscicapince.
gardens and orchards, going
MUSCICAPA.
through the evolutions that
have given it the names of
Flycatcher, Post-bird, Beam-
bird. &c. It takes its station
on some elevated spot, such
as the overhanging bough of
a tree, a post, or a rail, and
from thence watches for a
passing insect, on seeing
which it darts from its post,
secures the insect in the air,
and returns to the same spot
by a short circular flight. It
is not a timid bird, and will
permit an observer to stand
quite close to it, provided that
tie does not disturb it. Griosla, the Spotted Flycatcher.
I have seen one of these
birds engaged in the pursuit of flies in a garden at Headington. U
224 NATURAL HISTORY.

perched on a balustrade close to a window from which several persons

were watching it, and continued its evolutions perfectly undisturbed by
their proximity. On another occasion I was keeping watch in a gig in
Nuneham Park, and to pass away the time, amused myself with cutting
off the heads of the white clover with the lash. While so engaged,
a Spotted Elycatcher came and took up its station on a bough close
by the gig, from which it made excursions among the flies and other
insects that were driven from the grass and flowers by the whip.
It is only a summer visitor to England, arriving in May and departing
about the beginning of October. The note of this bird is a weak chirp,
and even that is not often heard.
The nest is built usually in holes of trees or walls, or sometimes
between a branch of a wall-fruit tree and the wall itself. The eggs are
five in number, spotted with reddish brown on a grey ground. The
length of the bird is about five inches.

Family IV. . . Ampeltdge. The Bohemian Waxwing, or Waxen

Chatterer, is only occasionally seen in
Sub-family a. . Ampellnce.
England during severe frosts, at which
AmpELIS. —(Gr. ' Ag.tr eXIs or time flocks of them sometimes arrive.
’ AgireXlocv.) One of these birds was shot near Oxford
in the winter of 1846. It is very com¬
mon in Norway and Russia, and is plen¬
tiful in North America. The name of
Waxwing is given to it from the singmai
appendages to the secondary quill feathers,
bearing much resemblance to a drop of red
sealing-wax pressed on the wing.
Berries of all kinds, especially those of
the dog-rose and the hawthorn, form the
principal food of this bird; but it is related
that when in captivity it rejects scarcely
any vegetable substance, but loses at the
same time all its vivacity and social habits.
The note of the Waxwing is not unlike
that of the thrush, but it is very weak
and more uncertain than the notes of that
beautiful songster. While singing it agi¬
tates the crest on its head, but shows
scarcely any of that swelling in the throat
so perceptible in the canary and other
Garrulus (Lat. chattering), the singing birds.
Bohemian Waxwing. The length of the bird is rather more
than eight inches.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 225

Family V. . . Lanldae.—(Lat. Lanius, a Butcher. Butcher-bird kind.)

Sub-family a. Lanina.

The Shrikes or Butcher Birds well deserve their name, as they

live upon insects and small birds, which they kill and afterwards transfix
with a thorn, preparatory to devouring them. They take their prey much
after the same manner as the flycatchers, by darting on it from some
place of concealment.

Lanius. —(Lat. a Butcher.)

Excubltor (Lat. a Sentinel,) the Great Grey Shrike.

The Greai Grey Shrike is supposed to be only an occasional visitor

to this country. It feeds upon mice, birds, frogs, and other small animals.
After pouncing upon its prey, the Shrike, by a few blows on the head
from its powerful bill, destroys it. The unfortunate animal is then
carried to the nearest hedge, impaled on a thorn, and the Shrike
devours it at his leisure. Large insects are treated in the same manner.
The object of this impalement is apparently that the creatures thus
suspended should become tender or “ high,” so that the modern epicure,
who hangs up his venison until no one with an unsophisticated taste would
venture to touch it, has but borrowed his custom from the Shrike. The
oird after hanging a lizard or a mouse in this fashion, generally goes oil
and fetches another, always preferring to eat those which have remained
longest on the thorn, and which are as it were cooked in the sun.
There is a strong bodily resemblance between this Shrike and the
Mocking-bird, the distinction lying generally in the outline, while the
plumage is so similar that ma^y persons have actually confused the two
9
226 NATURAL HISTORY.

birds, giving to one the habits of the other. Moreover, the resemblance
is not merely in outward form. The Grey Shrike can also imitate the
notes of other birds, and often does so.
Lest I should be suspected of committing the same mistake, and sup¬
posed to have given the song of the mocking-bird to the Shrike without
foundation, I have given my authority. Audubon, in his work on the
American birds, has this passage :—
“This valiant little warrior possesses the faculty of imitating the
notes of other birds, especially such as are indicative of pain. Thus it
will often mimic the cries of sparrows and other small birds, so as to
make you believe you hear them screaming in the claws of a hawk; and
I strongly suspect this is done for the purpose of inducing others to
come out from their coverts to the rescue of their suffering brethren.
On several occasions I have seen it in the act of screaming in this
manner, when it would suddenly dart from its perch into a thicket, from
which there would immediately issue the real cries of a bird on which it
had seized. On the banks of the Mississippi, 1 saw one which for several
days in succession had regularly taken its stand on the top of a tall tree,
where it from time to time imitated the cries of the swamp and song
sparrows, and shortly afterwards would pitch down like a hawk, with its
wings close to its body, seldom failing to obtain the object of its pursuit,
which it would sometimes follow even through the briars and brambles
among which it had sought refuge. When unable to secure its prey, it
would reascend to its perch, and emit loud and discordant notes of anger.
Whenever I could see it strike its victim, it appeared to alight on its
back, and instantly strike its head, which on such occasions I have
several times found torn open. If not disturbed, the Shrike would then
tear up the body, and swallow in large pieces, not well cleaned of the
feathers, every part excepting the wings. It now and then pursues birds
that are on the wing to a considerable distance. Thus I saw one follow
a turtle-dove, which, on being nearly caught, pitched on the ground,
when its skull was bruised in a moment; but the next instant both birds
were in my possession. ”
One of the New Holland Butcher Birds, Vang a destructor, has been
known to learn to whistle a tune like a bullfinch. The melody in ques
tion was the Scotch tune of “ Over the water to Charlie.”
The name Excubitor or Sentinel is given it from its habit of watching
for birds of prey, and chattering loudly directly it perceives them; thereby
proving that, like most other tyrants, it has a great objection to suffering
any injury itself. The bird-catchers on the Continent take advantage
of this peculiarity, to assist them in the capture of the peregrine falcon.
The fowler places a small net on the ground, with a pigeon fastened to it
by way of bait. A string is attached to the net and brought within a
turf hut where the fowler sits. Close to the hut a Shrike is tied to the
ground, and two pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for the bird from
he weather, and as a refuge from the hawk. The fowler remains within
 NATURAL HISTORY. 227
his hut jusied with some sedentary occupation, knowing well that his
vigilant watchman will not fail to give him notice of the approach of a
hawk. Directly a hawk appears in the distance, the Shrike becomes
agitated ; as it draws nearer, he begins to scream with fright; and just as
the hawk pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf, which is the signal
to the fowler within the hut to pull the string, thereby enclosing the hawk
within the folds of the net.
The nest is built on trees, and contains about six eggs, greyish-
white, spotted with dark ash on the larger end ; the length of the bird
is from nine to ten inches.

The Red-backed Shrike is much more common than the last-men¬

tioned bird, and may be seen in and about hedges, in the spring, when it
is occupied in building its
LANIUS.
nest. It is rather a noisy
bird, and the nest is so large
as to be easily discovered.
It feeds principally on in¬
sects, such as bees, beetles,
&c., which may frequently
be found impaled on thorns.
I have found many in¬
sects impaled by this bird,
but the insect most com¬
monly found by myself, in
this position, was the Sta-
phylinus erythropterus,
but I have also found
Colluno (Gx\ KoWvpitov), the Red-backed
round beetles and humble
Shrike.
ees thus impaled.
These impaled insects form a very good indication as to the locality of
the nests, and are probably placed there for food ; certainly not, as some
authors have stated, for the purpose of decoying other birds to the spot
in order to murder and devour them. The nest and eggs much resemble
those of the Great Shrike, but are smaller. The length of the bird is
seven inches and a half.

The Jay.—The Corvidas are peculiarly remarkable for a kind of pre¬

ternatural air of sagacity with which they set about any self-imposed task,
especially if that task be a mischievous one. The ravens and magpies are
most conspicuous in these qualities.
The Jay, so well known for the beautiful blue markings on its wings, is
rather a shy bird, preferring to reside in the thickest woods, and seldom
coming into the open country. It is easily tamed when young, and is
very amusing when domesticated.
228 NATURAL HISTORY.

This bird possesses, like several others of the same family, considerable
talents for mimicry. It has been known to imitate the sound of a saw,
the bleat of a lamb, or even the neighing of a horse, with the most perfect
accuracy. Nor do its powers cease here, for although its natural voice is
harsh and grating, yet it can imitate the sweet notes of singing birds,
such as the Greenfinch, with wonderful fidelity. It has also frequently
been taught to articulate words.
The name of Glandarius has been given to the Jay, because it feeds oi
vegetable productions, such as acorns, &c., more than the true Crows
It is also partial to fruits, especially ripe cherries, and is consequently
persecuted by the gardener. It is also said to devour eggs and young
birds.
Its nest is built about twenty feet from tire ground, the upper part of

Tribe IV. . . CONIROSTRES.—(Lat. Cone-shape beaked,)

Family I. . . Corvldte.—(Lat. Corvus, Crow. Crow kind.')
Sub-family a. Garrulince.
Garrulus.—(Lat. talkative.)

Glandarius (Lat. of the Acorn), the Jay.

a thick bush being preferred. The eggs are five or six in number, of a
yellowish white, thickly speckled with brown. The length of the bird is
nearly fourteen inches.
It is somewhat remarkable that m some parts of England a Jay and a
Jay pie should be considered as distinct birds. Sucn is the case in Wilt¬
shire. A year or two ago I was rather in want of a few good Jay’s eggs
for my collection, and on happening to mention the fact in the hearing oi
one of the country boys, he said that Jaypies were common in Wiltshire.
 NATURAL HISTORY 229
and that he would get me some. Of course, 1 imagined that a Jay and
a Jaypie must be the same bird, and merely thought that the suffix of
“ pie” was meant to mark that the Jay belonged to the Pies, just as the
bird in the engraving is called either the nutcracker, or the nutcracker
crow. So the boy went off happy in a commission to get some Jaypies’
eggs at a certain sum for each. In a day or two, I was told that the
boy had brought the Jaypies’ eggs.
I thought it somewhat remarkable that the boy should have thought it
necessary to bring a friend with him, and that both should be bare¬
headed, but when they produced their hats, stating them to be full of
Jaypies’ eggs, I believe that I stared at them in helpless astonishment,
supposing that they must have ransacked every Jay’s nest in the county
at least. On uncovering the hats, they were found to be filled with the
eggs of the misselthrush, which bird it appears is called the Jaypie in
those parts. So I had to pay for nearlyitwo hundred misseltoe thrushes’
eggs, of which I had plenty, and could have obtained as many as J
wished by taking some twenty steps into our orchard. After I had paid
for them, the boys wanted to a i * -i % n -
I., A, i 1, bub-iamily o. Corvmce.
Know whether they should „ J .

get some more. I was so NuciFRAGA.-(Lat. iV^, a nut; frango,

cross about the whole matter, 11 ea ^
that, I regret to say, I put
them up as “ cockshies,” and
together with my pupils spent
m
more than an hour in demo¬
lishing these ill-omened eggs,
by throwing stones at them
from a short distance. I have
found no real Jay’s eggs from
that time to this.

The Nutcracker Crow,

whose true position in the
scale of creation has so long
bewildered naturalists, is
about the size of a jackdaw,
but its form is more slender,
and the tail is longer. It is
seldom found in this country,
but is very common in more
northern districts. In its
habit? it displays a singular
re °f, woodpecker Caryocatactes (Gr. KapvoKaTaicTTfs, properly
and the nuthatch, and exhibits ^ J
so few ofthe well-known habits the Nuthatch>> the Nutcracker Crow.
of the Crows, that observers might well be perplexed where to place it.
230 NATURAL BISTORT.

It is now supposed to be one of the connecting links between the crows

and the woodpeckers.
It runs about the branches of trees, using its tail for a support, and
pecks away the bark in order to reach the insects beneath, just as the
woodpeckers do. It also pecks open the fir-cones, in search of the
hidden seed, and breaks nuts by repeated strokes of its bill, like the nut¬
hatch. It is usually seen in flocks, but is not so wary as the crows.
Its eggs are laid at the bottom of a hole in some tree. They are of a
greyish yellow colour, diversified with a few dark grey spots.

Pica.—(Lat. a Magpie.)

Caudata {long-tailed), the Magpie.

The Magpie, who seems to rival the Parrot in the proud title of the
Monkey of the Birds (the Haven being the ornithological Baboon), is a
well-known inhabitant of this country. Its thieving and hiding propen¬
sities have been frequently told; but I must still venture to give a few
anecdotes of a tame magpie that resided in Wiltshire. This bird found a
malicious enjoyment in pecking the unprotected ankles of little boys not
yet arrived at manly habiliments, and vras such a terror to the female
servants that they were forced to pass his lurking-place armed with a
broom. One of the servants having neglected this precaution, was actually
found sitting down on the stones to protect her ankles, the magpie trium¬
phantly pacing round her, until aid was brought, and the bird driven
away. But to little boys and girls the magpie showed no mercy,
springing out of its hiding-place and chasing them completely along the
garden walk.
It had also a great penchant for tearing and biting to pieces any papers
that came in its way, probably because it had perceived that people
 NATURAL HISTORY. 23]
valued them. One Sunday morning, after the family had returned from
church, the rector found his study strewed with pamphlets, torn newspapers,
&c., so that until the delinquent was discovered, he really thought that
thieves had been in the house. A Magpie never seems to be happy unless
it possesses a hiding-place, nor did this one form an exception to the
general rule, as it had pecked a hole in the thatch of a barn, wherein to
dispose its ill-gotten goods, and displayed great uneasiness if anybody
approached it.
Another Magpie gained entrance into the chapel of Wadham College,
Oxford, and remained quiet enough until the service had begun, when it
gravely walked up the centre, bowing and saying, “Pretty Mag! Pretty
Mag!” much to the discomposure of the junior members. A curious
story is told respecting the power of the Magpie to count numbers.
“ George Le Hoy states that a magpie having stolen some game, it was
resolved to shoot it. A man hid himself in a hut near its nest for this
purpose. The bird flew away when he entered, nor would return. The
next day two men entered and one came out. Mag was not to be cheated;
she waited till the second left also. Three went in and two came out,
with the same result. Pour then entered, and three came away. The
bird went back, and was shot.—So magpies, says George Le Roy, can
count three but not four.”
The nest of the Magpie is built on a high tree, and curiously defended
with thorns, having only a small hole just large enough to admit the
owners, so that the liberal use of a pocket knife is frequently requisite in
order to obtain the eggs. The nest is covered with a dome of thorns,
respecting which a curiously quaint fable is told.
“The birds,” says the historian, “not knowing how to build nests,
went in a body to request the magpie to teach them. He willingly
undertook the office. ‘Pirst,’ he said, ‘you must look out for a good,
strong, forked branch, and begin by laying two sticks crosswise.* ‘ That’s
just what I did,* said the rook. ‘Next, you must raise the sides a little,
and then put in some hay, which you must work well into the sticks.’—•
‘ The very thing I have been doing,’ said the crow. ‘ Now, for fear the
eggs should be broken or thrown out, you must raise the sides about as
high as your head when you sit in the bottom of the nest, and put in
some soft wool.’ ‘Why,’ said the thr sh, ‘I did as far as that before I
came here.’ ‘Oh! then,* replied the magpie, ‘as I see that you all
know how to make nests, there is no occasion forme to teach you.’ And
that is the reason why the other birds are only able to build half nests.”
The interior of the nest is defended by a coating of mud, worked
smooth. The eggs are five in number, of a greenish white, covered with
brown markings. The length of the bird is about eighteen inches.

The Raven is very common on the Continent, and most parts of Asia
and America, but is now seldom seen in this country except in a domes¬
ticated state. It is more frequently found in the Hebrides than in any
232 NATURAL HISTORY.

other part of Great Britain. In those islands it lives principally on

carrion of various kinds, such as dead sheep or lambs, whose death the
Raven is accused with some justice of hastening, and on fishes or ceta¬
ceous animals which have been cast on shore by the waves, in tliesi
cases the Raven conducts itself much in the manner of the vulture, it
commences by taking out the eye and tongue, and then proceeds to teai
open the abdomen, operations for which its sharp and powerful bill seems
quite as well fitted as the hooked beak of the rapacious birds, it is a
very crafty bird, and can with difficulty be approached; but by laying a

Corvus.—(Lat. a Crow.)

Corax (Gr. Kupa£, a Raven), the Raven.

dead carcase near its haunts, and being carefully concealed, it may be
seen cautiously approaching: first, perching on an eminence, it looks care¬
fully round; then, advancing with a sidelong step, it examines its expected
prey. When fully satisfied, it pecks out the eyes, and proceeds to satiate
itself with food. The Raven seems to rear in storms, and to be deterred
by no inclemency of weather from seeking its prey.
Although formerly so plentiful in England that innumerable omens
were drawn from its appearance, its croaking, or its flight, it has almost
become extinct, much to the discomfiture of omen seekers. No incan¬
tation and no dance of witches seemed to be considered complete, without
 NATURAL HISTORY. 233

a black cat, a toad or two, a bat, and a raven. Certainly the extra¬
ordinary gravity which marks the demeanour of the Raven has something
almost preternatural in it. The manner in which he sets about a piece of
mischief, as if he considered it a moral duty, is most absurd, and the
pertinacity with which he prosecutes a great work, such as the feat of
Charles Dickens’ Raven, who “new pointed the greater part of the garden
wall, by digging out the mortar, and tore up and swallowed in splinters
the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps and a landing,” is
perfectly astounding.
A Raven in our possession used to watch the gardener taking particular
pains to prop up and secure a valuable plant. His labour was always in
vain, for the Raven, with a sidelong step and an unconcerned air, as if he
were thinking of anythiug but the plant, would sidle by it, when one
wrench of his iron bill laid the unfortunate plant on the earth, and the
Raven moved off with a most provoking air of innocence. The lady to
whom the garden belonged was quite afraid of the bird, and declared
that she almost believed that it was possessed by some evil spirit. It
used to walk behind her, so that she could never see it; for when she
turned round, the Raven hopped round too, and kept himself completely
out of her sight. At last it became so very mischievous that it was sent
away, much to my regret.
Not long ago, I was visiting a small collection of living birds, among
which was a Raven whose wings were clipped, and who was permitted to
have the free range of the yard. He gained considerable benefit from his
freedom, for he could steal the provisions of the other birds, unless they
were very quick. When I went to his residence, I took the back of a
letter, and was reading the address, when I saw the Raven watching my
proceedings with great curiosity. The paper was of no consequence, so
I let it fall, and walked on as if it had been an accident. The Raven
waited until I had left the paper some few paces behind, when he took a
sidelong kind of a walk towards it, tore it into scraps, and ran away with
the largest piece under a water-butt, where he kept watch over it.
It has a great capacity for imitating sounds, and can be taught to pro¬
nounce whole sentences, or sing songs with wonderful accuracy.
In the northern parts of Scotland it makes its nest on high rocks, but
not unfrequently builds on the summit of a tall tree. The nest is a large
irregular structure of heath, grass, wool and feathers, and sea-weed, if it
builds near the sea-shore. It lays from four to seven eggs, of a pale
green colour, spotted with greenish brown. The length of the bird is
two feet two inches, and the expanse of wing four feet eight inches.

The Rook inhabits almost every part of Europe, and is very common
in England, where it lives in a kind of semi-domestication, usually in¬
habiting a grove of trees near a house, or in a park, where it is protected
by the owner, although he makes it pay for this accommodation by shooting
the young ones every year. Apparently in consequence of this annual
23 i NATURAL HISTORY.

persecution, the Rook lias an intense horror of guns, perceiving them at

a great distance. While feeding in flocks in the fields, or following the
ploughman in his course, and devouring the worms and grubs turned up
by the share, the Rook has always a sentinel planted in a neighbouring
tree, who instantly gives the alarm at the sight of a gun, or of a sus¬
picious-looking object.
The good which the Rook does by devouring the grubs of the cock-
chaffer, and the tipulas, or daddy-long-legs, both of which are exceedingly
injurious to the crops, more than compensates for the damage it some¬
times causes, by pulling up young corn, or newly set potato cuttings ; in
the latter case more, I believe, to get at the wireworms, which crowd to

convus.

Frugilegus (Lat. Corn-gatherer), the Rook.

the slices of potato, than to eat the vegetable itself. In the fruit season,
the Rook, like most other birds, likes to have his share of the cherries,
pears, and walnuts, but may be easily kept away by the occasional sight
of a gun.
Towards evening, the Rooks may be seen flying in long lines to their
resting-place—“The blackening train of crows to their repose.” They
then perform sundry evolutions in the air, and finally settle to rest.
Round the base of the Rook’s beak is a whitish-looking skin, denuded
ot feathers, the reason or cause of which is not very obvious. A white
variety of the Rook is sometimes seen. The gamekeeper at Ashdown
□ad a very fine white Rook, which he kept tame in his garden.
The eggs of this bird are five in number, similar to those of the raven
m colour, but much smaller. The length of the bird is nineteen inches.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 235

The Jackdaw is another well-known bird. It does not build in the

branches of trees like the rook, to which it is very similar in many
respects, but prefers holes in decayed trees or old buildings, particularly
frequenting church towers and steeples. The Jackdaw feeds upon almost
any substance that it
CORVUS.
can find. It kills mice
with a single blow
of its beak, and then
devours them piece¬
meal. Grasshoppers,
beetles, &c. are also
killed by a squeeze
across the thorax,
and the head, wings,
and legs, are twisted
off before the bird
begins to eat them.
It treats bees, wasps,
and other stinged
insects, with much
more caution. The ■llli ufJiirhil a
feathers upon the
crown of its head
are of a greyish white Monedula (Lat. a Jackdaw), the Jackdaw.
colour, a peculiarity
instantly distinguishing it from the rook. It is frequently kept tame,
and is very amusing in captivity.
A tame Jackdaw, in the possession of one of my scholars, used to travel
backwards and forwards from the school to his own home. When in the
train, his terror at the sidit of the trees whizzing past him was most
ludicrous. He uttered a snarp cry of fear, twisted round in his basket,
and thrust his beak through the interstices on the opposite side. After
he had recovered from his fright, he was usually very talkative. He had
a great notion of his own consequence, and if any one spoke in a louder
tone than usual, thought it his duty to answer. His love of washing
was unbounded, and he would have washed twenty times a day, if he
could have persuaded us to give him the water, for which he used to ask
in a very expressive manner.
The eggs are of a lighter colour than those of the rook, smaller and
more sparingly spotted. The length of the bird is fourteen inches.

The Crow, or Carrion Crow, as it is erroneously called, seldom feeds

on carrion; for poor indeed would be his meals were he dependent on dead
sheep or horses for a livelihood. Possibly the name was given as a dis¬
tinction between it and the rook. Waterton states that the flesh of the
Carrion Crow is just as good as that of the rook, and relates how be
236 NATURAL HISTORY.

once served up a pie of these birds to some friends, who thought them
pigeons. It will also eat cherries and walnuts like the rook, and when
the supply of insects has failed, it will then turn its attention to the duck-
pond and farm-yard, and carry off a young duckling or chicken.
“ Sometimes he approaches the farm-house by stealth, in the search of
young chickens, which he is in the habit of snatching off, when he can
con v us.

Corone (Gr. YLopwvri), the Crow.

elude the vigilance of the mother hen, who often proves too formidable
for him. A few days ago, a crow was observed eagerly attempting to
seize some young chickens in an orchard, near the room where I write ;
but these clustering round the hen, she resolutely defended them, and
drove the crow into an apple-tree, whither she pursued him witli such
spirit and intrepidity, that he was glad to make a speedy retreat and
abandon his design.” *
It also carries off eggs, by pouncing upon them, and driving its bill
through the shell. It will be seen, from the following anecdote, that mice
and rats are not unaccustomed food.
In a field near a gentleman’s house, about a mile from Caernarvon, there
are some out-buildings much infested with rats. Four or five traps are
set on the premises every night, and it is the business of a servant-man
to go to the spot between five and six. in the morning. He is always
punctually met by a company of crows that station themselves at a little
distance, and most narrowly watch all his proceedings. No sooner does
lie remove his captives from the traps and throw them into the field, than
the carnival begins. The crows seize upon their booty, scientifically per¬
forate the integuments, and scoop out and devour every particle of flesh,
even in the head. In a very short time the skins are turned inside out,
and a few clean picked bones are the only memorials of the banquet.
The nests of this bird are placed on the summit of some tali tree, and
* Waterton.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 237

contain about five eggs, closely resembling those of the rook. T1 e length
of the bird is eighteen inches.

The Hooded Crow, otherwise called the Rovston Crow or the Grey
Crow, is rar her a scarce bird in the British Islands, although scattered
over nearly every portion of Great Britain, even including Scotland.
It is one of the winter visitors to this country, generally leaving us
about April, all hough it sometimes remains during the summer, and brings
up i brood of young. Like most of its congeners it builds its nes« on
the tops of very tall trees, such as the pine, but is also known o ui od
CORYTTS.

Coxmix (Lat. a Crow), the Hooded Cruw.

precipitous rocks. It is said to use these rocks in the stead of an oyster-

knife, for as it is very fond of oysters, and does not possess a knife to open
them with, it must discover some other method of getting at the enclosed
animal. To attain this purpose, it is said to seize the oyster in its beak,
soar up to a great height in the air, and to let the oyster drop from that
elevation upon the hard rock, when the shell is dashed to pieces, and the
Crow is enabled to pick out the animal with ease.
There is but little of the usual Corvine black hue about this bird, only
the head, throat, wings and tail being so decorated, the remainder of the
bird being of an ashy grey. The length of the bird is about twenty-two
inches.
The Chough is rather .arger than the jackdaw, and is principally dis¬
tinguished by the red hue of its bill and legs. It inhabits the counties
of the western coast of England, and is, perhaps, more common in Corn-
238 NATURAL HISTORY

Sub family c. Pyrrhocoracincc. (Gr. trvppds* flame-coloured; /copa|, a Crow.)

Coracia.—(Gr. Kopaidas, like a Raven.)

Gracula (Lat. a Chough), the Chough.

wail than in any other county. When tame, it shows a very inquisitive
disposition, examining every novelty with the greatest attention.
It builds its nest in the cavities of high cliffs, and lays four or five eggs
of a yellowish white colour, spotted with light brown. The length of the
bird is seventeen inches.

The Emerald Bird of Paradise.—This most gorgeous and elegant

bird was once the subject of much discussion between naturalists. The
natives of New Guinea were accustomed to dry them, having first cut off
their legs, and then to offer them for sale. In this footless state they
reached Europe, where it was immediately stated that the bird lived
always in the air, buoyed up by the lightness of its feathery covering;
that the shoulders were used as its nest; that the only rest it took was
by suspending itself from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail;
that its food was the morning dew; together with many other conjectures
not less ingenious than amusing.
This bird is about the size of a jay. Its body, breast, and lower parts
are of a deep rich brown; the front set close with black feathers shot
with green ; the throat is of a rich golden green; the head yellow; the
sides of the tail are clothed with a splendid plume of long downy feathers,
of a soft yellow colour. By these are placed two long filamentous shafts,
which extend nearly two feet in length.
Of these beautiful feathers the bird is so proud, that it will not suffer
* In aUu.sion to the colour of its bill and lefts*
 NATURAL HISTORY. 239

the least speck of dirt to remain upon them, and it is constantly examining
its plumage to see that there are no spots on it. When in its wild state,
it always flies and sits with its face to the wind, lest its elegant filmy
plumes should be disarranged.
So far from living exclusively on dew, it eats no small amount of insects,
such as grasshoppers, which it will not touch if dead, and commences its
Family II. Paradiseidoe.
Faradisea.—(Gr. IlapaSeia-os, a pleasure-ground.)

ApSda (Gr. Aitovs, without feet), the Emerald Bird of Paradise.

‘ Which, like a bird of Paradise,
Or herald’s martlet, has no legs.”

repast by stripping off the legs and wings. When in confinement, it also
eats boiled rice, plantains, and other vegetables; but in the wild state it
seems to feed mostly on the seeds of the teak-tree, and a kind of fig.
There are several species of Paradise Birds known, but the one given
in the engraving is the most common, and is the one of which the above
mentioned fables were told.

The Satin Bower-bird.—It is a singular thing to find a bird building

a kind of playground, without reference to its nest, but merely for
240 NATURAL HISTORY.

amusement. The Bower-bird has this curious habit. It builds a kind

of bower of thin twigs, interwoven so as to meet above, forming a kind
.. T of tunnel. The entrance of
Family III. . SturaMse.-(Lat. Sturnus a this bower is decorated with
Starting. Starling kind.) bri„iant article that the
Sub-family a. PtilonorhynchlncE. bird can find, such as shells,
Ptilonorhynciius.—(Gr. Ut(\ou, a feather; bones, and feathers of severed
pvyxos, a beak.) parrots, some feathers being
stuck in among the twigs, and
others strewn at the en¬
trance. Mr. Gould, who first
brought this curious bird be¬
fore the public, says, “The
propensity of these birds to
pick up and fly off with any
attractive object, is so well
known to the natives (of
Australia), that they always
search the runs for any small
missing article, as the bowl
o*f a pipe, &c. that may have
been accidentally dropped in
the brush. I, myself, found
at the entrance of one of
these a small neatly worked
stone tomahawk, of an inch
and a half in length, together
with some slips of blue cotton
rags, which the birds had
doubtless picked up at a de¬
iSericeus ^Lat. silky), the Satin Bower-Bird. serted encampment of the
natives. Tor what purpose
these curious Dowers are made, is not yet, perhaps, fully understood :
they are certainly not used as a nest, but as a place of resort for many
individuals of both sexes, which, when there assembled, run through and
around the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so frequently,
that it is seldom entirely deserted.”
The Starlings comprise many genera, among which the Pensile
Orioles of America are the most interesting. These birds build, or
rather weave, a fabr:c not unlike loose cloth, composed of hemp or flax.
This nest is of the singular form represented in the engraving,* and the
entrance is at the side. In all probability this singular formation is for
the purpose of keeping out the Black Snake, who is constantly on the
look-out for young birds. The parent Orioles often attack the snake, and
compel him to retreat.
* See page 24!
 NATURAL HISTORY. 24!
The plumage of the male when full grown is very brilliant. The head,
throat; and back are black, the under parts are orange, the breast ver¬
milion. A band of orange passes over the shoulders, and he tail its
orange and black. The length of the bird is almost eight inches. This
Sub-family d. Icterincs.
Icterus. — (Gr. “TicTeooj.)

Baltimorus (Lat. belonging to Baltimore), the Baltimore Oriole.

is not. the only bird that constructs pensile nests ; the Weaver Birds also
form these nests, but of a different form. They look like great pistols
hung up by the butt, the entrance being at the muzzle, and the nest in
the butt.

The Common Starling is a bird well known both for its beauty and
the singular method of flight. When a flock of Starlings begin to settle
for the night, they wheel round the place selected with great accuracv
Suddenly, as if by word of command, the wdiole flock turn their sides to
the spectator, and with a great whirring of wings, the whole front and
shape of the flock is altered. No body of soldiers could be better
wheeled or countermarched than are these flocks of Starlings, except,
R
242 NATURMj history.

perhaps, an unfortunate few, who are usually thrown out at each change,
and whom we must charitably suppose to be recruits.
The Starling lives
Sub-family g. Sturnlnce.
principally among old
Sturnus. (Lat.) buildings, and is very
fond of gaining admit¬
tance into dovecotes,
where it is a harmless
visitor, and may be suf¬
fered to remain without
detriment to the pigeons
or their eggs. Its nest
is made usually in a hole
in a wall, sometimes m
a decayed tree, and con¬
tains five eggs of a very
delicate uniformly pale
blue.
There is never any
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Starling difficulty in discovering
the nest of the Starling,
for if it builds in a hole of a
Family IV. . Fringilltdae.—(Lat. Frin-
711 ik (eaves several
* straws sticking out, as it to m-
Sub-family a. Coccothraustinv. dicate the iocality. ai?d when it
Coccothraustes.—(Gr. Kokkos,. a berry; Soes 1° take food to its young,
ePava>, I break.) both parent and children set up
such an outcry, that it may be
heard a long way off. Conse¬
quently, there are few eggs so
prevalent in the string of the
country boy as those of the
Starling

The Grosbeak or Hawfinch.

—We now arrive at the Finches;
a very large and interesting
family. None of the species are
large, and most of them are ex¬
cellent songsters. Their beaks
are conical, and fitted for the
destruction of corn, peas, &c.
The Grosbeak, or Hawfinch,
well deserves its generic name
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Hawfinch, of Berry-breaker,” for its beak
 NATURAL HISTORY. 243

is capable of breaking the hard kernels of the cherry, and, according

to Willoughby, even those of the olive. It is not a very rare bird, although
it is but seldom seen. This fact is accounted for by its great shyness
and dread of mankind; so that, although it remains in this country
throughout the year, H seldoms ventures out of the thick woods in
which it delights to dwell.
The nest of this bird is very shallow, and slightly put together, being
hardly superior to that of the wood-pigeon. The eggs are from four to
six in number, of a greenish white, covered with dark marks and spots.
The length of the Grosbeak is seven inches.

The Chaffinch or Piefinch, as it is often called, is so well known

as to need no description. It is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful nest
which it constructs. The forks
of a thorn or wild crab-tree Sub-family b. Fringillince.
ire favourite places for the
FRINGILLA.
nest, which is composed of mos¬
ses, hair, wool, and feathers,
covered on the exterior with
lichens and mosses, so exactly
resembling the bough on which
the nest is placed, that the eye
is often deceived by its ap¬
pearance. In the nest four or
five very pretty eggs are laid :
these are of a reddish-brown
colour, sparely marked with
deep brown spots, especially
towards the larger end.
The name Ccelebs or Bache¬
lor, is given to this bird, be¬
cause the females quit this
country about November, leav¬
Ccelebs (Lat. Bachelor), the Chaffinch.
ing large flocks of males be¬
hind them.

The Goldfinch or Thistiafinch, so called on account of its fondness

for the down of the thistle, is one of our most beautiful birds. Where
thistles abound, small flocks of goldfinches may be seen flying from hedge
to hedge, and occasionally pecking the white tops of the thistles. The
tufted seed of the dandelion, groundsel, and other plants is also eaten by
the Goldfinch.
In captivity it is very tame, and can be trained to perform a multitude
of tricks; the most common of which are, drawing its own food and water
with a chain and bucket, or firing a gun when commanded. The nest is
very beautiful, being mostly made of wool and down from various plants.
R 2
244 NATURAL HISTORY.

FlUNGILLA.

Carduelis (Lat. a Linnet), the Goldfinch.

and is usually placed on the extremity of a spray. The eggs are small,
of a whitish tint, spotted with orange brown.

FR INGILT A.
The Common Linnet
frequents commons and
neglected pastures. Its
song is very sweet, and
many bird-fanciers sup¬
pose that the mixed
ireed of a canary and a
linnet has a sweeter song
than either bird.
Its nest is usually
built in the centre of a
large and dense bush.
The eggs are five in
number, greyish - white
Cannabina (Gr. Kavi/aPivos, fond of hemp), the
speckled with red.
Linnet.

The Siskin is hardly to be considered more than an occasional visitor

in England, but in Scotland it sometimes breeds, as may be seen from
the following extract:—
“ The Siskin is a common bird in all the high parts of Aberdeenshire,
which abound in fir-woods. They build generally near the extremities of
the branches of tall fir-trees, or near the summit of the tree. Sometimes
the nest is found in plantations of young fir-wood. In one instance, 1
met with a nest not three feet from the ground. I visited it every day
until four oi five eggs were deposited. During incubation the female
 NATURAL HISTORY. 245

flowed no fear at my ap¬ FRINGXLLA

proach. On bringing my
Oand close to the nest, she
showed some inclination to
pugnacity, and tried to frighten
me away with her open bill,
following my hand round and
round when. I attempted to
touch her. At last she would
only look anxiously round to
my finger, without making any
attack on me. The nest was
formed of small twigs of birch
or heath outside, and neatly
lined with hair.”
Its eggs are a bluish-white
spotted with purplish red. Spinus (Lat. a Sloe-tree), the Siskin.

FIIINGILLA.

Chloris (Gr. XAcipus, green), the Greenfinch.

The Greenfinch or Green Linnet is larger than the Common

Linnet. It frequents gardens, shrubberies, and cultivated lands, and
feeds on insects or seeds. The notes of this bird are not peculiarly
melodious, nor has it many qualifications to entitle it to notice.

The Canary.—This pretty little songster is so well known as to need

but little description, particularly as there are no opportunities ot
itudying its natural course of life. From the manner in which th*>
246 NATURAL HISTORY.

Carduelis.—(Lat. a Linnet.)

Canaria (Lat. tlie Canary).

Canary is usually reared, it is evident tliat the bird has but very little
opportunity of exhibiting its natural instincts.

Tiie Sparrow.—The courageous, impudent, quarrelsome Sparrow ij

known to all, and, therefore, will not be described. There are few wlm
have not seen this little bird, when
Passer.—(Lat. a Sparrow.)
pressed by cold in the whiter, come
to the window, expecting his dona¬
tion of crumbs. It is very fond of
grain of various kinds, and does
some damage to the fanner, but the
destruction of caterpillars by the bud
more than compensates for the loss
of the grain. The little impertinent
bird has no scruple in perching on
the pig’s trough, and partaking of Lis
dinner, or in mixing with fowl and
taking its share of their provisions;
and on a newly thatched house it
absolutely revels. Dozens of spar¬
rows may then be seen pecking and
pulling at the straws in high enjoy¬
ment. I was once watching a flock
of sparrows on a newly-thatched
Domesticus (Lat. domestic), the barn, hopping, pecking and scram¬
House Sparrow. bling in perfect happiness, when
 NATURAL HISTORY. 247

sudden/f s. sharp twitter was heard, and the whole body hastily adjourned
to a tree close by, making a prodigious chattering Presently I saw
appear, over the ridge of the house, the head of a cat,, who had walked
up the thatcher’s ladder, hoping to secure a few sparrows in the midst
of their meal. The nest of the House Sparrow is usually built in holes
of roofs. The eggs are speckled black and white, and very variable.

The Bum ting.—A hard round Sub-family c. Emberizince.

knob in the roof of the upper Emberiza.—(Lat. a Bunting.)
mandible, points out the genus
Emberlza. This knob is pro¬
bably used for the purpose of
breaking the shells of the small
but hard seeds on which the
bird feeds.
Large flocks of these birds
collect together in the autumn
and winter in their attacks upon
the farm-yard or the field.
Partly in revenge for their de¬
predations, and partly on ac¬
count of the price that they will
fetch in the market, great num¬
bers are annually caught in nets
or shot.
The nest is always placed
either on or near the ground,
and contains four or five darkish Miliaria (Lat. belonging to Millet, or that
eggs, covered very irregularly feeds on Millet), the Bunting.
with deep brown marks.
EMBERIZA.
TkeYELLOW-IlAMMER
or Yellow Bunting is
a very delicately marked
little bird, very common
in our hedges, where it
flits before the tra veller,
always keeping about
twenty yards in front. It
makes its nest on the
ground, and lays five
eggs curiously scribbled
over with dark chocolate
lines, just as if a child
had been trying to write Citrinella (Lat. yellowish), the Yellow
Arabic on the eggs. Bunting.
248 NATURAL HISTORY.

Some say that the name ought to be Yellow-Ammer, the word Ammei
being German for Bunting, and the German word for this bird being
Goldammer.

The Ortolan, a little bird in very great repute for the table, is also
an Emberiza. This bird is
regularly fed like poultry,
in the South of Europe, and
soon becomes exceedingly
fat, when a guinea is fre¬
quently the price of it.
It is received as a British
bird, because it has been
taken off the coast of York¬
shire, and also in Mary-le-
bone Fields.

The Larks are known by

. /T , , , ... . . their very long hind toe.
Hortulana (Lat. belonging to a hale garden), The skylark, which pours
forth its animated songw bile
suspended high in the air, is an inhabitant of most parts of Europe,
Asia, and North Africa, but is not found in America. A very inte-
Sub-family d. . . Alaudlnce. resting story is told of
,T . T 7X a Skylark that was taken
Alauda.—(Lat. a Lark.) . y . . ,
out to America by a pooi
emigrant, and which used
to collect crowds of de¬
lighted listeners round
its cage. An English
settler, who happened to
be passing by while the
bird was singing, was so
affected by the reminis¬
cences which its song
called up, that he offered
his horse and cart for the
bird, on the spot. The
owner, however, would
Arvensis (Lat. belonging to Ike fields), the Skylark, j-^g nQ prJce for it
although most extravagant offers were made, and kept it till his death.
The bird afterwards passed into other hands, but refused to sing until its
cage was hung up in the open air. After its death, its skin was sent
back to its native land, and is now stuffed, seated in its old cage, with
a suitable inscription attached.
The nest is made on the ground, frequently in the print of a horse’s
 NATURAL HISTORY. 240
oot, and contains live eggs of a greenish-white, thickly spotted with
brown. There are generally two broods in the year; one in May, and the
other in July or August. Immense numbers of these birds are caught
annually and sent to the London markets. The mode of catching the
Larks is generally by means of a number of horsehair nooses attached to
a long line. Pood is scattered among the nooses, and the larks in
reaching the food get their limbs entangled in the horsehair, and either
strangle themselves, or are held until the fowler comes to take them out.
Dunstable is the most celebrated place for them. It does not at all
agree with the sense of justice, that these beautiful birds, who charm us
with their voices, should be killed to increase the pleasures of the table.

The Woodlark is another of our British Larks, but differs in some

respects from the skylark. It is smaller, and can perch on trees, a power
denied to the skylark. It also ALAT’DA.
sings on the wing, but some¬
times prefers to pour forth its
notes while perched on the
branch of a tree.
Its nest, like that of the
, is also placed on the
ground; the eggs are darker
than those of the skylark.

The Bullpincu is a singular

instance of the power of art on
the song of birds. The natural
note of the Bullfinch is low,
and can only be heard at a short
distance; but when well trained
the bird whistles, or “ pipes,55
as it is called, any melody which
has been taught it, in a fine
flute-like tone. A good piping
Bullfinch sells at a very higli
price. The method of teaching, Arborea (Lat. belonging to trees), the
Woodlark.
is to confine the birds in a dark
room, and, before their food is given, to play the air that they have to
learn, on an instrument called a bird-organ. The birds soon begin to
imitate the notes, and by degrees the whole tune is learned. Some
trainers substitute a small clarionet for the bird-organ.
When in captivity the Bullfinch is very sociable, and soon learns to
Know his owners, and to come to them if called.
A rather singular fate befel one of these birds. A lady, on opening
her window, saw a bullfinch quietly seated outside on the sill. To her
gi«eat surprise, it did not move when the window was opened; but per-
250 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family e. Pyrrhulince. mitted itself to be taken up in

Pyrrhula.—(Gr. Uv^ovXas,) from
the hand and carried into the room.
Ylvfipos, flame-coloured. When placed on a table, it gave no
indication of any wish to escape,
but sat still, as if it were suffering
from illness. An examination being
instituted as to the cause of this
singular circumstance, a seed was
found firmly fixed in the bird’s
throat. The impediment was soon
removed with a needle, and the
bird became quite lively. This
relief, however, proved but a tem¬
porary respite; for while a cage was
being prepared for its reception, it
escaped from the hand of its bene¬
factress ; flew hastily to the closed
window; and, being unaccustomed
to glass, dashed itself with such
violence against one of the panes,
that it fell dead on the ground.
Rubicilla (Lat. reddish), the Bullfinch’ This anecdote was related to me
by an eyewitness of the scene.
The nest of this bird is made in thick bushes, or fir-trees. The eggs
Sub-family f. Loxime. are of a pale greenish white, spotted
rnvr, /r. . ,/ \ with orange brown. The name of
Loxia.—(Lr. Aotos, crosswise.) -r, , v . . ..
liuilhnch is given to it, on account
of the large proportionate size of
its head and neck. When in cap¬
tivity, its plumage sometimes turns
black, the result of feeding it too
profusely with hempseed.

The genus Loxia is instantly known

by the crossed points of the beak,
and the horny scoop at the tip of
the tongue. The Crossbill uses
these tools to open the fir-cones, on
the seeds of which it feeds. The
bird inserts both its mandibles under
the scales of the cone, then by sepa¬
rating them the scale is raised up,
while the seed is scooped out by the
horny tip of the tongue. This sin¬
Curviroatra (Lat. Curved-bill), the gular structure of the beak enables
Cross-bill. the bird to divide an apple in halves.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 251

so as to get at the pips. Although the crossed mandibles appear rather

a barrier to picking up small objects, yet the Crossbill can pick up and
husk the smallest seeds, or shell almonds; which latter feat is accom¬
plished by picking a hole in them, and then wrenching them open, just
as an idle schoolboy opens a nut with his penknife, when he ought to be
using that instrument in the more legitimate operation of mending lr.s
pen. Mr. Yarrell gives an interesting account of a pair of Crossbills, who
amused themselves by twisting out the wires of their cage. They actually
succeeded in pulling out a flat-headed nail used to confine the network,
but the bird lost the point of his bill in his efforts. They were at last
banished, on account of their unceasing destruction of cages.
The nest is built on the branches of a fir-tree, and the eggs are bluish
white spotted with red.

Family VII. Bucerotidm.

Buceros.—(Gr. Bovuepoos, ox-horned.)

Rhinoceros, the Rhinoceros UonibiU.

The Rhinoceros Hornbill.—This singular and almost start ling

family comprises but few species, which are all natives of India ana
Africa. The enormous bill, with its incomprehensible appendage, although
of course heavy, is really much lighter than it looks; being composed of
252 NATURAL HISTORY.

a kind of light honeycombed structure. The upper protuberance is

hollow, and the only conjecture formed of its use, is that it serves as a
sounding-board to increase the reverberations of the air, while the bird
is uttering its peculiar roaring cry.
In spite of the apparently unwieldy bill, the bird is very active, and
hops about the branches of the trees with much ease. The appendage
to the upper mandible is small when the bird is young, and only attains
its enormous size when the Hornbill has reached its full growth. The
bill of the hoopoes presents a somewhat analogous peculiarity, as when
the bird is young the bill is short and pointed, and increases with the
size of the bird. From this circumstance, together with some other
resemblances, some naturalists imagine that there is an affinity between
the hornbills and hoopoes.
The Hornbills seem to be omnivorous, fruits, eggs, birds, reptiles, &c.,
forming their food. The African Hornbills are extremely fond of
nutmegs, and are, on that account, said to be peculiarly delicate eating,
reminding one of the Barmecide’s memorable lamb fed on pistachio nuts.
The Rhinoceros Hornbill is a native of India, and the Indian islands.
The length of its bill is usually about ten inches.

The Scansores, or Climbing Birds, now engage our attention.

According to Mr. Gray, under this order are placed the Toucans, the
Parrots, the Woodpeckers, and the Cuckoos. The feet of these bird3
have two toes in front and two behind.
The Toucans are all natives of tropical America. Their enormous bill
is rendered light in the same way as that of the hornbills, by being chiefly
composed of a honeycomb structure. It seems to be very sensitive, and
well supplied with nerves, as the bird not only appears to enjoy holding
meat or fruits with the tip of its bill, but has been seen to scratch that
organ with its foot, plainly proving that there must be sensation. It
seems to be omnivorous, but is particularly fond of mice, and small birds,
which it kills by a powerful squeeze, then strips and finally pulls to pieces
and devours, having previously reduced them to a shapeless mass by
repeated lateral wrenches with its enormous and saw-like bill. Water ton
in his Wanderings describes the usual haunts of the Toucan.
“ Heedless and bankrupt in all curiosity must he be, who can journey
on without stopping to take a view of the towering mora. Its topmost
branch, when naked with age or dead by accident, is the favourite resort
of the Toucan. Many a time has this singular bird felt the shot faintly
strike him from the gun of the fowler beneath, and owed his life to
the distance betwixt them.” In the same interesting and amusing
work, he remarks a strange habit of the Toucan, called the Houtou by
the natives.
“ This bird (the Houtou) seems to suppose that its beauty can be
increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same operation as
 NATLlUvL HISTORY.

our hair in a barber’s shop; only with, this difference, that it uses its own
beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors. As soon as his tail
is full grown, he begins about an inch from the extremity of the two
longest feathers in it, and cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft,
making a gap about an inch long : both male and female adorn their tails
in this manner, which gives them a remarkable appearance amongst all
other birds.”

Order III. . . SCANSOEES.—(Lat. scando, I climb. Climbing birds.)

Family I. . . Ramphastidse.
Sub-family a. Ehamphastidince.
Rhampuastos.—(Or. 'Y'afx(pT](T'T7]s, properly, a Pike.)

Toco (native name), the Toco Toucan.

When sleeping, the Toucan takes great care of his bill, packing it
away, and covering it carefully with the feathers of its back, and alto¬
gether presents the appearance of a large round ball of feathers. The
body is about eighteen inches in length. These birds, together with the
hoopoes and hornbills, have a habit of throwing their food down their
tbmats with a peculiar jerk of the bill.
254 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. Psittacid®.—(Gr. Vir ratios, a Parrot.)

Macrocercus.—(Gr. Manpos, long; nlpuos, tail.)

Ararauna (from the Brazilian word Arara), the Blue and Yellow Macaw

The Macaws.—Many naturalists imagine, and with some reason, that

the Psittacidse ought to be formed into an order by themselves. In this
family the construction of the bill is very remarkable. As the curved tip
of the bill would prevent the bird from opening it wide enough to admit its
food, the upper mandible is united to the skull by a kind of hinge joint, of
equal strength and flexibility. When climbing among the branches of
trees, or about their cages, the Parrots invariably make great use of their
hooked bills in assisting themselves both in ascending and descending,
The crossbills have been observed to climb much in the same way.
The Parrots are said to be very long lived, some have certainly been
known to live upwards of eighty years in captivity, and may be imagined
to exceed that period in a wild state.
The Macaws are natives of South America. The blue and yellow
Macaw inhabits Brazil, Guiana and Surinam, living principally on the
banks of rivers. Of one of the Macaws, the Carolina Parrot, or Parra-
keet as Wilson calls it, the following anecdote is told by that enterprising
naturalist:—
 NATURAL HISTORY. 255

“Having shot down a number, some of which were only wounded,

the whole flock swept repeatedly round their prostrate companions, and
again settled on a low tree, within twenty yards of the spot where I
stood. At each successive discharge, though showers of them fell, vet
the affection of the survivors seemed rather to increase; for, after a few
circuits round the place, they again alighted near me, looking down on
their slaughtered companions with such manifest symptoms of sympathy
and concern, as entirely disarmed me.”
Wilson also makes mention of a singular idea, that the brains and
intestines of the Carolina Parrot (which lives on cockle-burs) are
poisonous to cats. Why the brains should be so is rather incomprehen¬
sible, although we can easily understand that the Parrot might take some
substance into its stomach injurious to cats. Wilson tried the experi¬
ment after being repeatedly disappointed of a patient, but came to no
conclusion on the subject.
“Having shut up a cat and her two kittens, the latter only a few days
old, in a room with the head, neck, and the whole intestines of the
parrakeet, I found on the next morning the whole eaten except a small
part of the bill. The cat exhibited no symptom of sickness, and at this
moment, three days after the experiment had been made, she and her
kittens are in their usual health. Still
however the effect might have been Palasornis.—(Gr. naAaicfs, old
different, had the daily food of the bird opns, a bird.)
been cockle-burs instead of Indian corn.”

The Ringed Parrakeet is frequently

seen domesticated in this country, where fa
its pleasing manners and gentle dispo¬
sition render it a great favourite. It
seems to be exceedingly fond of ripe
walnuts, divided in halves ; and, while
it is picking out the kernel, continually
utters a short clucking sound indicative
of pleasure.
It soon learns to repeat words and
short sentences, and to speak with toler¬
able distinctness. Sometimes, when ex¬
cited, it utters most ear-piercing screams,
and always appears to practise any new
accomplishment when it thinks that no
one is within hearing. A Ringed Parra-
keet belonging to one of my scholars
was accustomed to live in the school¬
room. At first it used to become Torquatus (Lat. collared), the
angry that it was not noticed during Ringed Parrakeet
school hours, and to utter a succession of screams; but after being shut
256 NATURAL m^TORY.

up in a darx closet several times, it learned to behave very demurely,—

giving an example worthy of imitation to several of its human play¬
fellows. I am sorry to say, that the bird escaped from its cage, and was
snot by an ignorant farmer in the neighbourhood.
The colour of the bird is green, and a rose-coloured band round its
neck gives it the name of the Hose-ringed Parrakeet. The bill is red.

Caoatua.—(From the native name.) The Cockatoos are remarkable

for the powdery surface of their
wings, and the crest on the head,
which can be raised or depressed
at pleasure. The Sulphur-crested
Cockatoo is an inhabitant of New
Guinea. Its colour is white, and
the crest is of a sulphur yellow.
Its white plumage glancing among
t he dense dark foliage of its native
forests, imparts a wonderful beauty
to the scene; and as Sir Thomas
Mitchell remarks, “ amidst the
umbrageous foliage, forming dense
masses of shade, the white cock¬
atoos sported like spirits of light.”
This Cockatoo is easily tamed,
and is of a very affectionate dis¬
position. When in captivity it
SulphurSa (Lat. Sulphury), the Great
has been known to live to the
Sulphur Cockatoo. age of 120 years. Its nest is
built in hollow trees, and the
crevices of rocks. The eggs are white. The length of the bird is about
eighteen inches.

The Woodpeckers, whose name indicates their habits, are widely

spread, being found in all quarters of the globe except Australia. They
subsist on insects and grubs, which they dig out of trees, or discover under
the bark. For this purpose, their whole structure is admirably adapted.
The bill is long, sharp, and powerful, and the formation of the feet and
legs is such that the bird is able to grasp the tree firmly with the feet,
while swinging with the force of his whole body against it. Another
most singular point in the Woodpeckers, is the method by which they are
enabled to thrust the tongue deep into the crevices, and bring out any
insects that may happen to be there. The tongue is connected with two
elastic ligaments which are inserted near the juncture of the upper man¬
dible with the skull. From thence they sweep round the back of the head,
and passing under the lower mandible, enable the tongue to be thrust out
 *)K-
NATURAL HISTORY. O i

k considerable distance. The tip of the tongue is sharp, and barbed with
several filaments; and more firmly to secure the prey, a kind of gummy
secretion causes those insects to adhere, that would be too small to be
impaled.
It appears to be an erroneous opinion, that these birds injure trees.
Their only object in pecking away the wood and bark, is to get at the
insects, which they know are hidden within. Now insects seldom or never

Family III. . Picidae.—(Lat. Pious, a Woodpecker. Woodpecker kind.

Sub family c. Picince.
PIOUS.

Major (Lat. greater), the Great Spotted Woodpecker.

bore into healthy wood, but a decayed branch or stump is always full ot
them, as is well known to the entomologist; so the winged entomologist,
when he perceives a decayed branch, or finds an unsound spot in the trunk,
immediately sets to work industriously, and is rewarded by finding plenty
of insects, which he draws out and demolishes, with more benefit to
himself, and possibly more good to others, than many human entomologists
can boast.
Although the Woodpecker does not scoop away sound trees, yet it is
because it has no motive for doing so—not that the power is wanting.
Wilson had au Ivory-billed Woodpecker in his possession, which pecked
s
 2£>& NATURAL HISTORi.

away latli and plaster in its efforts to escape, and utterly ruined a
mahogany table to which it was fastened.
The Great Spotted Woodpecker is an inhabitant of England, but is
seldom seen. Large woods are its favourite
haunts. Like all its tribe, it feeds on the
scsftw insects which it procures from decayed trees,
and also on berries and fruits. Its eggs are
laid in a deep hole excavated in a tree. Ecr
this purpose, the Woodpecker usually chooses
SCULL OP THE WOODPECKER.
a place where a branch has broken off, or more
commonly the part of the trunk where a certain fungus has grown,
causing the tree to decay in that spot, although apparently healthy.

The Green Woodpecker is by far the most common in this country,

and may be often seen in woods, tapping the trees with wonderful rapidity,
the blows lollowing each other something like the sound of a watchman’s
PIOUS.

Vmdis (Lat. green), the Green Woodpecker.

rattle It generally runs up the trunk of the tree in a spiral direction,
occasionally striking off large pieces of dry bark. When it descends, it
still keeps its head uppermost.
I have more than once seen the Green Woodpecker busily employed
among the trees of the Christ Church Walks, Oxford, and very frequently
 NATURAL HISTORY. 259
in Bagley Wood. I have never seen it on the ground, and but once on
the smaller branches of the trees.
A few years ago, I saw one of these birds running up the trunk of a
fall elm-tree, and seeing half a brick lying on the ground, I took it up
and threw it towards the bird, merely wishing to startle it. As the tree
was at some distance, I did not imagine that the brick would have gone
so far, much less were there any grounds for supposing that a bird in
rapid motion could have been hit by so unwieldy a weapon. To my
astonishment, it struck the Woodpecker, but did not bring it down; the
poor bird flew olf with loud screams, and a drop or two of blood fell on
the dry leaves. The brick had come with one of its edges against the legs
of the bird, and broken them both off. I lamented for a while about the
fate of the unfortunate Woodpecker, which at no distant period must
have died of starvation, if not from the effects of the wound. I made at
inward resolution at the time never to throw a stone at a bird again,
however distant it might be.

The Wryneck is tolerably common in the southern counties ot

England, but is scarcely ever
seen in the north and west. Sub-family g. Yunclnce.
It principally feeds on ants, Yunx.—(Gr. ‘'ivy£.)
which it picks up with great
rapidity by means of its long
tongue, covered with a
glutinous secretion like that
of the woodpecker. The
rapidity with which the ants
are taken is so great, that
“an ant’s egg, which is of a
light colour, and more con¬
spicuous than the tongue,
has somewhat the appear¬
ance of moving to the
mouth by attraction, as a
needle does to the magnet.”
The name Wryneck is given
it from its habit of rapidly Torquiila (Lat. twisting), the Wryneck.
twisting its head and neck,
and hissing like a serpent, if disturbed upon its eggs. The young also
hiss if they are molested.
Its eggs are laid on the bare wood in the holes of trees. Like most
eggs that are laid in holes, they are of a pure white. The length of the
bird is seven inches.
260 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV. . Cuculldse.—(Lat. Cuculus, a Cuckoo. Cuckoo kind.

Sob-family e. Cuculince.
CUCULUS.

Canorus (Lat. musical), the Cuckoo.

The Cuckoo, spring’s harbinger, has, at all ages, obtained for itself a
name at once pleasing and disreputable; pleasing, because its well-known
notes are a sign that the cold winter is gone; and disreputable, because
it usurps the nests of other birds, of which the hedge sparrow is the
usual victim. In its nest the cuckoo deposits one of its own eggs, which
are remarkably small in proportion to the size of the bird. The unsus¬
pecting hedge sparrow hatches the intruder together with her own young.
The Cuckoo rapidly increases in size, and monopolizes no small portion of
the entire nest, besides taking the lion’s share uf the provisions. The
mother, however, "ever seems to perceive the difference, but feeds and
tends the interloper with quite as much care as her own young.
Dr. Jenner states that the young Cuckoo ejects the former and rightful
occupants of the nest, by managing to get the egg or young bird upon its
back, clambering up to the edge of the nest, and then throwing it over
by a sharp jerk.
At some times of the year, Cuckoos are comparatively tame. I have
repeatedly decoyed them by imitating their cry, until they came near
enough for me to see the movement of the beak. Once a Cuckoo came
voluntarily, and settled on a hurdle close by, uttered his peculiar cry
several times, and then leisurely flew off.
The Cuckoo feeds principally on the hairy caterpillars, especially those
of the tiger moth (Arctia caja), the hairs of which form a Kina oi iimng
 NATURAL HISTORY. 261
to its stomach. These hairs are placed so regularly, that it was imagined
for some time tnat they were a growth from the stomach itself. To settle
the point, the microscope was brought to bear on the subject; and by its
aid, the hairs were found to be exclusively those of the caterpillar above
mentioned.
The Cuckoo will also feed oil other insects, as is proved by Gilber.
White, who saw several Cuckoos engaged in feeding by a large pond
They were chiefly employed in catching the dragon flies, some of which
they took while resting on the water plants, and others they caught on the
wing.
A tame Cuckoo, that lived for more than a year in captivity, seemed to
consider a young mouse an especial treat. The mouse was first beaten
against the ground or a hard stone, until it was reduced to a soft mass,
after which process it was swallowed. The length of the bird is about
fourteen inches.

The Dove—This Order IV. COLUMBJE.

family is supposed to Family I. Columbidoe.—(Lat. Columba,
be more widely distri¬ a Dove. Dove kind )
buted than any other. Sub-family b. Columbines.
COLUMBA.
The three pigeons en¬
graved are the only
species that live wild
in this country.

The Ringdove, or
Cushat, is the
largest of our native
pigeons. A black
ringlet round the
neck, edged with
white, gives it the
name of Ringdove.
It is very common
in England; and its
nests are usually
found to consist of a
few sticks, thrown
loosely together on
a spray of fir or
holly. The struc¬
ture of this platform,
for nest it can hardly
be called, is so loose,
that the white eggs Palumbus (Lat. a Pigeon), the Ringdove.
can generally be seen from below through the interstices of the nest-
202 NATURAL H INTO Hi'.

(lOLUMBA.

(Enas ^Gr. Oluas), the Stockdove.

The Stockdove builds its nest in the stocks of trees, (from whence ik
name,) and. has been known to lay its eggs in deserted warrens, without
making any nest at all. In former times, when forests of beech-trees
m /x • m ±11 \ used to cover the coun-
Iurtur.—(Lat. a Turtle-dove.) . „ n i
' ’ try, enormous docks of
these birds frequented
them, in order to feed
on the beech-mast. Now
they are not so common,
although they still assem¬
ble in considerable num¬
bers.

The Turtle-dove, a
bird much revered by
poets for its constancy,
is only a spring visitor
to our shores, arriving
Anritus (Lat. eared), the Turtle-dove. towards May, and leav¬
ing us about September.
The nest is a mere platform of twigs, on which the eggs are laid. The
 NATURAL HISTORY. 2G3

constancy and affection of this bird for its mate has been deservedly
celebrated in all ages; though it is not easy to understand why other birds,
such as the raven, whose constancy is quite as remarkable, should be
deprived of the meed of praise due to them.

The Passenger Pjgeon.—This extraordinary bird, whose powers ol

flight are almost incredible, is a native of America, and overspreads the
country in countless myriads during the breeding season. It is well that
their power of wing is so great, for were the enormous flocks to he
confined to one place, they would devour the whole of the grain. Pigeons
have been killed in New Ectopistes.—(Gr. ’Ektott'^co, to migrated
York with Carolina rice
still in their crops. As
their digestion is re¬
markably rapid, these
oirds must have flown
between three and four
hundred miles in six
hours, giving an average
speed of a mile per
minute.
At the breeding season,
the overwhelming mul¬
titudes of Pigeons that
settle on one spot are
almost incredible. Wil¬
son, who was present
at one of these breeding
places, gives the follow¬
ing account:—
“ Not far from Shel-
byville, in the state of
Kentucky, about five
years ago, there was one
Migratorla (Lat. migrators), the Passenger
of these breeding places,
Pigeo:\,
which,stretched through
the woods in nearly a north and south direction, vjs several miles in
breadth, and was said to be upwards of forty miles in extent! In this
tract almost every tree was furnished with nests wherever the branches
could accommodate them. The pigeons made their first appearance there
about the 10th of April, and left it altogether, with their young, before
the 25th of May.
“As soon as the young were fully grown, and before they left the
nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants, from all parts of the adjacent
country, came with waggons, axes, beds, cooking utensils, many of them
accompanied by the greater part of their families and encamped for
264 NATURAL HISTORY.

several days at this immense nursery. Several of them informed me

that the noise in the woods was so great as to terrify their horses, and
that it was difficult for one person to hear another speak, without bawling
in his ear. The ground was strewed with broken limbs of trees, eggs, and
young squab pigeons, which had been precipitated from above, and on
which herds of hogs were fattening. Hawks, buzzards, aud eagles, were
sailing about in great numbers, and seizing the squabs from their nests
at pleasure; while from twenty feet upwards to the tops of the trees,
the view through the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and
fluttering multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, min¬
gled with the frequent crash of falling timber; for now the axe men
were at work cutting down those trees that seemed to be most crowded
witli nests, and contrived to fell them in such a manner, that in their
descent they might bring down several others, by which means the falling
of one large tree sometimes produced two hundred squabs, little inferior
in size to the old ones, and almost one mass of fat.
“ All accounts agree in stating that each nest contains only one young
squab. These are so extremely fat, that the Indians and many of the
whites are accustomed to melt down the fat for domestic purposes, as a
substitute for butter and lard.”
A few observations on the mode of flight of these birds must not be
omitted. “A column, eight or ten miles in length, would appear from
Kentucky, high in air, steering across to Indiana. The leaders of this
great body would sometimes gradually vary their course, until it formed
a large bend of more than a mile in diameter, those behind tracing the
exact route of their predecessors. This would continue sometimes long
after both extremities were beyond the reach of sight, so that the whole
with its glittering undulations, marked a space on the face of the heavens
resembling the windings of a vast and majestic river. . . . Sometimes a
hawk would make a sweep on a particular part of the column, from a
great height, when, almost as quick as lightning, that part shot down¬
wards out of the common track, but soon rising again, continued
advancing at the same height as before; this inflection was continued by
those behind, who, on arriving at this point, dived down almost perpen¬
dicularly to a great depth, and rising, followed the exact path of those
that went before.”
The following group comprises the most conspicuous varieties of the
Domestic Pigeon. All these birds, except the Carrier, the Pouter, and
and Tumbler, are very similar in their habits, and need no description.
The Tumbler is a very little pigeon, and derives its name from its
singular habit of falling backwards when on the wing. Pigeon fareiera
Hssert that a flight of twelve Tumblers may be covered with a Hand¬
kerchief.
The Pouter is a large pigeon. It stands particularly erect, and seems
exceedingly vain of the swollen crop which gives it the name of Pouter.
The bird is enabled to inflate its crop with air, until the head is almost
 NATURAL HISTORY. 265

hidden behind it. This inflation sometimes causes the bird to lose its
balance, and fall down chimneys, on which it is fond of standing, thereby
illustrating the proverb that “Pride will have a fall.”
The Carrier Pigeon is the bird that was so largely employed to takt
messages, before the invention of the Electric Telegraph rendered even
the speed of the wind too slow for the present day. The most valuable
Carriers were trained to carry to and from their residence. A letter was
written on a small piece of paper, and fastened under the wing of the

DOMESTIC PIGEONS.

pigeon, or to its feet. The feet were then bathed in vinegar to keep them
cool, lest the bird should stop on the way to bathe. When the pigeon
was set free, it rose high in the air, made one or two circular flights, and
then darted off like an arrow in the proper direction. One of these birds
has been, known to fly nearly one hundred and fifty miles in one hour.

The Peacock.—This magnificent bird is not a native of this country*

but has been domesticated in England for many years. Some suppose
that it was first brought from India by Alexander, and by him introduced
into Europe. The gorgeous plumes that adorn the Peacock do not
compose the tail, as many suppose, but are only the tail-coverts. The tail
feathers themselves are short and rigid, and serve to keep the train
‘266 NATURAL HISTORY.

spread, as may be seen when the bird walks about in all the majesty 01
his expanded olumage.
Although pea-fowl seek their food on the ground, they invariably roost
on some elevated situation, such as a high branch, or the roof of a barn

Order V. . . . GALLINAE.—(Lat. Gallus, a Domestic Fowl.)

Family III. . Phasianldae.—(Gr. <&ajiav6s, a Pheasant.-* Pheasant-kindd
Sub-family a. Pavonmcp.
Pavo (Lat. a Peacock).

CJnetatue (Lat. crested), the Peacock.

or haystack. When the bird is perched on the roof, its train lies along
the thatch, and is quite invisible in the dusk.
We have almost dismissed pea-fowl from our entertainments in these
• T.e. a bird from the river Phasis in Colchis.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 267

days, but in the times of chivalry, a roasted peacock, still clothed in its
plumage, and with its train displayed, formed one of the chief ornaments
of the regal board. The nest of this bird is made of sticks and leaves
rudely thrown together, and contains from twelve to fifteen eggs. The
young do not attain their full plumage until the third year, and only the
males possess the vivid tints and lengthened train, the female being
a comparatively ordinary
Sub-family b. Phasianlnce.
bird. A white variety of
Argus.—(Gr. proper name.)
the Peacock is not un¬
common. In this case, the
eyes of the train feathers
are slightly marked with a
kind of neutral tint.
The voice of the Peacock
is as unpleasant and un¬
musical as its external
appearance is attractive.
There are some Peacocks
living at a farm just at the
outskirts of Oxford, which
frequently startle those who
pass by their haunts at
night. They are fond of
roosting on the roof of a
small barn, where they are
quite imperceptible in the
dusk of the evening. When
any one passes down the
lonely lane which borders
the farmyard, one or other
of the birds is tolerably
certain to give its jarring
scream, much to the alarm
of the passer-by.

The Argus Pheasant is

found in Sumatra and the
south-eastern parts of Asia.
The magnificently marked
secondary quill feathers Giganteius (Lat. gigantic), the Argus Pheasart,*
render it a most conspicu¬
ous bird. The primary feathers are comparatively short. No living
specimen has yet been brought to Europe, as it is said to pine
captivity. In its native haunts it is very shy, avoiding the proximity
of human abodes, and living in the solitary depths of woods.
The name Argus is given to the bird because the numerous eye-like
268 NATURAL HISTORY.

spots that cover the whole of its plumage are considered hs bearing an
allusion to Argus, the hundred-eyed shepherd, who was set by Tuno to
watch lo.

The Common Pheasant was originally brought from Georgia, and nas
completely naturalised itself in this country. It is a hardy bird, and
bears the cold months very well. Altnough it ban be tamed, and will
come to be fed with ihe poultry, yet an innate timidity prevents it from
oeing thoroughly domesticated. Young pheasants that have been hatched

FITAS1ANUS.

Colclncus (Lat. Colchian), the Pheasant.

under a hen, scamper off in terror if an unexpected intruder makes Ins

appearance among them, although the remainder of the poultry remain
perfectly unconcerned.
This bird loves to perch at night on trees, especially on the spreading
blanches of the larch. Poachers are so well aware of this habit that
they always visit the larches first, while on their marauding excursions.
A few spruce-firs surrounded by dense and tall holly hedges form an
''■xcellent place of refuge for the birds, who can bid the poacher defiance
from their stronghold; while a few dozen wooden pheasants nailed on the
□ranches of the unguarded trees, are admirably adapted for trying the
patience and wasting the ammunition of the nocturnal plunderer.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 260

A white variety of the Pheasant sometimes occurs, but seems never to

be propagated. The nest of the bird is made on the ground, and contains
from ten to eighteen eggs of an uniform dun colour.

The Domestic Fowls are too well known to need much description.
There are many varieties, the most conspicuous of which are the
Cochin-China, Crested, and Bantam. The Game Fowl was formerly in
great request for the cruel sport of cock-fighting, an amusement which,
although happily now almost extinct, was in great vogue but a few years
since. The Java Fowl, of which the enormous Cochin-China bird vs a

Sub-family c. GaUlncu.
Galttts.— ILat. a Cock.)

Domestfcus (Lat domestic), the Domestic Fowl.

variety, is supposed to be the origin of the Barn-door fowl. The cock

has been long celebrated for his warlike propensities, and his habit of
greeting the approach of morn by his “ shrill clarion.”
A young hen of the Cochin-China breed, when introduced among thv.
other poultry of a farmyard, was shamefully persecuted by its companions.
It was very absurd to see the poor creature pecking up a stray crumb or
two outside the general circle, and flying in terror before a little game
hen, if it ventured to approach too close. The principal advantage of
270 NATURAL HISTORY.

this bird seens to be that the chickens, from their superior size, are read)
for the market at an earlier age than those of the ordinary fowl.
The Bantam is a very little bird indeed, but exceedingly courageous,
and does not hesitate to attack a turkey or such large bird with most
amu>ing pompousness of manner. Some Bantams have their legs thickly
feathered down to the very toes. The hackles, or long neck feathers of
this and the preceding bird, are much used by anglers for making
artificial flies.
The celebrated Jungle Fowl of India belongs to this race, and is by
many supposed to be the origin of our domestic game fowl. The
Chinese, who are greatly addicted to the sport of cock-fighting, prefer
this bird for their cruel amusement.
The Dorking Fowl is a large and delicate species. The chief peculiarity
in this bird is the double hind toe, so that it has five toes instead of four.

The Turkey is an inhabitant of America, and appears to have been

imported into Europe about the year 1600. Its habits in a state of

Sub-family d. Meleagrlnce.
Meleagris.— (Gr. MeAecry/ns, a Guinea-fowl.)

Gallopavo (Lat. the Turkey).

lomestication need no description, but when wild in its native woods are
rather interesting. It is partly migratory in its hah’ts, moving from
the parts about Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, towards the Ohio and
 NATUKAL HISTORY. 271

Mississippi. The march is usually performed on foot in large flocks, the

birds seldom using their wings except when attacked, or in order to
cross a river. The powerful birds can easily cross a river of a mile iu
breadth, but the weaker frequently fall into the water, and then paddle
to shore with some rapidity. This migration is performed about the end
ot October. Bonaparte, in his splendid work on the American Ornitho¬
logy, gives the following account of the ingenious way in which the
turkeys escape the insidious attacks of their enemies.
“ These birds are guardians of each other, and the first who sees a
hawk or eagle gives a note of alarm, on which all within hearing lie close
to the ground. As they usually roost in flocks, perched on the naked
branches of trees, they are easily discovered by the large owls, and
when attacked by these prowling birds, often escape by a somewhat re¬
markable manoeuvre. The owl sails round the spot to select his prey,
but notwithstanding the almost inaudible action of his pinions, the quick
ear of one of the slumberers perceives the danger, which is immediately
announced to the whole party by a chuck: thus alarmed, they rise on
their legs, and watch the motions of the owl, who, darting like an
arrow, would inevitably secure the individual at which he aimed, did
not the latter suddenly drop his head, squat, and spread his tail over
his back; the owl then glances over without inflicting any injury, at the
very instant that the turkey suffers himself to fall headlong towards the
earth, where he is secure from his dreaded enemy.”
The Guinea-fowl or Pintado was originally brought from Africa,
and was anciently confounded with the turkey. Prom its peculiar cry it
has gained the name of w * /T ,v
“Come-back.” In its wild Num.oa. -<LaU
state it is gregarious, as¬
sembling in large flocks in
some marshy situation. At
night the birds roost on the
trees in company, like the
turkey. It is of a restless,
wanderingdisposition, which
does not leave it in captivity,
the oird frequently wander¬
ing for several miles from
its home.
It is rather a tyrant to
the other inhabitants of the
farmyard, and does not hesi- ^
tate to bite them severely. , . ,, n ,
L say bite, because it does &
uot peck like other birds, but grasps its opponent with its mouth, and holds
* So called on account of its Numidian origin.
272 NATURAL HISTORY.

on like a bull-dog. One of my friends has one of these birds, which hat
struck up a great friendship with a barn-door cock. In spite of her friend¬
ship, however, she keeps him in good order, and if he presumes to help
himself before she is satisfied, she plunges at him tumultuously, and
grasps him tight with her beak, while she runs screaming round the
yard. When the fowls are fed, she secures all the food to herself by a
very ingenious manoeuvre. She runs in a circle round the place where the
food is lying, so as to include it all, and if she sees any lying beyond, she
makes a larger circle. Any one of the other fowls intruding into this space
is immediately bitten. So they hang about outside, while she pecks
away at the food at her leisure, and when she is satisfied she graciously
permits the others to get what they can.
Like the turkey, the Pintado lays its eggs in the closest concealment
it can find. The eggs are rather smaller than those of the hen; the shell
is very thick, and the colour is a yellowish red profusely spotted with
dark brown.
This is the bird that was called Meleagris by the ancients. The sisters
of Meleager were said to have been metamorphosed into birds, whose
feathers were sprinkled with the tears shed for his death.

Family IV. Tetraonldae.—(Lat. The Partridge, an inhabitant

Tetr&o, a Bustard.) of this country, is well known as
Sub-family a. Perdicince. one of the birds included in the
designation of “game/’ It lays
Peudix.—(Gr. a Partridge.)
from fifteen to twenty eggs in a
rude nest placed on the ground,
and displays great attachment to
them, and no small ingenuity in
decoying an intruder away. Mr.
Jesse mentions that a gentleman
who was overlooking his plough¬
man, saw a partridge run from
her nest, almost crushed by the
horses’ hoofs. Being certain that
the next furrow must bury the
eggs and nest, he watched for the
return of the plough, when to his
great astonishment the nest, pre¬
viously containing twenty-one eggs,
was vacant. After a search, he
found the bird sitting upon the
eggs under a hedge, nearly forty
yards from the nest, to which
Cinerea (Lat. ashy), the Partridge. place she and her mate had
removed the whole number in less than twenty minutes. In some parts
 NATURAL HISTORr. 273
of England the Partridge is very plentiful—one sportsman having shot
in two days one hundred and sixty-eight brace on one manor.
The length of the bird is twelve inches and a half; the wing is short
and rounded, causing the peculiar whirring sound when in motion ; the
third and fourth primary feathers are the longest.

The Quail is a tolerably common little bird, visiting England in

the summer. Countless flocks of them are spread over the whole of
Southern Europe, and multitudes are taken and sent to the London
markets; thirty-six thousand having been purchased during one season
by the London poulterers.
Temminck states that hundreds of thousands arrive in Naples and
Provence, and are so fatigued that for several days they suffer them¬
selves to be taken by
hand. We are here re¬ Coturnix.— (Lat.)
minded of the flight of
Quails with which the
Israelites were fed, the
sacred narrative even
preserving the nocturnal
flight of these birds.
“And it came to pass,
that at even the Quails
came up and covered the
camp.” Probably the
instinct to fly by night is
implanted in them for
the purpose of avoiding
the birds of prey that Communis (Lat. common), the Quail.
would attack them by
day. The female lays from seven to twelve eggs in a rude nest on the
ground.
The length of the bird is seven inches ; the second primary feather is
Ihe longest.

The Capercaillie, or Cock op the Wood, is common in most parrs

of Northern Europe, and was once to be found in Scotland and Ireland.
The male is a large bird, almost equalling a Turkey in size, but the female
is considerably smaller. In the early spring, before the snow has left the
ground, this singular bird commences his celebrated “ play.5’ This play
is confined to the males, and intended to give notice of their presence to
the females who are in the neighbourhood. “ During the play/' sayg
Lloyd, “ the neck of the Capercaillie is stretched out, his tail is raieod
and spread like a fan, his wings droop, his feathers are ruffled up, and in
short he much resembles in appearance an angry turkey-cock. He begun
his play with a call something resembling peller, peller, peller; thea»
T
274 NATURAL HISTORY.

sounds he repeats at some little intervals, but as he proceeds, _ they

increase in rapidity, until at last, and after perhaps the lapse of a minute
or so, he makes a sort of gulp in his throat, and finishes with sucking
in, as it were, his breath.
“During the continuance of this latter process, which only lasts a few
seconds, the head of the Capercaillie is thrown up, his eyes are partially

Sub-family b. Tetraonince.
Tetrao. — (Lat. a Bustard.)

Urogallus * (Latinised from the Danish Ur, primitive), the, Capercaillie.

closed, and his whole appearance would denote that he is worked up into
an agony of passion. At, this time, his faculties are much absorbed, and
it is not difficult to approach him.”
The nest is made on the ground, and contains from six to twelve eggs.

The Black Grouse or Black CocKf is still found on the moors of

Scotland and some parts of England, and, together with the red grouse,
tempts innumerable sportsmen annually to spend their leisure months on
the moors.
* Agassiz, in his “ Nomenclator Zoologicus,” derives the name from Urus, a buffalo ;
but the derivation given above is evidently the correct one. The German name for the
fcud is exactly similar, Auerhahn, iit.eta.lly, meadow-fowl, Aue and Ur being connate
v.vds.
t See page 275.
 NATURAL HISTORY. ?J5

TETRAO.

Tetrix (Gr. Terpi£ or rerpa£, a grouse), the Black Grouse.

The Red Grouse has never been found wild on the Continent, but
seems to confine itself exclusively to the heaths of Scotland, Wales,
and Ireland. In these places it is very numerous, associating in flocks
or “ packsand together with the black grouse is eagerly pursued by
sportsmen, who are fre¬
quently baffled by the Lagopus. (Gr. Aayu>s, a Hare; ttovs, a foot
shy and wary habits of tj^e Ptarmigan.)
the birds.
It derives its name
of Lagopus or Hare¬
footed, from the cover¬
ing of its legs, which
are feathered down to
the toes, much as the
foot of the hare is
covered with fur. The
nest of the Red Grouse
is formed of heath and
grass, carelessly heaped
together on the ground
under the shelter of Seotfcus (Lat. Scotch), the Red Grcuse-
some low shrub. The
young are fully fledged by August.

The Ptarmigan.—The legs and feet of the Ptarmigans are thickly

covered with hair-like feathers, reaching as far as the claws. Their
T 2
276 natural history.

plumage bears a singular analogy to the fur of the ermine and some othei
quadrupeds, as it changes in winter from a rich tortoiseshell colour to a
pure white. The common Ptarmigan inhabits the northern parts of
Europe and America, and is also found in the north of Scotland, prin¬
cipally among the moun¬
LAGOPUS.
tains. The colour of the
bird is so similar to that
of the mossy and lichen-
covered rocks among
which it dwells, that a
whole covey easily eludes
an unpractised eye.
Enormous numbers of
Ptarmigans are annually
imported from the north
of Europe, especially from
Norway and Sweden, to
the London market. One
poulterer has purchased
Albus (Lat. white), the Ptarmigan. fifteen thousand of these
birds ; and twenty-four
thousand have been exported in one ship from one place.
Like that of the grouse, the Ptarmigan’s nest is a loosely-constructed
heap of twigs and grass, and contains from ten to fourteen eggs, of a
reddish white spotted with brown.

The Brush Turkey.—The Megapodidse, deriving their name from

the enormous size of their feet, are inhabitants of Australia and the
Papuan Islands. In the habits of these birds there is a peculiarity
hardly less singular than surprising. Instead of hatching their eggs by
the warmth of the body, as most birds do, not excepting the ostrich, the
Mcgapodes bury their eggs in a decaying heap of grass and leaves,
trusting to the heat furnished by the fermentation to hatch the eggs.
The Brush Turkey is principally found in the thick brushwood of New
South Wales. Mr. Gould, who first brought it before the public, gives
this curious account of their nests :—“ The mode in which the materials
composing these mounds are accumulated is equally singular, the bird
never using its bill, but always grasping a quantity in its foot, throwing
it backwards to one common centre, and thus clearing the surface of the
ground for a considerable distance so completely that scarcely a leaf or
a blade of grass is left. The heap being accumulated, and time allowed
for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the eggs are deposited, not side by
side as is ordinarily the case, but planted at the distance of nine or twelve
inches from each other, and buried at nearly an arm’s depth, perfectly
upright, with the large end upwards. They are covered up as they are
 NATTTR4T, HISTORY. 277

laid, and allowed to remain until hatched. I am credibly informed, both

by natives and settlers living near their haunts, that it is not an unusual
event to obtain nearly a bushel of eggs at one time from a single heap ;
and as they are delicious eating they are eagerly sought after.”

Family V. Megapodidac.—(Gr. Me^as, great; ttovs, a foot. The great

footed kind.)

Talegalltjs.—(Latinised from native name.)

Latliami (Lat. of Latham), the Brush Turkey, or TallegaUa.

When the Brush Turkey is disturbed, it either runs through the

tangled, underwood with singular rapidity, or springs upon a low branch
of some tree, and reaches the summit by a succession of leaps from
branch to branch. This latter peculiarity renders it an easy prey to the
sportsman.

The Mound-making Megapode inhabits the dense thickets bordering

on the sea-shore, and is never found far inland. Like the Brush Turkey,
it deposits many eggs in one mound, but instead of placing them at
intervals in the mound, the bird makes deep holes, from five to six feet,
at the bottom of which the eggs are deposited. The natives obtain the
eggs by scratching up the earth with their fingers, until they have traced
the hole to the bottom; a very laborious task, as the holes seldom run
straight, and often turn off at right angles to avoid a stone or root. The
mounds are enormously large. Mr. Gilbert was told by the residents
278 NATURAL HISTORY.

MEGAPODIUS.

Tumulus (Lat. a Mound), the Mound-malcing Megapode.

that they were the tombs of the aborigines, nor was it until after some
time that their real nature was made known. The height of one mound
was fifteen feet, and its circumference at the base sixty feet.
-» ■

The Ostrich.—The Struthionidse include the Ostrich, Emu, Cas¬

sowary, and Apteryx. The birds of this family are all remarkable for
the shortness of their wings, which are weak and unable to raise them
from the ground, but appear to assist them in running. On this account
Cuvier called the family Brevipennes, i.e. short-winged birds.
The Ostrich is the largest bird as yet known to exist, its height being
from six tc eight feet. It is an inhabitant of Africa, and from thence
the elegant plumes are brought. These plumes are mostly obtained from
the wings of the bird, and not from the tail, as is generally imagined.
An immense number of eggs are laid by the Ostriches in one spot,
several birds belonging to each nest. The eggs are very large and strong,
and are in general use by the Bosjesmans for holding water. By means
of these eggs, which they bury at intervals in the sand, after filling
tnsm with water, they are enabled to make inroads across the desert and
retreat with security, as none can follow them for want of water. Each
egg holds rather more than five pints. An excellent omelet is made by
the natives, by burying the fresh egg in hot ashes, and stirring round
the contents with a stick through a hole in the upper end, uutil
thoroughly cooked.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 279
The principal strength of the Ostricli tribe lies in the legs. These
limbs are so powerful that a swift horse has great difficulty in overtaking
the bird. As the Ostrich mostly runs in large curves, the hunters cut
across and intercept the
bird, which would in ail Order VI. STR UTHIONES.
probability escape if fol¬ Family I. Struthionldse.—(Gr. 2rpoi/0rfs, an
lowed in its exact course. Ostrich. Ostrich kind.)
The Ostrich is easily
Sub-Family a. Struthionince
tamed, as those who have
been pursued by the mag¬ STRUTHIO.
nificent birds in the Zoo¬
logical Gardens can tes¬
tify. These frequently
astonish the visitor by
suddenly snatching out of
his hand a bun or cake
which he had intended
for his own especial bene¬
fit, their long necks ena¬
bling them to reach to
a surprising distance.
Many of my readers have
doubtless seen the tame
Ostriches at the Hippo¬
drome, who ran races
bearing riders on their
backs, and really seemed
to enjoy the sport as
much as any of the spec¬
tators. The interesting
narrative of Captain
Cumming contains some
useful remarks on the
habits of the Ostrich, and
the method in which it is
destroyed by the Bosjes-
mans.
“While encamped at
this vley we fell in with
several nests of ostriches;
and here I first ascer¬
tained a singular pro- Camelus (Gr. Kd/x-pKos, a Camel), the Ostrich.
Density peculiar to these
birds. If a person discovers the nest, and does not at once remove the
eggs, on returning he will most probably find them all smashed. This the
old birds almost invariablv do even when the intruder has not handled the
 280 NATURAL HISTORY.

eggs, or so much as ridden within live yards of them. The nest is merely
a hollow scooped in the sandy soil, generally amongst heath or other low
bushes; its diameter is about seven feet; it is believed that two hens often
lay in one nest. The hatching of the eggs is not left, as is generally
believed, to the heat of the sun, but, on the contrary, the cock relieves
the hen in the incubation. These eggs form a considerable item in the
Bushman’s cuisine, and the shells are converted into water flasks, cups,
and dishes. I have often seen Bush-girls and Bakalahari women,
who belong to the wandering Bechuana tribes of the Kalahari desert,
some down to the fountains from their remote habitations, sometimes
situated at an amazing distance, each carrying on her back a kaross, or a
net-work containing from twelve to fifteen ostrich egg-shells, which had
been emptied by a small aperture at one end; these they fill with water,
and cork up the hole with grass.
“ A favourite method adopted by the wild Bushman for approaching
the Ostrich and other varieties of game, is to clothe himself in the skin
of one of these birds, in which, taking care of the wind, he stalks about
the plain, cunningly imitating the gait and motions of the Ostrich, until
within range, when, with a well-directed poisoned arrow from his tiny
bow, he can generally seal the fate of any of the ordinary varieties of
game. Their insignificant looking arrows are about two feet six inches
in length; they consist of a slender reed, with a sharp bone head,thoroughly
poisoned with a composition, of which the principal ingredients are ob¬
tained sometimes from a succulent herb, having thick leaves, yielding a
poisonous milky juice, and sometimes from the jaws of snakes. The bow
barely exceeds three feet in length; its string is of twisted sinews.
When a Bushman finds an ostrich’s nest he ensconces himself in it, and
there awaits the return of the old birds, by which means he generally
secures the pair. It is by means of these little arrows that the majority
of the fine plumes are obtained which grace the heads of the fair through¬
out the civilized world.”
The food of the Ostrich is vegetable, and it swallows many stones, &c.
to assist it in grinding its food. When in confinement it picks up any¬
thing, glass, nails, &c„ from the effects of which it sometimes dies. I
have assisted at the dissection of an ostrich, and have seen an astonishing
amount of pebbles and other hard materials taken from its stomach, among
which were a tolerably large piece of deal, and a considerable portion of
a brickbat.
Capt. Cumming remarks a fact not generally known, viz. the care that
the Ostrich takes of its young. It has generally been supposed, that
after the eggs are laid the female leaves them to be hatched in the sun,
and takes no more care for them. The following anecdote would do
honour to the far-famed Lapwing. “ I fell in with a troop of about
twelve young ostriches, which were not much larger than Guinea-fowls.
I was amused to see the mother endeavour to lead us away, exactly like a
wild duck, spreading out and drooning her wings, and throwing herself
 NATURAL HISTORY. 281
down on the ground before us as if wounded, while the cock bird cun
ninglv led the brood away in an opposite direction.”
The Rhea, or American Ostrich, is abundant on the banks of the river
La Plata, and is chased by the Gauchos, who pursue it on horseback,
and kill it by throwing the celebrated “ bolas.” These curious weapons
are made of a long leathern thong, having a heavy stone or leaden ball
attached to each end. The Gaucho can throw it so as either to stun his
prey with a blow from the ball, or strangle it by causing the thong to
twist round its neck.
It is known that the Rhea can swim well, and it has been seen to cross
rivers several hundred feet in width, a power which the ostrich and the
cassowary are not ascertained to possess. There are two species of
this bird, one, the Darwin’s Rhea, has been but lately introduced to
science.

The Cassowary Casuarius. —(Latinised form of Cassowary.)

is a native of the
eastern parts of
Asia. Like the os¬
trich, it cannot fly,
but runs with great
swiftness, and if at¬
tacked by dogs kicks
with extreme force
and rapidity. The
feathers of this bird
are remarkable for
being composed of
two long, thread¬
like feathers, sprout¬
ing from the same
root. The wing fea¬
thers are round,
black, and strong,
and resemble the
quills of the porcu¬
pine. At the end
of the last joint of
the wing is a sort
of claw or spur.
The crest upon its Casoar, the Cassowary.
head is composed of
a cellular bony substance.
The food of the bird consists of vegetable substances, and it will fre¬
quently swallow a tolerably large apple entire, trusting to the pebbles
&c. iu its stomach to bruise it.
282 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Emu is a native of New Holland, and nearly equals the ostrich in
bulk, its height being between five and six feet. Its feathers lie loosely
on the body, and its wings are small and hardly to be distinguished.
The skin of the Emu furnishes a bright and clear oil, on which account
it is eagerly sought after. Mr. Bennet gives the following account ol
the habits of this bird :—
“ In its manners the Emu bears a close resemblance to the ostrich. . .

Dromaius.—(Gr. Apo/xcuorunning swiftly.!

Novse-Hollandise (Lat. of New Holland), the Emu.

Its food appears to be wholly vegetable, consisting chiefly of fruits, roots

and herbage, and it is consequently, notwithstanding its great strength,
perfectly inoffensive. The length of its legs and the muscularity of its
thighs enable it to run with great swiftness; and as it is exceedingly shy,
it is not easily overtaken or brought within gun-shot. Captain Currie
states that it affords excellent coursing, equalling if not surpassing the
same sport with the hare in England; but Mr. Cunningham says that dogs
will seldom attack it, both on account of some peculiar odour in its flesh
which they dislike, and because the injuries inflicted upon them by
striking out with its feet are frequently very severe. The settlers even
assert that the Emu will break the small bone of a man’s leg by this sort
 NATURAL HISTORY. 283
ot kick; to avoid which, the well-trained dogs run up abreast, and make
», sudden spring at their neck, whereby they are quickly dispatched.
“Its flesh has been compared to coarse beef, which it resembles both in
appearance and taste. There is but little fit for culinary use upon any
part of the Emu except the hind quarters.”
The. voice of the Emu is a kind of low booming sound. The eggs
are six or seven in number, of a dark green colour, and are much esteemed
by the natives as food. When the natives take an Emu, they break its
wings, a curious custom of no perceptible utility. Young men and boys
are not permitted to eat the flesh of this bird.

The Apteryx.—This extraordinary bird, whose name is derived from

the apparent absence of wings, those members being merely rudimentary,
inhabits the islands of New Zealand, It conceals itself among the
densest fern, and when hunted by dogs, it hastens to seek a refuge
among rocks and in the cham-
bers which it excavates in the Sub-family b. Apterygince.
earth. In these chambers its Apteryx.—(Gr. a, priv.; Trrepv^, a wing
nest is made and the eggs laid. wingless.)
The natives hunt it with great
eagerness, as the skin is used
for the dresses of chiefs, who
are so tenacious of them that
they can hardly be persuaded
to part with a single skin. The
feathers are employed to make
artificial flies. When attacked
it defends itself by rapid and
vigorous strokes with its power¬
ful feet.
Dr. Shaw first brought this
bird before the notice of the
public, but for many years
naturalists considered it an
extinct species. Latterly the
question has been set at rest,
not only by the researches of
Gould and other naturalists,
but by the arrival in this coun¬
try of several skins and one
living specimen, now in the
Zoological Gardens. This bird Australis (Lat. Australian), the Apteryx.
has a singular habit of resting
with the tip of its bill placed on the ground. The nostrils of the
Apteryx are placed almost at the very extremity of the bill. The
aborigines of New Zealand give it the name of Kiwi Kiwi. The food of
284 NATURAL HISTORY,

the bird consists of snails, insects ana worms, which latter creatures il
obtains by striking the ground with its feet, and seizing them on their
appearance at the surface.
A small but well preserved skin is mounted in the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, in which the rudimentary wings are very well shown. An entiie
skeleton is in the museum of the College of Surgeons, and other speci¬
mens are to be seen in various collections.

Sub-family c. Didlnce.
Didus.—(Latinised form of Dodo.)

Ineptus (Lat. stupid), the Dodo.

The Dodo.—This singular bird, which is supposed to be extinct, was

discovered at the Mauritius by the earlier voyagers. For many years
their accounts of the Dodars were supposed to be mere flights of fancy.
Lately, however, the discovery of several relics of this bird in various
countries has set the question of its existence at rest, but not the
question of the proper position of the bird. Some think it belongs to
the pigeons, and some to the ostriches. In the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford are a head and foot of the Dodo, sole remnanrs of a perfect
specimen known to have existed in 1700 ; and in the same place, in the
year 1847, during the meeting of the British Association, were gathered
together the whole of the existing remains from every country.
In the travels of Sir T. Hubert, in the year 1627, are several accounts.
From the work of this traveller, whose amusement it was to re-write bis
 NATURAL HISTORY. 283

travels, each time completely changing the language but retaining the
matter, an extract is taken.
“ The Dodo, a bird the Dutch call Walghvogel, or Dod Eersen ; her
oody is round and fat, which occasions the slow pace, or that her corpu¬
lence, and so great as few of them weigh less than fifty pound: meat it
is with some, but better to the eye than stomach, such as only a strong
appetite can vanquish. . . It is of a melancholy visage, as sensible
of nature’s injury in framing so massie a body to be directed by com-
plimental wings, such, indeed, as are unable to hoise her from the
ground, serving only to rank her among birds. Her traine, three small
plumes, short and improportionable, her legs suiting
to her body, her pounces sharpe, her appetite strong
and greedy. Stones and iron are digested; which
description will better be conceived in her repre¬
sentation.” The “ representation ” here alluded
to is that of a globular-shaped bird, perfectly naked,
with the exception of three separate feathers on beak of the dodo.
the tail, and a few feathers on the wing. The
expression of lugubrious wisdom on the countenance is irresistibly
ludicrous.
It is still within the range of possibility that this bird may again be
discovered, as at present but little of Madagascar has been searched,
and in that island, if anywhere, it will be found.
Another bird, the gigantic Dinornis, has been extirpated from the face
of the earth by man. This enormous bird, whose leg is rather larger
than that of a fossil elk, and whose head could not have been less than
ten feet and a half from the ground, was at one time an inhabitant ot
New Zealand, but has been extirpated for many years, a fate likely to
befal the defenceless Apteryx. In the Anatomical Museum at Oxford is
a cast of the leg of the Dinornis, standing side by side with that of an
ostrich. The leg of the ostrich is quite insignificant by the side of the
enormous cast.

The Great Bustard, our English representative of the Otidse, is now

scarcely ever seen in this country, although formerly it was tolerably
common. It runs with great swiftness, and will never rise on the wing
until forced, so that instances have been known of Bustards being cap¬
tured by greyhounds. It is exceedingly wary, and can hardly be ap¬
proached within gun-shot, except by adopting some disguise, as a
labourer with the gun in his wheelbarrow, or by driving a cart or
a carriage by the spot where it is feeding.
The male Bustard possesses a membranous pouch on the fore part of
the neck, capable of holding six or seven pints of water. There is an
opening to this pouch under the longue, and its use is possibly, like that
of the pelican, to carry water for the use of the young; but this is not
ascertained. The length of the bird is rather more than three feet. Its
286 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Otlna>..—(Gr, ’P.-rk, a Bustard.)

OTU8.

Tarda (Lat. slow), the Great Bustard.

cest is a loose heap of straw on the ground, and contains two pale brown
eggs, spotted with brown, rather larger than those of the turkey.

The Plovers are known by their long legs, short toes, and long
powerful wings. Many are inhabitants of England, of which the Lapwing
and Golden Plover are the most common.
The Stone Curlew, or Thick-knee, or Norfolk Plover, is common in
England, and is to be found on open plains. White gives an accurate
description of the bird in his Natural History of Selborne. “ The
history of the Stone Curlew is as follows. It lavs its eggs, usually two,
never more than three, on the bare ground, without any nest in the field, so
that the countryman in stirring his fallows often destroys them. The
voung run immediately from the egg, like partridges. &c., and are
withdrawn to some flinty field by the dam, where they skulk among the
stones, which are their best security; for their feathers are so exactly ot
the colour of our grey spotted flints, that the most exact observer, unless
he catches the eye of the young bird, may be eluded. The eggs are short
and round, of a dirty white, spotted with dark bloody blotches. Though
l migni not be able just when I pleased to procure von a hird, yet i
 NATURAL HISTORY. 287

could show you them almost any day; and any evening you may hear
them round the village, for they make a clamour which may be heard
a mile. (Edicnemus is a most apt and expressive name for them, since
their legs seem swollen, like those of a gouty man. After harvest I have
shot them before the pointers in turnip iields.”

Order VII. . GRALLJE.—(Lat. Stilted Birds.)

Family I. . Charadrldae.—(Gr. Xaoabolos, a Lapwing.)
Sub-family a. (Edicnemince.—(Gr. olSeu, I swell; Kvri/j-ri, the leg.)
CEDICNEMUS.

Crepitans (Lat. crackling), the Stone Curlew.

The Stone Curlew is one of the migratory birds, coming in March or

April, and leaving our shores about the autumn, very few remaining
until October. It is a very shy bird, and not very easily approached.

The Lapwing, or Peewit, is very common in most parts of England

and is well known for its plaintive cry, and the stratagems it employs to
decoy intruders away from its nest, or rather eggs, for nest it has none.
Frequently, however, the attempts of the bird only draw the attention of
the passer-by to the evident vicinity of the eggs. These eggs are dark
brown, blotched with black, and are hardly to be distinguished from
the soil where they are laid. If an intruder approach them, the
bird glides before him, and flutters along, drooping her wings, as
if wounded, invariably endeavouring to lead him away from hei
288 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-Family d . Charadrince. nest. When it has suc¬

Vanellus.—(Linnean generic name.) ceeded in decoying away
the intruder, it, suddenly
mounts in the air, uttering
its cry of pee-weet, leaving
its pursuer to gaze with
astonishment at the es¬
caping bird. The eggs are
sold in great numbers,
under the title of ‘‘Plovers1
eggs,” and are considered
great delicacies. When
living, the black and white
colours of its plumage
make it very conspicuous.
Cristatus (Lat. crested), the Lapwing or On the head of the bird is
Peewit. a kind of crest.

Family II. ... Ardetdae.—(Lat. Ardea, a Heron. Heron kind.)

Sub-Family b. . Grulnce.
Grus.—(Lat. a Crane.) The Common
Crane is now but
rarely seen on our
shores, although for¬
merly as common as
was the bustard. It
flies at so great a
height, that although
its hoarse cry is au¬
dible, the bird it¬
self is far out of
the reach of sight.
It generally feeds
on snails, frogs, and
worms, but is not
by any means averse
to newly sorwn grain.
The nest is made
among reeds and
rushes, and contains
two bluish green
eggs, marked with
brown. The length
of the bird is nearly
CinerSa (Lat. ashy), the Crane. four feet.
 NATURAL HISTORY 28lJ

l he Heron, or Hf.rne, is a bird renowned in Die noWe science of

'a’eonry, and respecting which much curious knowledge is to be gained
fmin the work of Dame Juliana Berners, a book of most amusingly
quaint language.
The Common Heron generally breeds in company, like the rook;
iudeed, these two birds frequently inhabit contiguous trees, but never
interfere with each other. In the dawn of the early morning, or while
Die moon casts an uncertain
light, the Heron may be seen Sub-family c. Ardeince.
standing in the shallow water,
. O . . , , 7 A R. n K A.
.'till and motionless, and by the
faint light may be mistaken for
a stump of a tree. But his
eye is keenly directed on the
water, and no sooner does a fish
approach, than a dart of his un¬
erring bill secures it, and the
Heron soars exultingly to his
nest, bearing his prey with him.
The fixed patience that the
Heron displays has caused it to
be chosen as the emblem of Soli¬
tude.
The |)lumes of the Heron were
formerly considered as ornaments
oulv to be worn by the noble.
It is not an uncommon sight
to see this splendid bird slowly
winnowing his way through the
air, when suddenly a magpie, or
a crow, gives the alarm, and the
poor bird is instantly beset by
its annoying enemies, especially CinerSa (Lat. ashy), the Heron.
the crows, who resent the He¬
ron’s approach to their own residence, and frequently drive him away.
There was, and may be still, a belief that the legs of the Heron ex¬
haled some scent that was attractive to the fish, and caused them to
approach as the bird stood with its feet in the water. For that reason,
anglers were accustomed to make some kind of a preparation from the
skin taken from the legs of a Heron, a sort of Heron-skin tea, and with
this to prepare their bait, which they thought was rendered quite irre¬
sistible by such a proceeding.
If the Heron is fired at, the gunner should aim at the head, for the
oird is capable of carrying away without damage, or resisting by the
thickness of its plumage, a goodly charge of shot. I have myself lodged
a charge of shot against a Heron’s ribs without materially injuring tiu-
u
 290 NATURAL HISTORY.

bird, although I waited until it had spread its wings, and aimed at ita
side. The Heron certainly appeared startled, but although the shot
came against its feathers with an audible sound, the charge did
not appear to have penetrated, for the bird flew away very uncon-
cernedly.
Perhaps it was as well that it did fly away, for I w'as not particularly
cautious, and as the bird would hardly have been killed on the spot,
I might probably have lost an eye or so in attempting to secure it; for
the Heron is a very cunning bird in these matters. When it is wounded,
it will be perfectly quiet as if dead, and when the fowler stoops to pick
it, up, it will dart its beak at his head with such unerring aim, and such
unexpected rapidity, that he may think himself fortunate if his eyes
escape. Not long since, a gentleman who had shot a Heron, nearly lost
one of his eyes when he approached the wounded bird, who darted its
bill at his face with sufficient force to dash in pieces the glass of a pair
of spectacles which he was wearing at the time.
The Heron sometimes killed the falcon in its stoop by throwing its
bead back, whether purposely or not is not known, and receiving its
enemy on the point of its sharp beak, by which the falcon was transfixed
as if on a bayonet.
It has been lately ascertained that the Heron can swim in deep water,
and does so when it sees any prey that cannot be reached by wading,
such as a nice nestfull of young moor-hens, or a water-rat engaged at
his dinner.
The nest of the Heron is a flat mass of sticks, laid on the highest
branches of a tree, and contains five bluish green eggs. The length of
the bird is about three feet. An old name of this bird was the Herne,
or Hernshaw, from which was derived the saying, “He does not know
a Hawk from a Hernshaw.” The last word has been corrupted into
“handsaw,” and of course renders the proverb most unmeaning.

The Demoiselle Crane.*—This bird is chiefly remarkable for the

considerable idea that it appears to have respecting the beauty of its
own person. Its deportment is very singular, and at times even ludi¬
crous. Whenever it takes it into its head to be ridiculous, it does so
most effectually, and affectedly also. It moves about with a consequential
air, hanging its head first on one side and then on the other. It then
will run some twenty or thirty yards, treading only on the tips of its
toes, as if it wore white satin shoes, and were trying to pick its way
over a very dirty road. Then it will have a little dance all to itself, and
suddenly stand still again quite grave and composed, as if it had been
doing nothing at all. From these habits, cynical naturalists have
named it the Demoiselle.
It is rather a tall bird, being between three and four feet in height.

• See p. 291.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 291

AnTHROroiDES.—(Gr. ArOowTroeiSrjs, like ■; irmn.)

Virgo (Lat. a virgin), the Demoiselle Crane.

The Bittern.*—The beautiful Bittern has been almost banished from

this country, although it was formerly a common bird. It frequents
morasses, and dense beds of reeds, where it lies concealed until the
evening, when it leaves its rushy bed and soars to a vast height, con¬
tinually uttering its sepulchral booming cry. This singular sound is not
unlike the bellowing of a bull, and is most startling in its effect.
In olden times the Bittern was one of the birds chiefly sought after in
faiconry, as the stout defence it makes against its enemies, by darting its
sharp and powerful beak at them, and beating violently with its feet,
renders it by no means an easy prey. For this reason the falconer’s first
care on reaching the Bittern when brought to the ground by his falcon,
was to secure its head, and by fixing its bill deep in the earth, to save his
vyes from the rapid and well-aimed blows of the wounded bird. The
falcon also was in danger of being transfixed by the sharp beak of his
victim.
The plumage of this beautiful bird is a rich reddish-yellow ground,
boldly variegated with various black marks, which are most conspicuous
in the loose, long feathers that decorate its neck. In size, it is a little
»ess than the heron. It feeds principally on small reptiles, field mice,
* See page 292.
292- natural HISTORY.

Botaurus.—(Lat. boo, I bellow; taurus, a bull.)

Stellaris (Lat. starry), the Bittern.

and fish. Its nest is built on some slight elevation in a morass, aim
contains five bluish green eggs.

The White Spoonbill.*—The Common Spoonbill is found in Europe,

Asia, and Africa, and frequents Holland, together with the stork. The
strange shape of the tip of its beak has gained it the name of Spoonbill,
it has rarely been taken in this country. It feeds on worms, snails, and
water plants, searching for the latter by agitating the water with its
broad beak.
The nest of the White Spoonbill is sometimes placed in trees, and
sometimes amid rushes. It contains three whitish eggs, slightly spotted
with red. The length of the bird is not quite three feet.

The Stork f is extensively found throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.

In Holland storks are very abundant, and are encouraged by the Dutch
to build in their towns. Among the ruins of Persepolis they are very
summon, scarcely one pillar being without a stork’s nest at the summit.

•See pace 29 3. ♦ See page 291.

 NATURAL HISTORY. ?<ys

PLATA LEA.-(Lat.)

Leuccrodla (Gr. Aevtcupooov, a white rose), the White Spoonbill.

[n Holland a kind of false chimney is built by the inhabitants for these

birds to make their nests in. When the Stork cannot find a building on
which to make its nest, it chooses the flat spreading brandies of a cedar
or pine, and there collects a large mass of sticks and twigs, on which it
lays from three to five whitish eggs. When disturbed, the birds make
a great clattering with their bills.
A recent visitor to Constantinople remarks that the very Storks seemed
to have become Ottoman, for they sat on the tops of the houses, looking
staid and solemn, as becomes the Oriental character, and managed their
beaks just as if they were pipes. It is true that they wore no
turbans, but each of them appeared to have left a turban of preposterous
dimensions, viz. his nest, on the roof of a house close by.
The draining of our morasses seems to have driven the Stork com¬
pletely out of this country, where it was formerly tolerably common.
The food of this bird consists of rats, mice, frogs, &c., and it is for the
benefits it confers upon man by devouring these vermin that it is so
carefully protected and encouraged, especially in the East, where the
inhabitants do not trouble themselves by removing carrion or offal, but
leave that office to the vultures, hyaenas, and other scavengers of nature
The height of the Stork is nearly four feet.
 '21U NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. CiconinoB.
Oiconja.—(Lat. a Stork.)

Alba (Lat. white), the StorJc.

The Adjutant.*—This very remarkable bird is a native of various

parts of India, and must not be confounded with the Marabou, which
belongs to the same genus, but lives in the African tropics.
The Adjutant is one of the largest birds in the world, standing five
feet in height, and measuring seven feet and a half from the tip of the
bill to the claws, while its expanse of wing is rather above fourteen feet.
On the front of the breast there hangs a pouch of skin, into which the
bird sometimes appears to withdraw its neck altogether, looking on such
occasions as if it had no neck at all. Its bill, as will be seen from the
cut, is enormously large, and capable of receiving morsels of considerable
magnitude, inasmuch as in the crop of one of these birds were found
a land tortoise, ten inches in length, and a large male black cat, which
the Adjutant had snapped up entire. It has also been known to swallow
entire a small leg of mutton, a hare, and a small fox, so that there is no
reason to complain that it does not make use of the “terrors of its beak.”
But its beak only affords terror to those who are afraid of it, for the
Adjutant is an arrant coward, and will not venture even to oppose a hen
when she is defending her chickens which the Adjutant has been trying
to catch unobserved. When opposed, if makes a great demonstration
* See page 295
 NATURAL HISTORY. 2i)o

Leitoptilos.- (Gr. Aeirros, slender ; nr'iAov, a feaUro'.)

Argala (native name), the Adjutant.

with opened beak, and roars with a proportionately loua voice, but if the
opponent is undismayed and continues to attack, the Adjutant shuts his
big beak and runs away. It is related that the great bill of this bird was
once exercised in a very singular manner. A cooly, or native servant,
was coming round a corner, when an Adjutant dashed round the same
corner in the opposite direction, and literally spitted the poor cooly on its
beak.
The plumage of this bird is of an ashy grey fading into white on the
under parts. The generic name is given to the Adjutant on account of
the delicate plumes of the slender tail coverts.
A bird that will swallow a cat or a fox whole is likely to be rather
voracious, and to require a considerable amount of food to appease its
b unger. This object is attained by assisting the vultures, dogs and hyaenas
at their scavengering repasts, while it tills up its leisure hours by swallow¬
ing all the reptiles and vermin of all kinds that it can find. Tor this
reason it is in high favour among the natives, who protect it with jealous
guardianship. It has often been tamed, and becomes rather troublesome
in its familiarity.
296 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Sacred Ibis inhabits Egypt, but does net seem to breed there
This is the bird so frequently depicted in the hieroglyphics as playing a
conspicuous part in religious ceremonies. Their mummies are constantly

Sub-family f. Tantallnce.—(From Gr. TavraKos, a proper name.)

Ibis.—(Gr. 'T/S is.)

Religiosa (Lat. sacred,) the Sacred Ibis.

found in the tombs, and in one of these mummies Cuvier discovered

remnants of skin, and scales of snakes. It is a migratory bird, appearing
simultaneously with the rise of the Nile, and departing as the inundation
subsides. The Sacred Ibis is about the size of an ordinary fowl.

The Curlew,* or Wiiaup, is often found in the northern parts ol

England and Scotland, and is spread over the whole of the Old World,
from South Africa to the polar regions. In winter it collects in large
flocks at the muddy shores of the sea, where its long curved bill can
easily penetrate in search of food. It is an exceedingly shy bird, and
cannot easily be approached within gun-shot.
Its nest is composed of grass and rushes, collected under the shelter
of a tuft of heath or grass, and contains four greenish olive eggs blot : bed
with brown. The length of the bird slightly exceeds two feet.
* Sse page 297
 NATURAL HISTORY. 297

Family ill. Scolopacldse.—(Gr. 2/coAo7ra£, a Woodcock. Woodcock-kind.)

Sub-family a. Limosmce.—(From Gr. Aafxwv, a Meadow.)
Cracticornis.— (Gr. KpaKTiuos, clamorous ; Spvis, a 3trd.'>

Arquatus (Lat. arched), the Curlew.

The Common Sand¬ Sub-family b. Totanlnce.
piper, or Summer
Tringoides —(Like a Sandpiper.
Snipe, comes to Eng¬
land in April, and
leaves in September.
It, is very common in
Wales, and is spread
throughout most parts
of England. It derives
its name from the low
piping sound which it
utters while running
along the sandy banks
of the rivers where it
finds its food. While
it runs, it keeps its
head and tail con-
on the move,
something like those
toy birds whose heads Hypoleuca (Gr. CiroAeuHos, whitish), ‘hx Cwp.iiiAyi<
and tails are moved by Sandpiper.
two strings and a weight.
298 NATURAL HISTORY.

It can dive and swim well, although the shape of the feet and legs do
not seem very applicable to such a purpose. Even the young birds only
an hour or two out of the egg will run away if alarmed, and take to the
water as boldly as if they had been accustomed to it for years.
The nest of the Sandpiper is built in a hole in a bank near fresh
water, and is generally shaded by a tuft of grass or sedge. The eggs
are four in number, of a reddish white colour, spotted with brown.

The Avocet.—The bill in the genus Recurvirostra is exactly the re¬

verse of that in the genus Cracticornis, the curve being upwards instead
0 , , . of downwards. The
Sub-fumilyc. Recurvirostrin®. common Avocet is
Reccrvirostra.—(Lat. with bill curved upwards.)spread throughout
the warmer regions
of Europe, and is
also found in some
parts of Africa. It
is very common in
Holland, and is fre¬
quently seen on the
eastern coasts of En¬
gland, but seldom
visits Scotland. It
frequents marshes
and the mouths of
rivers, where it finds
in the mud myriads
of the small worms
and insects on which
it feeds, and which
Avccetta, the Avocet. it obtains by scoop¬
ing them up from
the mud with its curiously curved bill. It is a good swimmer, but
seldom has recourse to that art except when it wades unexpectedly out
of its depth.
The eggs of the Avocet are laid on the ground, in a depression
sheltered by a tuft of herbage. Their colour is a bluish green, spotted
with black. The birds when disturbed at their nests feign lameness, like
the lapwing, in order to draw the intruder to a distance. The length of
the bird is eighteen inches.

The Woodcock is a native of the northern parts of Europe and Asia,

and is common in this country, but rarely has been known to breed here.
It generally reaches England at the beginning of October, and leaves us
in March or April, at which time its flesh loses the delicacy that charac¬
terises it, and becomes coarse and valueless. The Woodcock frequents
 NATURAL HISTORY. 29t>
dense thickets during: the day, but Sub-family d. Scolopacince.
at night it leaves these retreats, COOLOPAX.
and visits the swamps and flooded
meadows, where it finds a suffi¬
ciency of worms and insects.
The nest of this bird is a loose
mass of grass and leaves, gathered
together in some sheltered depres¬
sion. The eggs are four in number,
of a yellowish brown, blotched with
dark brown and grey.

The Snipe is too well known

to need description. In its habits
it much resembles the woodcock,
excepting that it breeds plentifully
in several counties of England,
Scotland, and Ireland. Its flight is
very singular, rendering it a diffi¬
cult mark. The Jack Snipe con¬
fines itself to one spot, and cannot Rusticola (Lat. fond of the country),
be induced to leave it even when the Woodcock.
fired upon. Its flight is fully as
perplexing as that of the common Snipe. Stanley, in his History of
Birds, mentions “ a gentleman, a very bad shot, who having at length
Numemus.—(Gr. Nov^vios.)

Seolopacinua (Lat. like a Woodcock), the Snipe.

succeeded in killing a Jack Snipe, deeply lamented the loss of a bird
which, as he was always sure of finding it in the same place, had afforded
Him constant amusement during a whole winter.”
300 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Ruff is celebrated for its pugnacious habits and the smgulai
change of its plumage at certain seasons of the year. Towards the breed¬
ing season a beautiful frill of long feathers is formed round the neck. It
is a singular fact, that in hardly any two of these birds is the frill of the
same colour; and more remarkable, that the frill of the same bird is
of different colours at different seasons. At the same time that the frill
forms, the male birds choose each for themselves a small spot, on which

Sub-family e. Tringlnce.
Pmr.OMXcHUS.—(Gr. 4>L\d/naxos, a lover of oattles.'i

Pugnax (Lat. quarrelsome), the Jlujf.

ao other bird is permitted to intrude without a severe battle taking

place. The females, called Reeves, now arrive, and their approach is
the signal for a general melee; and the ground is soon denuded of grass
by the constant battles.
The nest of the Reeve is merely a slight depression in a tuft of grass.
The eggs are four in number, of a greenish white blotched with reddish
brown.
Great numbers of these birds are annually sent to the London markets.
Various precautions are taken to prevent their destructive quarrels
from taking place, as captivity in no way diminishes their pugnacity.

The Jacanas * are found in Asia, Africa, and America. Their light
bodies and widely extended claws enable them to walk on the leaves of
aquatic plants with equal ease and safety. As their weight is just suffi-
* See page 301.
 NATURAL history. 301

eient to sink the leaf a little Family IV. . Palamedeidse.—(Gr. riuAcfuTj,

below the surface, they have the palm of the hand.)
quite the appearance of walk¬ Sub-Family a. Parrince.
ing on the water itself. The Parra.—(Lat.)
Common Jacana inhabits the
hotter parts of South Ame¬
rica, and is abundant in Brazil
and Guiana. It possesses
large and sharp spurs on the
wing. It is not a very large
bird, barely exceeding a pigeon
in bulk.

The Corncrake * or
Landrail is very common in
England. It reaches us at
the beginning of April, and
leaves us at the end of Octo¬
ber, after hatching its eggs.
During the early part of the
summer months its harsh cry
may be heard in almost every
field, but the bird itself is very
seldom seen, as it threads its
way amoug the long grass Jac&na, the Jacana.
with marvellous rapidity. Its
cry can be so exactly imitated by drawing a quill sharply across the teeth
of a comb, that the bird may be decoyed by the sound until quite close
to the operator. The Corncrake is so averse to rising on the wing, that
a dog is frequently employed to hunt it. The young when taken feign
death with admirable accuracy, nor do they move until they imagine that
the intruder is safely out of the way.
The nest of the Corncrake is by no means uncommon. It is formed
of hay, collected and worked into some depression in the ground, and
contains from eight to twelve eggs, of a greyish yellow, covered with
dark brown spots. The length of the bird is about nine inches.

The Water-hen,! or Moor-iien, is very common along the reedy

banks of rivers and ponds. It is very widely distributed, being found in
almost aL parts of the Old World. It swims very gracefully, constantly
nodding its head, and dives with great skill and rapidity, particularly
when alarmed, in which case it generally dives under some floating
herbage, and remains there with merely its beak above the water until
* See p&ffe 3**2:. ♦ See JiP-xe 302.
302 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. . Rallldm.—(Latinised by Linnaeus the danger is passed. On

from the word Rail.) account of this habit, it
Sub-family a. Rallince. is almost useless to shoot
this bird unless the sports¬
Ortygohetra.—(Gr. 'Opriryo/n^Tpa, migrating
man is accompanied by a
with the Quails ; the Landrail.)
dog, for if it is not shot
dead it instantly dives, and
nothing but a dog can dis¬
cover its retreat. It runs
on land with considerable
activity, constantly flirting
up its tail, so as to show
the white feathers beneath,
and when alarmed, in¬
stantly makes for the water.
The nest of the Water-
hen is built among sedges
and reeds at the water
side, and contains from five
to eight or nine eggs, of a
cream yellow spotted with
dark brown. When the
Crex (Gr. Kpe£, a Crake; derived from its Water-hen leaves her nest,
cry), the Corncrake or Landrail.
she covers the eggs with
dried grass and reeds, so as
Sub-family h. Gallinulince. completely to conceal them,
apparently lest the rats should
Gallinula.—(Lat.) discover them. The young
when hatched look like round
tufts of black down. They
swim and dive well, following
their parent with great ad¬
dress. The pike is their chief
enemy, and destroys numbers
by darting at them from under
the cover of water-lilies or
other plants.

The Coot much resembles

the water-hen in its habits. It
is usually found in large sheets
of water, particularly if shel¬
tered by trees. The nest is n
ChlorSpua (Gr. XA«p0'y, green; vovs, a foot), huge mass of flags, reeds, and
the Water-hen. grass, usually at the water's
edge, but sometimes actually
 NATURAL HISTORY. 303

in tte water. In 1S49 I took five Coots’ eggs from a nest situated
at the Reservoir near Swindon. The nest was nearly fifty yards from

Fulica.—(Lat.)

Atra (Lat. black), the Coot.

the bank, and was made on a very small sunken hillock, in three feet
water. In the nest are from seven to ten greenish white eggs, spotted
with brown.

The Flamingo * is an inhabitant of the warmer parts of Europe, and

is common in Asia and the coasts of Africa. The singularly shaped beak
of this splendid bird is peculiarly adapted to its long and flexible neck.
When the bird wishes to feed, it merely stoops its head to the water; the
upper mandible is then lowest, and is well fitted to receive the nutritive
substances which are entangled in a filter placed on the edges of the
beak, much resembling the analogous apparatus of the whale.
The Flamingo frequents marshes, lakes, and mouths of rivers, bidding
defiance to the pestilent exhalations that drive man far from their haunts.
The colour of their plumage is a deep brilliant scarlet, except the quill
feathers, which are black. When a number of these birds stand ranged in
a line, according to their custom, they present the appearance of a small
and well-drilled body of soldiers, but are far more dangerous to approach
than the most formidable armv, for the miasma of the marshes has a moie
deadly aim than the rifle, and its breath is more certainly fatal than the
bullet.
The nest of the Elamingo is a curious conical structure of mud, with
a cavity at the summit, in which are placed two or three whitish eggs.
When the female bird sits on the nest, her feet rest on the ground, oi
hang into the water. The height of the bird is between five and six feet.

• See page 304.

304 NATURAL HISTORY.

Order VIII. . ANS£RES.— (Lat. Geese.) The Behnicle Goose *

Family I. . . Anatldse.—(Lat. Anas, a Duck. inhabits the northern parts
Duck-kind.) of Europe and America,
but during the winter it
Sub-family a. Phcenicopterince.
resorts to our shores in
PutENICOrTEROS.—(Gr. fyoiviKoinepos, red- great numbers. It is an
wixigecL) extremely shy bird, and
cannot be approached with¬
out the greatest caution
and skill. Of the origin of
this bird most absurd tales
have been told. All agreed
that it was produced from
a tree, but the latest and
most approved account was
that of Gerard, who in 1636
wrote as follows :—“ But
what our eyes have seen,
and hands have touched,
we shall declare. There
is a small island in Lan¬
cashire called the Pile oi
Foulders, wherein are found
the broken pieces of old
and bruised ships, some
whereof have been cast
thither by shipwracke, and
also the trunks and bodies
with the branches of old
and rotten trees, cast up
there likewise; wherein is
found a certain spume or
froth, that in time breedeth
into certaine shels, in shape
like those of the muskle,
but sharper pointed, and of
a whitish colour; one end
whereof is fastened into the
Rubra (Lat. reel), the Flamingo. inside of the shell, even as
the fish of oisters and
.Huskies, the other end is made fast into the belly of a rude masse or
lumpe, which in time commeth to the shape and form of a bird: when it
is perfectly formed the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that ap-
peareth is the foresaid lace or string; next come the legs of the bird
hanging out, and as it groweth greater it openeth the shell by degrees.
See page 305.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 305

till at length it is all come forth and hangeth only by the bill: in shori
space alter it commeth to lull Sub-family c. Anser'ince.—(Lat. Anser,
maturitie, and falleth into a goose.)
the sea, where it gathereth bernicla.
feathers, and groweth to a
fowle.”

Of the Tame Goose, An¬

ser ferus, nothing need be
said, except that enormous
Hocks are bred in Lincoln¬
shire, containing from two to
ten thousand birds each.
The birds are periodically
subjected to the operation
of plucking out the quill-
feathers, in order to supply
the vast demand for pens, &c.

The Mute or Tame Swan. Leucopsis (Gr. Aeu/cds, white; f/, a face),
a well-known ornament to on- the Bernicle Goose.
lakes and rivers, is not an m-
Sub-family d. Cygnince.
Cygnus.—fLat. a Swan )

Olor (Lat. a Swan), the Mate Swan.

X
306 NATURAL HISTORY.

habitant of England, but was introduced from Eastern Europe and Asia,
several hundred years back. All are familiar with the graceful deport¬
ment of this bird while sailing on the surface of the water. Unfortu¬
nately, its progress on land by no means corresponds with its aquatic
grace, being confined to an awkward waddle.
The female Swan makes its nest of a great mass of dry reeds, placed
among osiers or rushes near the water, and lays six or eight large white
eggs. During the time of incubation, and while the young are still small,
the parent birds defend them with great assiduity and courage.
Several large Swanneries are still in existence. The Crown, and the
Dyers’ and Vintners’ Companies own the greater part of the Swans on
the Thames, and their Swans are annually marked on the bills by men
termed Swan-uppers or hoppers. The mark of the Vintners’ Company is
a notch or nick at each side of the bill, from which arose the term, “ Swans
with two nicks,” corrupted into “ necks.”
The spelling books always say that a Swan can break a man’s leg with
a blow of its wing. Whether they can break the leg of a man or not, 1
cannot say with certainty, but I have had ocular witness that they cannot
break that of a boy. 1 have repeatedly seen a boy chase a swan into a
corner, catch it by the neck, and drag it out, in spite of all the fiappiug
uf its wings.
CYGNUS.

Ferns (Lat. wild), trie Whistling Swan.

The Whistling Swan, or Hooper, {Gygnus ferus .) [resides during

 NATURAL HISTORY. o 07

summer withm the Arctic circle, but in winter visits the northern parts
of Europe, including England. It migrates in flocks of various numbers,
arranged in the form of a wedge. The down of this bird is very valuable,
and is sought after by the Icelanders, who choose the time when the birds
have shed their quill-feathers and are unable to fly, to chase them with
dogs. The Whistling Swan wants the grace that characterizes the Tame
Swan; its neck being generally carried upright, without the elegant arch
domesticated relative. It is not quite so large as the Tame Swan; the
expanse of its wings is about eight feet.

“ Like a Black Swan,” was formerly a well-known proverb, analogous

to the Horse Marines of the present day; unfortunately for the proverb,
a Swan has been discovered in Australia, the whole of whose plumage is

Chenopis—(Gi\ Xijv, a Goose; w\p, a face.)

Atrata (Lat. blackened), the Black Swan.

a jetty black, with the exception of the quill feathers, which are white.
It has been domesticated in this country, and may be seen in St. James'
Park, eagerly seeking after the crumbs offered by juvenile hands. It is
rather smaller than the Whistling Swan.

The Widgeon is one of our autumn visiuns, arriving in this country

about the beginning of October. Large flocks of these birds generally
arrive at the same time, and are eagerly sought after, as their flesh is very
x 2
308 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family e. Anatince. delicate, the widgeon living

MARECA. almost exclusively on a vege¬
table diet.
The nest of this bird is
usually composed of decayed
grass, leaves, or rushes, lineo
with the soft feathers plucked
from the body of the parent
bird ; and is placed near water,
usually among the substances
of which it is composed.

The Mallard or Wild

Duck is the origin of our do¬
mestic bird, and is widely
Penelope (Gr. Proper name), the Widgeon, spieadover the northern paits
ot Lurope, Asia, and America,
[n the winter it migrates in countless flocks, many reaching this country
In Lincolnshire incredible numbers of these birds are taken in a very
ingenious trap, called, a decoy. It is a perfect edifice of poles and nets,
and is built in the lorm of a tube, very wide at the mouth, and very
narrow at the extremity.
anas.—(Lat a Duel.) The ducks are induced to
enter the “pipe” by the
antics of a dog, and by
some hemp-seed pre¬
viously strewn on the
water. They are then
driven onwards to the
smaller end, where they
are caught and killed.
Wilson, in his American
Ornithology, gives the
follovrin"
o
account of the
method of catching wild
ducks practised in Ame¬
Boschas (Gr. Boctkcls, a Mallard; from /36aktj, rica.
pasture *), the Mallard. “In some ponds fre¬
quented by these birds,
five or six wooden figures, cut and painted so as to represent ducks, and
sunk by pieces of lead nailed on their bottoms so as to float at the
usuai depth on the surface, are anchored in a favourable position for

• The keeper of a decoy in Lincolnshire mentioned that “the Mallard, Pintail, and
Teal, frequent rich flooded lands, swittering with their nebs (beaks) in the soil, and
sucking out all its strength; but the V/igeon is an amazing fowl to graze, and a strange
oater of grass. ’—Richardson.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 300

being raked from a concealment of brush, &c. on shore. The appearance

of these usually attracts passing flocks, which alight, and are shot down.
Sometimes eight or ten of these painted wooden ducks are fixed on
a frame in various swimming postures, and secured to the bow of the
gunner’s skiff, projecting before it in such a way that the weight of the
frame sinks the figures to their proper depth; the skiff is then dressed
with sedge or coarse grass, in an artful manner, as low as the water’s
edge; and under cover of this, which appears like a party of ducks
swimming by a small island, the. gunner floats down sometimes to the
very skirt of a whole congregated multitude, and pours in a destructive
and repeated fire of shot among them. In winter, when detached
pieces of ice are occasionally floating in the river, some of the gunners
on the Delaware paint their whole skiff or canoe white, and laying
themselves flat at the bottom, with their hand over the side silently
managing a small paddle, direct it imperceptibly into or near a flock
before the ducks have distinguished it from a floating mass of ice, and
generally do great execution among them. A whole flock has sometimes
been thus surprised asleep with their heads under their wings.”
The Tame Duck is so well known as to need no description. The
manner in which it fights the cock is highly amusing and but little known.
It frequently happens while the fowls are being fed, that the duck runs
among them, and by the help of his larger beak, gobbles up an undue
share of the provisions. This the cock resents by giving him a peck.
The Duck takes no notice, but gets behind the cock, deals him a hard
peck, and looks innocent. The cock jumps round, but sees nothing.
Presently another hard peck comes, and he gets very angry. A third
peck; but this time the cock sees his enemy, and rushes at him furiously.
Down flops the duck on the ground, and lets the cock pass over him.
After running over him once or twice, and then jumping on him, the
cock is persuaded that his enemy is quite dead, and walks off on the tips
of his toes. Presently the duck first opens one eye and then the other,
gets up, and quietly pecks the cock again. The same manoeuvres are
repeated, until at last the duck wins, like Pabius, by delay, and drives his
antagonist fairly off the field.

The Teal* is the smallest of our ducks. It frequently breeds in

England, mostly choosing the northern lakes for that purpose. Its flight
is exceedingly rapid, soon carrying it out of the reach of gun-shot. It
chooses night for its feeding-time, and during the day conceals itself
under the herbs that fringe the banks of the water where it has chosen
its habitation. Its nest is also carefully placed among dense herbage,
and contains from eight to twelve whitish eggs.
The delicacy of its flesh is well known, and it therefore figuies on
most well-furnished tables.

* See page 310.

310 NATURAL HISTORY.

Querquedula.—(Lat.)

Crecca, the Teal.

The Eider Duck.—The Eider Duck furnishes the celebrated down in

such request for pillows and
Sub-family /. Fuligullnce.—(From Fully ula, beds. It is a singular fact,
Lat. dim. of F'ulix, a Fen-Duck.) that the down must be
SomaterTa.—(Gi. 'Zu>jxa, the body; retpco, olucked from the bird when
to wear away.) iving, as it seems to lose its
peculiar elasticity and soft¬
ness when taken from the
bird after its death. The
down is plucked by the bird
itself from its breast, for the
purpose of lining its nest,
which is then repeatedly
robbed until the Eider is
reduced to laying its eggs on
the down from the male bird.
These eggs are generally
permitted to be hatched, or
the birds would forsake the
spot, and never return again.
So completely does the poor
bird denude itself, that one
Mollisslrna (Lat. very soft), the Eider Duck. female will furnish half-a-
pound’s weight of down.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 311
The CoiAMEiiLfc are remarkable for their powers of diving. The legs
are placed very far behind, and the toes are so arranged as to fold up
when returning from the stroke.
The foot of the Grebes is not webbed like that of most water birds,
but each toe is separate and flattened, so as to serve as a separate paddle.
The Grebes dive so instantaneously that it is difficult to shoot them, as they
dive at the flash, and do not reappear for nearly two hundred yards, and
then they merely raise their head above water for a second, and again
disappear.
Family II. . . Colymbldao.—(Gr. Kd'\v/ul3os, a Diver.)
Sub-family a.. Culymbince.
COLTMBUS.

Glacialis (Lat. icy), the Great Northern Diver.

All the Grebes feed upon fishes and the various water insects, but then
stomachs are almost invariably found to contain a mass of their own
feathers. This circumstance presents a singular analogy to those masses
of compacted hair which are often found in the stomachs of cows. In all
probability the reason for their presence is the same, that the feathers
and hairs are accidentally conveyed to the stomach after the creature has
been making its toilet.
312 NATURAL HISTORY.

Of the three British species of Divers, the Great Northern Diver4"

is the largest. It is generally found on the shores of the Orkneys and
Shetland.
This bird justly deserves its name of Diver, as it can pursue fish under
water with the greatest ease and certainty, and can remain under water
without inconvenience for a considerable time.
The nest of this bird is a tolerably large flattened mass of dead herbage,
and is placed near the water’s edge, in some place where the bird
imagines that the reeds and flags, among which it is laid, will guard it
from discovery. But unfortunately, the bird dislikes flying, and prefers
to walk to and from its nest, thereby leaving a very evident track, by
which it is often discovered.
The eggs are usually two in number, although three have been found
in one nest. Their colour is dark olive brown, sparingly marked with
dark spots.
The Crested Grebe is found in some of the fens of the Midland
counties of England, and also
Sub-family b. Podiceplnce. inhabits parts of Scotland.
Podiceps. — (A hybrid word.) This bird, together with the
other Grebes, builds its nest
of a mass of roots and reeds,
among sedges. The female,
like the water hen, covers up
her eggs when she leaves her
nest, which, unlike the nests
of most of the aquatic birds,
floats upon the surface of the
water.

The Daechick, or Little

Grebe, is very common in
most parts of England, and is
spread over Europe and Asia.
It is easily alarmed, and in¬
stantly dives, after which it is
of little use to look for the
bird. Even in a small pond
where tame Dabchicks are
kept, if they are startled at
anything, they all disappear
Cristatus (Lat. crested), the Crested Grebe. as if by magic, and reappear
in the same mysterious man¬
ner. Even when confined in the limited space of a small pond, the
sharpest eye cannot detect them as they hide under floating herbage,
or are sheltered by an overhanging bank."
* See page 31)
 NATURAL HISTORY. 313
It is easily domesticated,
and is often seen placed as
an ornament in lakes, or
even in ponds, wliere it
swims about very merrily,
and seems to enjoy playing
a game at hide-and-seek with
any observer who is attempt¬
ing to watch its movements.

The Puffin is common

at the Needles and the
western islands of England,
it forms deep burrows in
the soil, in which one egg
is deposited, or usurps the
burrow of a rabbit. The
hole is generally from three Minor (Lat. lesser), the Little Grebe or Lab
to four feet in depth, when chicle.
the Puffin is forced to
labour for itself; it usually takes a winding course; and the inhabitant
is secured from surprise by form¬
ing two entrances, in order that if Family III. . Alcidm.—(Lat. Alca, an
one entrance is attacked, it may Auk.)
escape by the other. The egg is Sub-family a. Alcincc.
always deposited at the furthest Fratercula.— (Lat.l
extremity of the hole, and is not
easy to be obtained, on account
of the vigorous resistance made
by the parent bird. It is an ex¬
cellent diver, plunging fearlessly
from a lofty cliff into the sea, and
speedily returning with its beak
full of fish, usually sprats, which
are secured by their heads, and lie
in a row along the bill of the
Puffin, forming a kind of pisca¬
torial fringe. Its enormous and
sharp-edged bill renders it a for¬
midable antagonist to intruders.
The length of the bird is thirteen
inches.
It is said that the Raven and
the Puffin have occasional con- Arctica (Lat. Arctic), the Puffin.
flicts, the object of dispute being
generally the egg or young of the Auk, for which the Raven has a greaf
314 NATURAL HISTORY,

predilection. The issue of the combat depends principally on its position,

each bird trying to keep to its own peculiar element. If the Puffin
can drag the..Raven over the rocks into the sea, it is speedily victorious,
as it drowns its sable adversary without much trouble, but if, on the
contrary, the Raven can keep to shore, its superior size and strength gain
the dominion.
Alca. — (Lat. an Auk.)

Impennis (Lat. wingless), the Great Auk.

The AlciDjE or Auks are never seen inland, but exclusively inhabit the
sea-shores. In this family the wings are small, and in some genen
useless for flight. The feet being required more for diving than walking
are placed so far back that the birds, when sitting, assume an erect
attitude, and their walk is nothing but an undignified (I was going to say
awkward) shuffle.

The Great Auk is an inhabitant of the Arctic Circle, but is sometimes

seen in the northern islands of Scotland. The wings of this bird are
incapable of raising it into the air, but serve admirably as paddles when
diving. It breeds principally on the shores of Iceland and Spitzbergen,
laying one large egg on a cleft of a high rock. The eggs are extremely
scarce, and fetch a very high price among collectors, a circumstance
which has caused some most ingenious impositions. In one case some of
 NATURAL WTKTORY. 315
these eggs were offered for sale at a shop where natural curiosities
are bought and sold. They were offered, I believe, at £5 each, which
being a very low price, excited the suspicions of the buyer, who asked
the seller to leave them while he examined them. He examined them
accordingly, and although he doubted, yet they looked very genuine
indeed. They had the peculiar smell of the Auk’s eggs, the hole
through which the contents were extracted was perfectly natural, the
lining membrane of the egg being still in its place. Just as the price was
about to be paid, a visitor happened to enter the shop, who recognised
the seller as a man who had sold many of these eggs of late at the same
price, but who manufactured all the eggs himself. They were, in fact,
nothing but models, exquisitely copied, and accurate in every particular,
but yet only a composition of plaster of Paris with other ingredients.
The length of the bird is nearly three feet.

The Cape Penguin is very common at the Cape of Good Hope and
the Palkland Islands. Prom the extraordinary sound it produces while
on shore, it is called the
Sub-family c. Spheniscince.
Jackass Penguin. Darwin
Spheniscus.—(Gr. <r<p-r]vl(TKos, a little
gives the following interest¬
wedge.)
ing account of this bird :—
“ In diving, its little plume¬
less wings are used as fins,
but on the land, as front legs.
When crawling (it may be
said on four legs) through
the tussocks, or on the side
of a grassy cliff, it moved so
very quickly that it might
have been mistaken
for a quadruped. When at
sea and fishing, it comes to
the surface, for the purpose
of breathing, with such a
spring, and dives again so
instantaneously, that I defy
any one at first sight to be
sure that it is not a fish leap¬
ing for sport.”
These birds feed their
young in a very singular
Demersus (Lat. submerged), the Cape
manner. The parent bird Penguin.
gets on a hillock, and ap¬
parently delivers a very impassioned speech for a few minutes, at the end
of which, it lowers its head and opens its beak. The young one, who
has bee" a patient auditor, thrusts its head into the open beak of thp
316 NATURAL HISTORY.

mother, and seems to suck its subsistence from the throat of the pareni
bird. Another speech is immediately made, and the same process re¬
peated, until the young is satisfied.
This Penguin is very courageous, but utterly destitute of the better
part of courage—discretion; for it will boldly charge at a man just as
Don Quixote charged the windmills, and with the same success, as a few
blows from a stick is sufficient to lay a dozen birds prostrate.

Sub-family d. Urines. The- Common Guillemot

makes its appearance on our
Uria.—(Gr. Ovpia, a Diver.)
coasts in the beginning of
spring, and inhabits the cliffs
overhanging the sea. Each
female deposits one egg on a
naked ledge of rock, and sits
upon it with great persever¬
ance, even suffering itself to
be taken by hand. The egg
is usually a pale green,
streaked and blotched with
brown, but is very variable
both in colour and markings.
The length of the bird is
fifteen inches.

The Fulmar Petrel is

an inhabitant of the Arctic
circle, but breeds abundantly
in St. Kilda and t’ le Orkneys,
The inhabitants of those
islands consider the Fulmar
Trolle, the Guillemot.
as one of their principal
means of subsistence, and to
obtain the birds they expose themselves to the greatest dangers. The
feathers of the Fulmar Petrel are used for their beds, its flesh they eat,
its oil is delicate and gives an excellent light when used in a lamp, besides
which it is considered a good remedy for wounds. To obtain the birds,
the inhabitants wait until they are nearly fledged, when they lower
themselves down the face of the most fearful precipices, saved from
destruction merely by a rope. This rope is one of the principal items of
the property of the people who live in the Orkneys. It is sometimes
made of hide, but the best ropes are woven of hair, and are found to be
less liable to fray against the rocks than if they were made of any other
material. There are many stories of the dangers encountered by the
daring cragsman, but there is no space for their insertion.
The Fulmar Petrel lays one white egg, large and brittle, which is
 NATURAL HISTORY. 317
imbued with the peculiar oily odour that characterises the bird. The
food of the Fulmar consists of the tlesli and blubber of dead whales and
Family IV. , Procellartdae.
Sub-family a. 1'rocellarince.
Procellaria.—(Lat. stormy.)

Glacialis (Lat. icy), the Fulmar Petrel.

o\her cetacea, and also of molluscs and Crustacea. The length of tn<
bird is sixteen inches.

The Stormy Petrel is, ThaLASSIDROMA.—(Gr. @d\a<roa, the sea ;

under the name of Mother 5piejfj.os, a race.)
Carey’s chicken, the terror
of the sailor, who always
considers the bird as the
precursor of a storm. It is
the smallest of the web-
footed birds. Few storms
are violent enough to keep
this curious little bird from
wandering over the waves
in search of the food that
the disturbed water casts to
the surface. Like the Ful¬
mar, the Stormy Petrel is
so exceedingly oily in tex¬
ture, that the inhabitants
of the Feroe Islands draw
Pelagica (Lat. belonging to the sea), the
a wick through its body
and use it as a lamp. Stormy Petrel.
Wilson gives the following account of its habits while following a shif.
under sail :—
318 NATURAL HISTORY.

“ It is indeed an interesting sight to observe these little birds in a gale,

coursing over the waves, down the declivities, up the ascents of the
foaming surf that threatens to bend over their heads; sweeping along
the hollow troughs of the sea, as in a sheltered valley, and again mounting
with the rising billow, and just above its surface, occasionally dropping
its feet, which, striking the water, throws it up again with additional
force; sometimes leaping with both legs parallel, on the surface of the
roughest waves for several yards at a time. Meanwhile it continues
coursing from side to side of the ship’s wake, making excursions far and
wide, to the right and to the left, now a great way ahead, and now shooting
astern for several hundred yards, returning again to the ship, as if she were
ail the time stationary, though perhaps running at the rate of ten knots
an hour ! But the most singular peculiarity of this bird is its faculty of
standing and even running on the surface of the water, which it performs
with apparent facility. When any greasy matter is thrown overboard, these
birds instantly collect round it, and face to windward, with their long
wings expanded and their webbed feet patting the water, the lightness of
their bodies and the action of the wind on their wings enable them to do
this with ease. In calm weather they perform the same manoeuvre by
keeping their wings just so much in action as to prevent their feet from
Milking below the surface. According to Buffon, it is from this singular
habit that the whole genus have obtained the name Petrel, from the
apostle Peter, who, as Scripture informs us, also walked on the water.”

The Wandering Albatros, the largest of the genus, is a well-known

bird in the southern seas, following ships for many miles in hopes of ob¬
taining the refuse thrown overboard. So voracious is the Albatros, that
it will swallow entire a fish of four or five pounds5 weight. The flight of
this bird is peculiarly majestic. Its extreme length of wing prevents it
from rising at once from the ground, but when once launched into the
air, it seems to float and direct its course without effort. Gould in
describing the flight of this bird says :—
“ The powers of flight of the Wandering Albatros are much greater
than those of any other bird that has come under my observation.
Although during calm or moderate weather it sometimes rests on the
surface of the water, it is almost constantly on the wing, and is equally
at ease while passing over the glassy surface during the stillest calm, or
sweeping with arrow-like swiftness before the most furious gale; and the
way in which it just tops the raging billows, and sweeps between the
gulfy waves, has a hundred times called forth my wonder and admiration.
Although a vessel running before the wind frequently sails more than
200 miles in the twenty-four hours, and that for days together, still the
Albatros has not the slightest difficulty in keeping up with the ship, but
also performs circles of many miles in extent, returning again to hunt up
the wake of the vessel for any substances thrown overboard.”
The voracity of the Albatros renders it an easy prey. A hook is baited
 NATURAL HISTORY. 319
with a piece of blubber, fastened firmly to a string, and suffered to tow
astern. The bird immediately sweeps down to seize its prey, and is
arrested by the hook, by means of which it is drawn into the ship. It
seems rather remarkable that a bird that, lives in or over the sea during
its whole life, should prove a landsman when taken on board. Yet,
when the Albatros is caught and placed on deck, it begins to stagger
about, and soon becomes as thoroughly sea sick as the most inexperienced
cockney. The best description of the nidification of the Wandering
Albatros is that given by Mr. Earl, quoted by Gould.
Mr. Earl, after climbing a fearfully dangerous precipice in the Island of
Tristan d’Acunha, arrived at a large plain of dark grey lava, on the
summit of which the nests of the Albatros wrere made. “ A death-like

Diomedea.—{Proper name.)

Exulans (Lat. banished), the Wandering Albatros.

stillness prevailed in these high regions, and to my ear our voices had a
strange unnatural echo, and I fancied our forms appeared gigantic, whilst
the air was piercing cold. The prospect was altogether sublime, and
tilled the mind with awe. The huge Albatros here appeared to dread no
interloper or enemy; for their young were on the ground completely
uncovered, and the old ones wrere stalking around them. They lay but
one egg, on the ground, where they make a kind of nest by scraping the
earth around it; the young is entirely white, and covered with a woolly
down, which is very beautiful. As we approached, they snapped their
beaks with a very quick motion, making a great noise ; this and the
throwing up the contents of the stomach are the only means of offence
320 NATURAL HISTORY.

and defence they seem to possess. I again visited the mountain about
five months afterwards, when I found the young albatroses still sitting
on their nests, and they had never moved away from them.” The expanse
of wing in the Wandering Albatros is from eleven to fourteen feet

Family V. . . Laridre.
Sub-family b. Larince.

Larus.—(Lat. a Gull.)

Marinus (Lat. belonging to the sea), the Black-backed Gull.

The Black-backed Gull is a common bird on our coasts. During

the winter it seeks the warmer coasts of southern Europe. It, breeds in
great numbers on the shores of the Bristol Channel, the Orkneys, and
other coasts of Great Britain. Its nest is composed of grass, rushes, and
other materials, and contains three or four eggs, of an olive green marked
with very dark brown. Neither the gulls nor the terns dive, but snatch
up their prey when at or near the surface.

The Terns or Sea-Swallows are possessed of great power and

endurance of flight, their long forked tails and pointed wings indicating
strength and swiftness.
The Common Tern is found in plenty along the southern shores of
Europe, in many parts of Asia and Africa. It is frequently seen on the
southern shores of England, and has been found in North America. It
preys on fish, which it snatches from the surface with unerring aim, as it
skims over the waves with astonishing velocity.
 NATURAL HISTORt. 321
The nest of this bird Sub-family c. Sternincr.
is made on the sand Sterna.—(Lat. Sterno, l strew.)
above high-water mark,
and contains two or
three eggs, on which
the female usually sits
by night. The length
of the Common Tern
is about fourteen
inches.
The Noddy, so fre¬
quently celebrated by
travellers who have
passed the equator, is
a species of Tern.
Li irundo (Lat. a Swallow), the Common Tern.

The Tropic Bird, as its name imports, is seldom seen many degree*
beyond the tropics, although a storm occasionally drives it from its ac¬
customed habitiat.
Family VI. . . Pelecantd®.—(Gr. neKctcdv, a Pelican. Pelican-kind.)
Sub-family b. . Phaetonlnce.
Phaeton.—(Gr. Qaeffco; proper name.)

there us (Lat. belonging to the shy), the Tropic Bird.

Its rapid flight seems to be accomplished almost without the aid of

wiuus. It preys extensively on the flying-lish who frequently escapes his
Y
•ton
«. «/ A NATURAL FIT STORY.

airy foe but to fall into the jaws of some rapacious rover of the deep. It
has been known to continue on the wing for whole days and nights, but
sometimes rests on the back of a turtle sleeping at the surface of the
water. The length of the Tropic Bird is about eighteen inches.

Sub-family c. I’elecanmce.
SULA.

BassanSa (Lat. belonging to the Bass Rock), the Gannet or Solan Goose.

The Gannet, or Solan Goose, is common on seme of our shores,

especially at the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Frith of Forth. This
rock is literally covered with Gannets, and is rented at a high price from
the proprietor, who makes over to the tenant the vast flocks of birds
that take up their residence on the rock. Great numbers of Gannets
breed at St. Kilda, and many are sent to Edinburgh and other markets.
The Gannet feeds almost entirely on herrings, which it seizes by
plunging with extraordinary force from a considerable height. This
method of procuring food has led to an ingenious device for capturing
the bird. A herring is fastened to a board, and suffered to float on the
surface of the water. The Gannet, seeing the fish apparently sporting
on the surface, plunges at it with such force that it is instantly killed by
the blow. A Gannet was once taken when the board was sunk to the
depth of six feet, yet even at that depth the bird’s neck was dislocated,
and its bill firmly stuck into the wood. The length of the Gannet is
about two feet eight inches.
The Booby is a species of Gannet. Sailors have given it this rathei
inelegant name on account Ol 'he stupidity it displays in suffering itself
to be knocked down with a stick, or even taken up by hand.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 323
The Cormorant is found in abundance on out- coasts, and is widely
spread over many parts of the world. It is exceedingly voracious, and
levours an almost incredible amount of fish. It is an excellent diver,
ind chases the fish actually under the water, seldom if ever returning
without having secured its prey. Like the otter, when engaged in chase,
it occasionally rises to take breath, and then resumes the pursuit with
renewed vigour. Waterton
gives the following amusing de¬ Phalacroc5rax.—(Gr. 4>«AcucpSs, bald
scription of the proceedings of Kopa(, a Raven.)
a Cormorant:—“First raising
his body nearly perpendicular,
down he plunges into the deep,
and after staying there a con¬
siderable time he is sure to
bring up a fish, which he in¬
variably swallows head fore¬
most. Sometimes, half an hour
elapses before he can manage
to accommodate a large eel
quietly in his stomach. You
see him straining violently
with repeated efforts to gulp
it; and when you fancy that
the slippery mouthful is suc¬
cessfully disposed of, all of a
sudden the eel retrogrades up¬
wards from its dismal sepulchre,
struggling violently to escape.
The Cormorant swallows it
again, and up agaui it comes,
Jtnd shows its tail a foot or Carbo (Lat. a Coal), the Cormorant.
more out of its destroyer’s
mouth. At length, worn out with perpetual writhings and siblings, the
eel is gulped down into the Cormorant/s stomach for the last time, there
to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate. This gormandising exhibition
was witnessed here by several individuals, both ladies and gentlemen, on
Nov. 26, 1832, through an excellent eight-and-twenty guinea telescope,
the Cormorant' being at that time not more than a hundred yards distant
from the observers. I was of the party.”
The Cormorant has the power of perching on trees, an accomplishment
which we should hardly suspect a web-footed bird of possessing. Milton,
in a well-known passage in his “ Paradise Lost,” alludes to this habit.
Speaking of Satan under the disguise of the Cormorant, he tells that lie,
on the tree of life,
The middle tree, and highest there that grew,
Sat.”
Y 2
324 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Cormorant is easily tamed, arid its fishing propensities can be

turned to good account. The Chinese, at the present day, employ a
kind of Cormorant for that purpose, having previously placed a ring round
the bird’s neck, to prevent it from swallowing the fish. The eggs of this
bird are usually laid on the rock, but sometimes in the branches of trees.
A thick coat of chalk envelopes the eggs, and can be easily scraped ofi
with a knife. The length, of the bird is about three feet.

The White Pelican inhabits Africa, India, and great part of the
southeastern portions of Europe. It is a very conspicuous bird, its
singular membranous pouch
Pelecanus.—(Latinised from Gr. ITeAc/fdr.) offering a distinction per¬
fectly unmistakeable. The
pouch, when distended, holds
two gallons of water, but
the bird has the power of
contracting it so that it is
scarcely to be discerned.
The pouch also serves as a
net in which to scoop up
the fish on which the Pelican
feeds.* Another most im¬
portant use of the pouch is
to convey food to the young.
The parent Pelican presses
the pouch against its breast,
in order to enable the young
to obtain the fish; which
action, in all probability,
gave rise to the fable of the
Pelican feeding its young
with its own blood. The red
tip of the bill probably aided
the deception.
Onocrotalus (Gr. 'OvoicporaXos) derived Although a web-footed
from uuos, aa ass, and xporaXov, a rattle), bird, the Pelican, like the
the White Pelican. cormorant, can perch on
trees, although it prefers
sitting on rocks. The colour of this bird is a pure white, with a very
slight tinge of rose-colour, and the pouch is yellow. The length of the
bird is nearly six feet.

The Frigate Pelican, or Man-of-War Bird, is usually found be¬

tween the tropics. Although when stripped of its feathers it is hardly
* The beautiful Pelicans in the Zoological Gardens exhibit this pouch and its uses
kdtniraMy,
 NATURAL niSTOR'i. 325
laiger tlian a pigeon, vet no man can touch at the same time the tips ol
its extended wings. The long wing bones are exceedingly light, and the
whole apparatus of air-cells is extremely developed, so that its real
weight is very trifling. It flies at a great height above the water, and
from that elevation pounces down on fish, especially preferring the poor
persecuted flying-fish for its prey. According to some authors, the name
of Man-of-War Bird was given to it because its appearance was said to
foretel the coming of a ship; probably because the Frigate Pelican and

Fregat^.—(From the Spanish Fragdta, a ship.)*

Aqutla (Lat. an Eagle), the Frigate Pelican.

real frigates are equally averse to storms, and both like to come into
harbour if the weather threatens. Under the throat of the Frigate
Pelican is a large pouch, of a deep red colour, which can be distended
with air at the pleasure of the bird. The pouch is larger and of a more
brilliant red in the male than in his consort, and the general plumage
of the female is not so bright as that of the male.
Although its swiftness of wing and general activity enable it to snatch
a fish from the surface of the water, or to pounce upon the flying-fish
before it can again seek the protection of its native element, yet it too
often uses its powers in robbing other birds of their lawful prey. It is
enabled, in some mysterious way, to find its way home by night, even
though it may be four or five hundred miles from land. The length of
the male bird is three feet, and the expanse of wing eight feet.

* Possibly both from Gr. »/a!/r Kara^paK-rrif, a decked vessel. Tho word “freight " l»
ilso derived from the same root.
32C ,VATUIIAL HTSTOKY.

Class III. . . REPTIUA-—(Lat. Creeping things,)

Order I. . . SA URA.—(Gr. Saupa, a Lizard.)
Hub-order I. Leptoglossa:.—(Gr. Ae7rt6s, slender; y\<£aaa, the tonguaj
Tribe I. . . CYCLOSAURA.—(Gr. KvkAos, a circle; aavpa.)
Family IV. Lacertinidae.— (Lat. Lacerta, a Lizard. Lizard-kind.)

Zootoca.—^Gr. ZcoJs, living; tlktw, to bring forth.)

Vivip&ra (Lat. viviparous), the Common Lizard.

We now arrive at the singular Class of Reptiles. The animals oi

this class vary exceedingly in their forms, sizes, and habits, but the
peculiar formation of the circulatory system, together with many other
anatomical distinctions, plainly mark'them out as a distinct class.
The Lizauds are usually active, bright-eyed little creatures, delighting
to bask in the sun, near some safe retreat, to which they dart with asto¬
nishing celerity upon the slightest alarm. Two species of Lizards inhabit
this country, ihe Common Lizard, and the Sand Lizard. The latter
animal is considerably larger than the Common Lizard, as it sometimes
measures a foot in length. It frequents sandy heaths, and in the sand
its eggs are deposited, fourteen or fifteen in number. The eggs are
hatched by the heat of the sun, and the young immediately lead an inde¬
pendent life. During the winter this as well as the Common Lizard
hybernates in a burrow usually made under the roots of a tree, nor does
it again make its appearance until the spring.
The Common Lizard is only six inches in length. It is more active
than the Sand Lizard, disappearing like magic on being alarmed. When
seized, its tail frequently snaps off like glass. Both British Lizards feed
on insects.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 327
The Blind-worm is Tribe II. GEISSOSAUKA.—(Gr. Telaaov, a
not a snake, as gene¬ cornice ; aavpa.)
rally supposed, but a Family XV. Scincidse.—(Gr. 2Kiyuos, a kind
legless lizard of the of Lizard.)
Skink family. It is
Anguis.—(Lat. a Snake.)
perfectly harmless ; its
small mouth and very
minute teeth precluding
all attempts to injure,
even if it had the will.
When alarmed, it snaps
asunder at the slightest
blow, like the tail of
the Common Lizard,
and from that pecu¬
liarity has derived its
name of “ fragilis.” It
feeds almost entirely
on small slugs, its jaws
not being capable of Fragilis (Lat. fragile), the Blind-worm or
admitting: any larger Slow-worm.
prey. If is very com¬
mon in most parts of England, and may be seen basking in the sun in
hedgerows or under old walls. Its eyes are very small, but brilliant.

The Geckos* are nocturnal lizards, remaining hidden in crevices during

the day, but wandering fortn at night in search of their insect prey.
They run about on the smooth walls and ceilings with the greatest ease,
as their feet are furnished with an apparatus exactly resembling a boy’s
sucker, by means of which they are able to adhere to the wall, or even
to the roof. They labour in their country under precisely the same im¬
putations that the toad does in England, namely, of being venomous
creatures, producing horrible diseases when touched, together with many
similar tales. Geckos are spread over every quarter of the globe, but are
most numerous in Southern Asia. The species represented is common
in India.

The Iguana family is a very large one, containing 150 species. The
Common Iguana is a native of Brazil, Cayenne, Jamaica, &c. In spite
of its repulsive appearance, it is with many people a favourite article of
food, and is said somewhat to resemble chicken. It is very fierce when
attacked, and snaps at its enemies in a most determined manner, often
scaring away an intruder by the ferocity of its aspect.-] It is generally
* See page 328. t See page 329
328 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order IT. Paciiyglossj!.—(Gr. Flaxes, thick; 'yXwaaa, the tongue.|

Tribe III. . . NYCTISAURA.—(Gr. Nwf, night; aav,m, a Lizard.)
Family XXII. Geckotldse.—{Geckos.)

Gecko.

Yerus (Lat. true), the Gecko.

taken by throwing a noose over its head, and dragging it from the
branches by main force. It is then immediately killed, as its sharp
uotched teeth can inflict a very disagreeable wound. Sometimes it is
bunted with dogs trained to the sport. It attains a considerable size,
frequently reaching the length of six feet. It feeds usually on vegetable
substances, such as leaves, fruit, and fungi; but Iguanas have been seen
in the Island of Isabella, that feed on eggs, insects, and even the in¬
testines of fowls. An enormous fossil Iguana has been discovered by
Dr. Mantell, whose length must have been nearly seventy feet.

The terrible name of Flying Dragon belongs to a harmless little

lizard, bearing small resemblance to the terrific animal so graphically de¬
picted by Retsch. This curious little lizard lives on trees, and feeds on
insects instead of devouring pilgrims bound to the Gnadenbilde. The
peculiar structure of its body bears a singular resemblance to that of the
flying squirrel. The first six false ribs are greatly elongated, and
support a wing-like expansion of skin, which when stretched serves to
bear them up as they skim through the air from one tree to another.
While running about on the branches, the so-called wings are folded to
 natural history. 329

Tribe IV. ... STROBILOSAURA.—(Gr. 2rpd/3tAos, anything twisted.

a Fir-cone; aavpa, a Lizard.)
Family XXIII. Iguanidae.— (Iguanas.)
Iguana. —(Native name.)

Tuberculata (Lat. covered with pimples), the Iguana.

the side, but when it wishes to throw itself from the tree, the ribs are
Family XXIY. Agamldm.— (Gr. ayagos, unmarried.)
Draco.—(Lat. a Dragon.)

Volans ^Lat. flying), the Flying Dragon.

raised, and the wings expanded. It is common in Java, India, ana

Borneo.
330 NATURAL HISTORT.

The Common Chameleon is plentifully found in northern Africa, the

south of Spain, and
Tribe Y. . DENDROSAURA.—(Gr. AevSpov, a
Sicily. It lives on trees,
tree; aavpa, a Lizard.)
but exhibits none of
Family XXV. ChameleorddcB.—(Gr. Xa^atXtwv,
the activity usually
a Chameleon. Chameleon kind.)
found iu arboreal rep¬
Chameleon. tiles. On the contrary,
its movements are
absurdly grave and
solemn. The whole
activity of the animal
seems to be centered
in its tongue, by means
of which organ it
secures flies and other
insects with such mar¬
vellous rapidity, that
the ancients may be
well pardoned for their
assertion that the air
formed the only food
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Chameleon.
of the Chameleon.
Highly exaggerated
descriptions have been given of the changes of colour in this animal.
The changes are by no means so complete, nor are the colours so bright,
us generally supposed.
-And then its hue,
W ho erer saw so fine a blue ? ”

The poetic moralist further recounts its changes to green, black, and
white. The umpire referred to in the poem is recorded to have asserted,
“ If you don’t find him black, I’ll eat him

but every one who has watched a Chameleon for any time, will be
equally ready to eat him the moment that he turns white.
The power of the Chameleon to move its eyes in different directions
at the same time, gives it a most singular aspect. Its enormously long
tongue can be withdrawn into the mouth when not in use; but when the
creature sees a fly within read), the tongue is instantly darted forth, and
by means of a gummy secretion at the tip secures the fly. The whole
movement is so quick as almost to elude the eye.

The peculiar gliding movements of the Snakes render them excellent

types of the Reptiles; a word derived from the Latin repo, I creep. The
extraordinary flexibility of their bodies is caused by the structure of th«eu
 NATURAL HISTORY. 331

vertebrae, each one of which fits into the one behind it by a ball-and-
socket joint, thus allowing freedom of motion in every direction.
The .Rattle-snake is a native of America. Its name is derived from
the loose bony structure at the extremity of its tail, called the rattle,
and which by the sound of its movements gives timely intimation of the

Order II. . . OPUIDIA.—(Gr. yC<pis, a Serpent.)

Sub-order I. Yiperina.—(Lat. Viper a, a Yiper.)
Family I. . Crotaltdse.—(Gr. KporaXor, a Rattle.)
Uropsophus.—(Gr. Ovpa, the tail; xpdcpos, a noise.)

Durissus (Lat. durus, harsh), the Rattle-snake.

vicinity of this terrible reptile. Fortunately, its disposition is exceed

ingly sluggish, and it invariably sounds its rattle when irritated or dis¬
turbed. Its bite is inevitably mortal, and death always ensues within a
few hours after the wound has been inflicted.
The deadly weapons with which the venomous serpents are armed, are
two long curved fangs belonging to the upper jaw, and moving on a
ninge, by which they lie flat in the mouth when not wanted. An aperture
exists in the point of the fang, by which a poisonous fluid, secreted in a
gland at the base of the tooth, is poured into the wound, and, mixing
wit h the blood, rapidly carries its deadly influence throughout the entire
system. A short time since, an American physician was exhibiting a
caged rattle-snake to his friends; he approached his hand too near the
irritated reptile, who instantaneously inflicted a wound; and, although
every precaution was taken, the bite proved fatal in a few hours.
Waterton gives some useful hints respecting the snakes, especially
those of the venomous kind .—
332 NATURAL HISTORY.

“ When a man is ranging a forest, and sees a serpent gliding towards

him, (which is a very rare occurrence,) he has only to tack off in a side
direction, and he may be perfectly assured that it will not follow him.
Should the man, however, stand still, and should the snake be one of
those overgrown monsters capable of making a meal of a man,—in
these cases the snake would pursue its course', and when it got suffi¬
ciently near to the place where the man was standing, would raise the
forepart of its body in a retiring attitude, and then dart at him and seize
him. A man may pass within a yard of Rattle-snakes with safety, pro
vided he goes quietly; but should he irritate a Rattle-snake, or tread
incautiously upon it, he w'ould infallibly receive a wround from its fang,—
though, by the bye, with the point of that fang curved downwards, not
upwards.”
This latter passage refers to a plate in Audubon’s Ornithology, where
a Rattle-snake is represented attacking a mocking-bird’s nest, and threat¬
ening the birds with two fangs curved upwards at the points—a mistake
which Waterton never loses sight of.
The same author was nearly falling a victim to a Rattle-snake. He
saw what he thought was a green locust struggling in the grass. On
stooping down to examine it, he was considerably alarmed at discovering
it to be the tail of a rattle-snake.
The inhabitants of those countries where the Rattle-snake lives are
not very much afraid of it, as they know that it will be sure to run away
directly it hears the approach of human footsteps. It appears that when
a man is cutting wood or otherwise engaged in a forest, and hears a
Rattle-snake near him, he has no fear, as long as he can keep its rattle
going, but directly the sound ceases, the man is rather in dread, not
knowing where the animal may turn up next: so he keeps the snake in
a constant state of alarm, by throwing bits of wood or sticks at the
place where the reptile is lying, and on again hearing the sound of the
rattle, he continues his work in confidence, until the snake is silent, when
some more missiles are sent in the same direction.
An American told me that, even when these snakes are ready for
a spring, they can be avoided by smartly clapping the hands together, or
striking the ground with a stick. The snake has the whole powers of
its mind bent upon its fatal stroke, and, on hearing such an unexpected
sound, it is startled, like a man suddenly waked from sleep, and falls
down in its coil again, giving time for its intended victim to escape
before it has mide up its mind to another assault.
Some years ago a number of these snakes were wanted for certain
menageries, and were caught in the following manner. There are some
places where the Rattle-snakes abound, and may be seen lying in their
holes. A party of sailors were despatched to one of these haunts, furnished
with baskets, ropes, poles, and various other implements. The sailors
thought it great fun, and laid their plans as follows. They gave three
men to each snake, two of them having a rope, and the third a pole and
 NATURAL HISTORY. 333
basket. They commenced by making one of those slip-knots so common
among sailors, in the centre of the cord. This was laid over the hole,
and drawn together until it was just large enough to surround it. The
third man, then, either threw stones at the entrance of the den, or poked
about it with the pole, until the snake put out its head to see what was
the matter. Directly the reptile’s head and neck were fairly outside, the
two men drew the rope tight, and carried it between them to the open
basket, into which they dropped it, while the third man shut down the
lid with his pole, and then fastened it. The cord being slackened, the
snake soon wriggled itself out of the noose, and the men set off after
another victim.
The length of this snake has seldom been known to exceed seven feet.

The Puff Adder is an inhabitant of Southern Africa. It is a short,

thick, flattish snake, of a most sinister and malignant aspect. The fol¬
lowing alarming adventure occurred to Mr. Cole, a resident in the Cape.
“ I was going quietly to bed one evening, wearied by a long day’s
hunting, when, close to my feet and by my bed-side, some glittering
substance caught
my eye. I stooped Family II. Viperidse.—(Lat. Vipira, a Viper.)
to pick it up ; but,
ere my hand had Clotho.*—(Gr. proper name.)
quite reached it,
the truth flashed
across me—it was
a snake! Had I
followed my first
natural impulse, I
should have sprung
away, but not being
able clearly to see
in what position the
reptile was lying, or
which way his head
was pointed, I con¬
trolled myself, and
remained rooted
breathless to the
spot. Straining my
eyes, but moving Arietans (Lat. butting like a Ram), the Puff Adder.
not an inch, I at
length clearly distinguished a huge Puff Adder,—the most deadly snake in
the colony, whose bite would have sent me to the other world in an hour
* This is the name of one of the three Fates ; viz. Clotho, Lachosis, and Atropos. AD
three names are used as genera of venomous serpents.
334 NATURAL HISTORY.

or two. 1 watched nim in silent horror ; his head was from me; so much
the worse—for this snake, unlike any other, always rises and strikes back.
He did not move, he was asleep. Not daring to shuffle my feet, lest hu
should awake and spring upon me, I took a jump backwards, that would
have done honour to a gymnastic master, and thus darted outside the
door of the room ; with a thick stick I then returned and settled his
worship.”
The same author remarks in his “ Eive Years’ Residence in South
Africa,” that its (the Puff Adder’s) bite will kill occasionally within an
hour.
It is the more dangerous, because it has a way of flattening itself upon
the ground; so that, when it is lying thus concealed upon the sand, at
incautious pedestrian is very likely to tread upon it.
“ One of my friends lost a favourite and valuable horse by its bite in
less than two hours after the attack. It is a sluggish reptile, and
therefore more dangerous, for instead of rushing away like its fellows, at
the sound of approaching footsteps, it half raises its head and hisses.
Often have I come to a sudden pull up on foot or on horseback, on
hearing their dreaded warning.”
Cerastes.—(Gr. Kepdarrjs, horned.) The Cerastes is
a well-known snake
in Egypt, and de¬
rives its name from
the horny scale over
each eyebrow. Bruce
mentions that the
Cerastes can spring
several feet in
any direction; but
his description of
the stratagems em¬
ployed by it, “to
surprise any one
who is too far from
it,” is probably more
fanciful than cor¬
rect, as snakes do
not attack unless
Hasselquisti (Eat. of Ilasselquist), the Cerastes. suddenly surprised
or irritated. The
size of the Cerastes is by no means great, as its average length is onlv
eighteen inches. The snake-charmers of Egypt employ these reptiles
precisely as their brethren of India employ the Cobra de Capello.

The Common Viper, or Adder, is the only venomous reptile inhabiting

England, nor is its bite nearly so dangerous in its consequences as has
 NATURAL HISTORY. 335

been reported. Seldom has the bite of the Yiper proved mortal; and in
all probability, had proper precautions been taken, no case would have
been fatal. Viper-catchers employ olive oil as a remedy against the bite,
and, from all ac¬
counts, it appears PelTas. (Gr. proper name.)
to be a certain pre¬
servative against all
evil effects. The oil
should be heated to
oroduce its full effi-
sacy.
It is asserted that,
when danger threat¬
ens, the female viper
opens her mouth
and permits her
brood to hide them¬
selves, but it is by
no means an ascer¬
tained fact.
Progs, lizards,
mice, and other
small animals, form Berus, the Viper.
the food of this
reptile, but sometimes it falls a victim to its own voracity. In the
Magazine of Natural History, a Yiper is mentioned which had swallowed
a lizard nearly as large as itself, and one of whose legs was protruding
from its side.
In former times, preparations from Yipers, and especially viper-broth,
were in great request as medicines.

The Boa-constrictor.—The enormous Boa-constrictor inhabits tro¬

pical America. It is not venomous, but is not the less dangerous, as the
tremendous power of its muscles enables it to crush its prey in the coils
of its huge body. In order to procure its food, the Boa-constrictor lies
in wait by the side of some river or pool, where animals of all kinds are
likely to come to quench their thirst. It patiently waits until some
animal draws within reach, when, with one spring, the Boa fixes its teeth
in the creature’s head, coils its body round its victim, and crushes it ta
death. After the unfortunate animal has beeu reduced almost to a shape¬
less mass by the pressure of the snake, its destroyer makes preparations
for swallowing it entire, a task which it accomplishes, although the
slaughtered animal is usually very much larger than the dimensions of
the serpent. At last, the snake succeeds in swallowing its prey, and then
336 NATURAL HISTORY.

li33 torpid for nearly a month, until its enormous meal is digested, when
it again sallies forth in search of another.

Sub-order II. . Colubrina.—(Lat. Coluber, a Snake.)

Family IV. . . Boidae.

Boa.—(Native name.'

Constrictor (Lat. a binder), the Boa.

Even the buffalo has been known to fall a victim to this fearful serpent,
whose length frequently exceeds twenty-five feet.

The Cobra de Capello is a native of India. It must not be con¬

founded with several other hooded snakes, such as the Haje of Egypt, the
snake so frequently depicted on the hieroglyphical monuments.
The serpent-charmers invariably use this formidable reptile for their
performances. The exhibitors possess several Cobras shut up in baskets,
and when commencing their performances, the lid of the basket is opened,
and the snake creeps out. Its course is arrested by the sound of the
rude fife that the charmer always carries, and it immediately expands its
beautiful though threatening hood, erects its neck, and commences a series
of undulating movements, which are continued until the sound of the
fife ceases, when the snake instantly drops, and is replaced in its basket
 natural, history. 337

by its master. The charmers appear to be able to discover snakes, and to

induce them to leave their retreats. Indeed it is rather a singular fact,
that those travellers who most strongly insist that the snakes thus
caught are tame and divested of their fangs, appear to forget that even
in that case the creatures must have been previously caught in order to
deprive them of their weapons. The length of this snake is about five or
six fee'U

Family Y. Colubrfdm.—(Lat. Coluber, a Snake.)

Naja.—(Native name.)

Tripudians (Lat. dancing), the Cobra de Capello.

A. Cobra in the Zoological Gardens was a long time in learning caution,

tt was accustomed to lie coiled up at the bottom of the cage until
a spectator came close, when it invariably darted at him, of course
striking its nose against the glass with no small violence. On my first
visit to the Reptile House after its arrival, it made its customary attack,
and after the space of a week, it again struck at me. On my next visit,
several months afterwards, it laid very quietly at the bottom of its cage,
and contented itself with a hiss.
The Egyptian Asp, or Haje, is supposed to be the asp by whose bite
s
338 NATURAL HISTORY.

Cleopatra died, and is in all probability the deaf adder alluded to in tne
Scriptures, “which stoppetk her ears, and refusetli to hear the voice of
the charmer, charm he never so wisely.”

The Common Hinged or Grass Snake is a harmless inhabitant of

this country, and may be frequently seen or heard gliding along the
hedge-banks in search of food. It is easily tamed, and soon learns to
know its master. It lives
Natrix.—(Lat a Water Snake.) principally on frogs, mice,
young birds, newts, &c. It
is an excellent swimmer, and
from the peculiar structure
of its lungs can remain under
water for some time. It
seems very fond of the water,
and is most commonly found
on marshy land, or in hedges
planted over a wet ditch.
The viper, on the contrary
prefers dry sandy situations.
Several snakes kept tame
at a village in Wiltshire
were fed with frogs and
small newts, which latter
animals the snake was in
duced to swallow, by the
simple process of opening
the snake’s mouth and push¬
ing the newt down its throat.
This plan, although appa¬
rently rather rude, seemed to
Torquata (Lat. collared), the Ringed Snake. cause the snakes no inconve¬
nience.
Like all other serpents, the Hinged Snake sheds its skin several times
during the year. The entire skin comes off, even the covering of the
eyes. A rent opens in the neck, and the snake, by entangling itself in
tiie thick grass or bushes, actually creeps out of its skin, turning it inside
out in the effort.

The Tortoise.—The whole of this order is characterised by the com¬

plete suit of bony armour with which the animals are protected. The
so-called “shell” is in fact a development of various bones, and not
a mere horny appendage, like the coverings of the armadillo and manis.
The upper shield is called the “ carapace,” and is united to the under
shield, or “plastron,” by certain bones, leaving orifices for the protrusion
of the head and limbs. M^st species are able to withdraw their head
 NATURAL HISTORY. 339
and limbs completely within the shell, and in some few the orifices are
closed by a kind of hinge joint. The tortoiseshell of commerce is a series
ot horny plates that cover the exterior of the shield, and is in great
request on account of the beautiful wavy markings that are so familiar
to our eyes.

Order III. . CHELONIA.—(Gr. XeAuvri, a Tortoise.)

Family I. . Testudinidae.—(Lat. Testudo, a Tortoise.)

Gneca (Lat. Greek), the Tortoise.

The Tortoises and Turtles possess no teeth, but the sides of their jaws
are very hard and sharp, enabling them to crop vegetable substances, or
to inflict a severe bite.
The family is divided into Land Tortoises, Marsh Tortoises, River
Tortoises, and Marine Tortoises, or Turtles.

The Common Land Tortoise is found in abundance in the south of

Europe. It is often kept in captivity in this country, and is very long
lived, individuals being known to have exceeded two hundred years. Its
movements are very slow, but it can excavate a burrow with unexpected
rapidity. Secure in an impenetrable covering, it bids defiance to any
ordinary enemy, except, as Sydney Smith wittily observes, “man, and the
boa-constrictor. Man, however, takes him home and roasts him, and the
boa-constrictor swallows him whole, shell and all, and consumes him slowly
in the interior, as the Court of Chancery does a great estate.”
I had a common Land Tortoise for a few months, part of whose life is
described in the following passage, which has already appeared as a note
to White’s “Natural History of Selborne.”
Some time since, a man arrived in Oxford, bringing with lnm tortoises
z 2
340 NATURAL HISTORY.

for sale. They passed tneir existence in a basket, where they were packed
close, like so many bricks, standing on their tails, and their heads looking
out of the basket. When I purchased one of them, the man emptied out
his whole basketful upon the table, and then turned out the contents of
four large pockets, until a large table was entirely covered with them.
The tortoise which I purchased was a very small one, and was tolerably
lively, walking about the room, and always settling on the hearthrug.
It had a great genius for climbing, and would sometimes spend nearly an
hour in endeavouring to scale the fender, probably attracted by the heat.
Unfit as the form of the creature may seem for such a purpose, it did
contrive to scramble upon a footstool which was placed by the fender.
Its method of attaining this elevation was as follows:—First it reared up
against the footstool in the angle formed by it and the fender, and after
several ineffectual attempts, succeeded in hitching the claws of one of
its hind feet into the open work of the fender. On this it raised itself,
and held on to the top of the stool by its fore-feet while it gained another
step on the fender, and so managed to raise itself to such a height, that
it only had to fall flat on the top of the footstool. When once there, it
could hardly be induced to leave the elevation which it had gained with
such difficulty.
Its food consisted of bread and milk, which it ate several times a-day,
drinking the milk by scooping up some of it in its lower jaw, and then,
by throwing its head back, the milk ran dovm its throat. Tortoises are
generally long-lived, but this animal died within a few months after it
came into my possession, in all probability because, for some days, its
food was placed in a brass vessel.
Several days before its death it was very restless, and went about the
room mewing like a young kitten, and made such a noise, that it had to
be ejected during working hours. I could not for some time believe that
the mewing could proceed from the tortoise, as the resemblance to that
of a kitten was most exact.

The Common Green Turtle.—The feet of the Marine Tortoises,

or Turtles, are modified into fins or flippers just as are the feet of the
seals, and consequently, although the Turtles are active in the water, on
land their walk is nothing but an awkward shuffle. The flippers, however,
are admirable instruments for scooping out the sand, in which the eggs
are laid, and afterwards covered over. Nearly two hundred eggs are laid
in one nest. The eggs are held in great estimation, but the albumen, or
“white,” does not become hard by boiling.
The Common Green Turtle, whose flesh is considered such a luxury,
is common in Jamaica, and most of the islands of the East and West
Indies. The turtles are captured by turning them on their backs; for
the carapace is so flat, and their legs are so short, that they are forced
to lie help1 ess until their captors have leisure to drag them away.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 341
Family V. Cheloni&dae.
Chelonia.—(Gr. XeXa/vn, a tortoise.)

Viridis (Lat. green), the Turtle.

The Green Turtle has been known to reach the weight of five or six
hundred pounds. The tortoiseshell of commerce is almost entirely
obtained from the Hawksbill Turtle.

The Crocodile.—These animals are separated from the Lizards on

account of the peculiar horny covering with which they are protected.
The Crocodile is an inhabitant of the Old World, the Alligator of
the New, and the two animals are best distinguished by the construction
of the jaws. In the Crocodiles the lower canine teetli fit into a notch
in the edge of the upper jaw, and there is in consequence a contraction
of the muzzle just behind the nostrils. The lower canine teeth of
the Alligators fit into a pit in the edge of the upper jaw, and in con¬
sequence no contraction is needed. At the back of the throat is a valve
completely shutting out water, but leaving the passage to the nostrils
free, so that the Crocodile can keep his mouth open when beneath the
surface, without swallowing the water, or can hold his prey to drown
under the water while he breathes at ease with his nostrils at the surface.
There is no true tongue.
The Common Crocodile inhabits many African rivers, aud is, probably,
the reptile infesting the Ganges. The Nile, however, is ihe best known
haunt of this terrible creature.
The Crocodile feeds on fish, floating carrion, and dogs or other animals,
which it is enabled to surprise as they come to drink at the water’s edge.
 342 NATURAL HISTORY.

but man frequently falls a victim to its voracity. In revenge for this
treatment, all nations persecuted with this pest *m\e devised various
methods of killing it. The Negroes of some parts of Africa are sufficiently
bold and skilful to attack the Crocodile in his own element. They
fearlessly plunge into the water, and diving beneath the Crocodile plunge
the dagger with which they are armed into the creature’s belly, which is
not protected by the coat of mail that guards the other parts of its
body. The usual plan is to lie in wait near the spot where the Crocodile

Order IV. . EMYDOSAURI.—(Gr. 'E/uvs, the Water-Tortoise; aavpa.)

Family I. . Crocodilldax—(Gr. Kpoi<6dciAos. Crocodile kind.) *
crocodIlus.

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Crocodile.

is accustomed to repose. This is usually a sandy bank, and the hunter

digs a hole in the sand, and, armed with a sharp harpoon, patiently awaits
the coming of his expected prey. The Crocodile comes to its accustomed
spot, and is soon asleep, when it is suddenly roused by the harpoon,
which penetrates completely through its scaly covering. The hunter
immediately retreats to a canoe, and hauls at the line attached to the
harpoon until he drags the Crocodile to the surface, when he darts a
second harpoon. The struggling animal is soon wearied out, dragged to
ihore, and dispatched by dividing the spinal cord. In order to prevent
* The word Crocodile literally signifies, “o^p afraid of saffron/’
 NATURAL HISTORY. 343

the infuriated reptile from biting the cord asunder, it is composed ol

about thirty small lines, not twisted, but only bound together at intervals
of two feet.
When on land it is not difficult to escape the Crocodile, as certain
projections on the vertebrae of the neck prevent it from turning its
head to any great extent.
The eggs of this creature are very small, hardly exceeding those of a
goose; numbers are annually destroyed by birds of prey and quadrupeds,
especially the Ichneumon.

The Alligator, or Cayman, is an inhabitant of the New World, and

is unpleasantly common in the rivers of North America. It pursues fish
with exceeding dexterity, by driving a shoal of them into a creek, and
then plunging amid the terrified mass, and devouring its victims at its
pleasure. It also catches pigs, dogs, and other animals that venture too
close to the river. In that case, as the animal is too large to be swallowed
entire, the Alligator conceals it in some hole in the bank until it begins
to putrefy, when it is dragged out, and devoured under the concealment
of the rank herbage fringing the river.
The usual method of taking this creature is by baiting a most formid¬
able four-pointed hook, composed of wooden spikes artistically arranged,
and suffering it to float in the river. When an alligator has swallowed
it, he is hauled on shore by the rope, and slaughtered. Waterton gives
a very amusing account of catching a cayman. The reptile had swallowed
the hook, and was being towed ashore. Waterton was waiting for him,
armed with the mast of the boat, to force it down the throat of the cayman
should he prove restive. “By this time the cayman was within two
yards of me; I saw he was in a state of fear and perturbation. I in¬
stantly dropped the mast, sprang up, and jumped on his back, turning
half round as I vaulted, so that I gained my seat writh my face in a right
position. I immediately seized his fore legs, and by main force twisted
them on his back; thus they served me for a bridle.
“He now seemed to have recovered from his surprise, and probably
fancying himself in hostile company, he began to plunge furiously, and
lashed the sand with his long and powerful tail. 1 was out of reach of
the strokes of it, by being near his head. He continued to plunge and
strike, and made my seat very uncomfortable.”
In Audubon’s American Ornithology is an account of a wounded ibis
chased by the alligators. A white ibis had been shot, and had fallen
into the water with a broken wing. “The exertions which it made to
reach the shore seemed to awake the half torpid alligators that lay in the
deep mud at the bottom of the pool. One showed his head above
the water, then a second and third. All gave chase to the wounded bird,
which, on seeing its dreaded and deadly foes, made double speed towards
the very spot where we stood. T was surprised to see how much faster thu
344 NATURAL HISTORY.

bird swam than the reptiles, who, with jaws widely opened, urged then
heavy bodies through the water. The ibis was now within a few yards
of us. It was the alligator’s last chance. Springing forwards, as it were,
he raised his body almost out of the water; his jaws nearly touched the
terrified bird, when, by pulling three triggers at once, we lodged the
contents of our guns in the throat of the monster. Threshing furiously

Family II. Alligatorfdae.—(Alligator kind.)

Alligator.—(Spanish, El Lagato, the Lizard d

Mississipensis (Lat. of the Mississipi), the Alligator.

with his tail, and rolling his body in agony, the alligator at last sank tc
the mud; and the ibis, as if in gratitude, walked to our very feet, and
then lying down, surrendered himself to us.”
Like the Crocodile, the Alligator lays its eggs in the sandy bank of the
river. Fortunately, but few of the young ever reach maturity, as their
ranks are thinned by various birds and beasts of prey before the eggs are
hatched, and by the attacks of large fishes, and even their own species,
when they have reached the water.
 NATURAL HIBTORY. 345

Class IV. . . AMPHIBIA.—(Gr. ’A/jupifiios, leading a double life, i.e. on Land

and on water.)
Order I.. . . BATRACHIA.—(Gr. Barpaxos, a Frog.)
Sub-order I. Salientia.—-(Lat. Leaping animals.)

Rana.—(Lat. a Frog.)

Temporaria (Lat. temporary), the Common Frog.

The Frog.—The appearance and habits of the Frog and the Toad
are so familiar as to require but little description. A short account, how¬
ever, is necessary, of the peculiarities common to both Frogs and Toads.
In the early stage of their existence, these animals are termed tadpoles.
They at first appear to be nothing but head and tail, but after several
days have passed, four legs are observed to become developed. These
rapidly increase, and the little creature closely resembles a small eft.
In due time, however, the tail is lost, and the creature becomes a perfect
frog. Another important change also takes place. In its tadpole state
the creature was essentially a water animal, but after its change has taken
place it is not able to exist under water for any great length of time, and
is forced to come to the surface to breathe.
The tongue of the Frog is curiously fixed almost at the entrance of the
mouth, and when at rest points backwards down the throat. When,
however, the Frog comes within reach of a slug or insect, the tongue is
darted out with exceeding rapidity, the slug secured, carried to the back
of the throat, and swallowed.
Both frogs and toads hybernate, the former congregating in multitudes
in the mud at the bottoms of ponds and marshes, while the latter choose
a hole in the ground, frequently at tne roots of a tree, and pass the winter
346 N\TURATi niSTORY.

in solitary dignity. In .February 1852, two frogs were dug out of the
gravelled play-ground of Magdalen School, Oxford. They were about a
foot from the surface of the ground, and their habitation was quite
smooth. Both were sitting with their mouths pointed upwards, but
I could not ascertain if there had been any communication with the
open air.
The skin of these animals lias the property of imbibing water, so that
if an apparently emaciated frog is placed in a damp place, it will sood
look quite plump.
The Common Frog is a well-known frequenter of marshy places and
the banks of rivers. It is an admirable swimmer, and from the peculiar
construction of its lungs can remain for some time under water, but is
forced periodically to come to the surface for the purpose of breathing.
The Bull-Frog is an inhabitant of North America. It is verv voracious,
feeding upon fishes, molluscs, and even young fowl. Its powers of leaping
are so great, that an Indian was not able to overtake an irritated bull-frog
after it had sprung three hops in advance. It is very large, measuring
about seven inches in length.
The Tree Frogs are very peculiar animals. The construction of their
feet, something resembling that of the geckos, enables them to traverse
the branches, and even to hang on the under surface of a pendent leaf,
which it so resembles in colour that the unwary insect passes by and is
instantly seized by the watchful frog. The Green Tree Frog is the most
common, and is plentifully found in southern Europe and northern Africa
There are several specimens in the Zoological Gardens, which present a
most absurd appearance as they stick against the pane of glass forming
the front of their cage.

Bufo.—(Lat. a Toad.'t The Common Toad has

had its full share of mar¬
vellous tales. Its poisonous
properties are celebrated in
many an ancient chronicle,
as are also the virtues of
the jewel contained in its
head.
Its skin certainly does
secrete an acrid humour,
which at all events defends
it from dogs, who can sel¬
dom be induced to bite a
toad a second time; but of
course such absurd notions
as the romantic story of
the death of a young lady
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Common Toad. and her lover, who eact
 NATURAL HISTORY. 347

ale a leaf of a shrub at the root of which a toad had made its habitation,
need no refutation.
The Toad is easily tamed. A correspondent from the country has
kindly sent an account of a tame toad, that had lived in the family foi
several years, and which was accustomed to sup on a lump of sugar.
The well-known instances of imprisoned toads who must have spent
many years in their narrow habitations, are apparently explained by the
supposition that some aperture or fissure existed, through which air and
minute insects could pass, sufficient for their nourishment while in a semi-
torpid condition. Certainly those experimented on by Dr. Buckland in
1825, and from whom all air was cut off, died before a year’s imprisonment.
The Toad casts its skin at certain times, but we never find the slough as
we do that of the snake, as the toad invariably swallows its former
covering.

Sub-order II. GradientIa.—(Lat. walking animals.)

Family I. . . Salamandridye.—(Gr. SaAa^avSpa, a Salamander.)
Triton.— (Gr. Tpirwv, a Sea-god.)

Cristatus (Lat. crested), the Common Newt.

The Newts are separated from the lizards on account of their changes
while young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles, and do not assume
their perfect shape until six weeks after their exclusion from the eggs.
The Common Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds, ditches, and
still waters. It feeds principally on tadpoles and worms, which it eats
with a peculiar rapid snap. I have frequently seen it attack the smaller
newt with great perseverance, but I was never fortunate enough to see it
Kill its prey.
34.8 NATURAL HISTORY.

I kept some newts for some time in a large glass vessel, and noticed
that when a new inhabitant was added, it always cast its skin within two
or three days. The skin came off in pieces, the covering of the feet
slipping off like a glove ; but I could never see how the creature contrived
to pull these glove-like relics off.
It is constantly in the habit of rising to the surface of the water in
order to breathe.
Many country people have great horror of these beautiful and harmless
little animals. In *
little village in Wilt¬
shire there is a current
anecdote of a girl who
was bitten in the arm
by an effet, who spit
fire into the wound.
The girl consequently
lost her arm. Some
of these newts or efts
were placed inatrough
where the cows were
accustomed to drink.
After a few days a calf
the female newt. died, and nothing
would convince the
rustics that the effets were not the cause of the untimely decease of the
calf, although it had never come near the trough, but was safely fastened
in the cow-house. The Newt has received the name of Cristatus, or
crested, on account of the beautiful crimson-tipped wavy crest of loose
skin, that extends along the whole course of the back and tail, and which,
together with the rich orange-coloured belly, makes it a most beautiful crea¬
ture. The female has a singular habit of laying her eggs upon long leaves
of water-plants, and actually tying them in the leaf by a regular knot.
The first of the two cuts represents the male Newt. It is known b;y
the beautiful ridge of undulating skin that runs down its back. While
on laud, this ridge falls flat on the back, and is hardly distinguishable,
but in the water it remains erect, and waves about with every movement
of the animal. The female is destitute of this crest, and is not so beautiful
in it3 appearance as the male.

The Proteus is an extraordinary animal, which has been found in dark

subterranean lakes, many hundred feet below the surface of the earth,
where no ray of light can possibly enter. The eyes of this singular
creature are mere points covered with skin, and useless for vision ; indeed
when in captivity it always chooses the darkest parts of the vessel in
which it is confined.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 349
1 have seen seven specimens of this strange creature, which have lived
for several years in a glass vessel covered with green baize in order to
keep them in the dark. They have not been known to take any nourish¬
ment whatever during the time of their captivity, except the very trifling
amount of nutrition that might have been obtained by changing the
water.
Order V. . MEANT!A.—(Lat. gliding animals.)
Family I. . Proteidm.
Troteus.—(Proper name.)

Anguinus (Lat. like a snake), the Proteus.

The Proteus breathes in two ways—by lungs and by gills, the latter
organs appearing in the form of two tufts, one on each side of the neck,
just above the fore limbs. The circulation of the blood in these branchial
tufts can easily be seen with a microscope of moderate power. These
tufts are of a rather deeper pink tinge than the remainder of the body,
which is of a very pale flesh-colour. Exposure to light darkens the tints
both of gills and body. It bears some resemblance to the young of the
newts, which are furnished with branchial tufts, which they lose upon
attaining maturity, and was thei cfore for some time thought to be the
young of some unknown reptile. It has, however, been proved to be
a perfect animal, ana has been found of all sizes.
The blood disks of this animal are exceedingly dirge; so large, indeed,
as almost to be distinguished by the naked eye. When in captivity, its
movements are slow and eel-like, nor does it seem to make much use of
its almost rudimentary limbs.
It has usually been found on the soft mud of a small lake in the grotto
of Maddalena. It is not always present, and has been conjectured to be
the inhabitant of some unknown subterranean body of water, and to have
been forced through the crevices of the rocks. Besides the grotto of
Maddalena at Adelsburg, they have also been found at Sittich, thirty
miles distant, thrown up from a subterranean cavity.
350 NATURAL HISTORY.

As the Fishes live exclusively in the water, it is necessary that then

organs of respiration should be differently formed from those of the
animals breathing atmospheric air. Instead of the purification of the
blood being accomplished by the contact of atmospheric air in the appa¬
ratus called lungs, that office is performed by the water, which passes
into the mouth of the fish, and from thence out at the gill-covers, on ita
way being strained through the singular structure called the “ gills.’1'
These gills are able to extract from the water sufficient oxygen to purify
the blood of the fish. If the oxygen has already been extracted, the fish
instantly dies. The same effect is produced if the fish be so held as to
prevent the water from flowing in the proper direction, so that it is
perfectly possible to drown a fish; although L’Estrange may doubt the
fact —
“ And like those sages that would drown a fish,
I am condemn’d to suffer—what I wish."

Most anglers are perfectly aware of the power obtained by keeping the
head of a hooked fish down the stream.
The elongated form of fishes, and their smooth covering, affording
but little resistance to the water, beautifully show their perfect adapta¬
tion for the element in which they reside.
Their rapid movements through the water are principally performed by
means of a lateral vibration of the tail, just as a boat is sculled along by
a single oar at the stern, or by a constant vibration of the rudder. The
dead and mangled carcase of a flensed whale has been frequently known
to swim for a considerable distance by the mere force of the muscular
movements of the tail after death. The fins serve principally as
balancers.
Most fish possess a singular organ called the “swimming-bladder.”
This is a membranous pouch, varying exceedingly in size and shape,
situated close under the spine, and filled by some means with gas, mostly
found to be nitrogen, but in deep-sea fishes, an excess of oxygen is
discovered to exist. The fish seems to be able to rise or sink by means
of compressing or expanding this pouch, without being forced to make
use of its tail or fins.
The smooth scaly covering with which most fish are furnished, is ad¬
mirably fitted both for defence against the water, and for enabling the
fish to glide easily through places where a rough covering would have
held it prisoner. Many valuable characteristics are derived from the shape
of the scales in different fish. There are four principal varieties, called, 1.
Placoid, or flat scales; 2. Ganoid, or polished scales; 3. Ctenoid, or toothed
scales ; and 4. Cycloid, or circular scales. These names are derived
from, 1.7rXaKovs, a flat cake ; 2. yau6a>, I polish; 3. ureis, Krevos, a comb;
4. kGcXo?, a circle. The scales of the 1. Dogfish; 2. Sturgeon; 3.Perch •
and 4. Carp, are excellent instances of the four kinds of scales.
The Acanthopterygii are so called from their spinous fin rays. The
Perch is an excellent example of this order.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 35)
The Ked Gurnard, or Cuckoo Gurnard, as it is sometimes called,
from the sound it utters when taken out of the water, is very common
on the English coast. It is rather a small fish, rarely exceeding fourteen
filches in length. The colours of its body when living are very beautiful,
the upper part being bright red, and the under parts silvery white.

Class Y. . PISCES.—(Lat Fishes.)

Sub-class I. PISCES OSSEI—(Lat. bony fishes.)
Order I. . ACANTHOPTERYGII— (Gr/A/cov0os,athorn; ivTepvyiov, a fin.)
Sub-order I. Dactyloph5ri.—(Gr. AuktuXos, a finger; <pepu>, I bear.)
Family I. . Triglidse.—(Gr. TplyXa, a Mullet.)

trigla.

Cuculus (Lat. a Cuckoo), the Gurnard.

There are nine species of Gurnard known <o frequent the coasts of
England, some, as the Sapphirine and the Mailed Gurnards, being most
extraordinary in form.
The Flying Gurnard is common in the Indian seas. Its pectoral fins
are so much enlarged, that when it springs out of the water, when
pursued by the dolphin or bonito, the wide quivering fins are able to
sustain it in the air for a limited period.
This fish has often been confounded by voyagers with the true Flying-
fish (.Rvoccetus), which belongs to an entirely different order.

The TSULL-iiiiAD or Miller’s-thumb.—This odd little fish is very

common, and may be found in most streams of England. It is called the
352 NATURAL HISTORY.

Bull-head on account of the great size of its head. For the same reason,
it is often called the Miller’s-
Faraily II Cottid®,—(Gr. Kottos, pro- thumb, because the flatness
perlv, ahead; the Bull-head.) and width of its bead is sup¬
posed to resemble the state of
cottus. the thumb of a miller caused
by constantly trying the me:d
between his finger and thumb.
It has a singular habit of
diving under stones, and is
quite contented if its head is
under shelter, utterly regard¬
less of the fact that its tail is
waving about in the most open
and undisguised manner ima¬
ginable. This peculiarity often
renders it the victim of keen¬
eyed boys, who catch a sight
of the tail of the Bull-head
wriggling about just outside
a stone, and then, with a
steady and quiet grasp, seize
the little fish betore it can
Goblo (Lat.) the Bull-head or Miller s-lhumb. take the alarm.

The Common Perch is well known to anglers both as a “bold biting

fish,” and as a fish that
Sub-order II. Holodactyli.—(Gr.c'o\os, entire; does not yield up its
SaurvAos, a finger.) life without endanger-
Family IV. . Percfd®.—(Gr. neo/cr/, a Perch.) ing the person of its
captor; for the formi¬
dable row of spinous
rays belonging to the
first dorsal fin have
wounded the hands
of many an incautious
angler.
it is extremely vora¬
cious, so much so that
after all the legitimate
bait has been exhausted,
it is a common practice
for the fisherman to
place on his hook the
eyes of the perch al-
Pluviatllis (Lat. of ike river), the Perch. ready taken, which are
 NATURAL HISTORY. 353
as eagerly bitten at, as the worms were formerly. An anecdote is related
of a gentleman who struck at a Perch, but unfortunately missed it, the
hook tearing out the eye of the poor creature. He adjusted the eye on the
hook, and replaced the line in the water, where it had hardly been a few
minutes before the float was violently jerked under the surface. The angler
of course struck, and found he had captured a fine Perch. This when
landed was discovered to be the very fish which had just been mutilated,
and which had actually lost its life by devouring its own eye. It is
quaintly observed by Izaak Walton, that “if there be twenty or fortv
in a hole, they may be at one standing all caught one after another, they
being like the wicked of the world, not afraid though their fellows and
companions perish in their sight.”
T le Perch seldom exceeds two pounds and a half in weight, and
a Perch weighing a pound and a. half is considered a very fine fish.

The Mackarel.—The elegant shape and resplendent colours of the

Mackarel point it out as one of the most beautiful fishes known. Nor
is it only valuable for its
beauty, as it is highly prized Panfily XIIL Scomberidae. gGr. '2ko[aBdos,
as an article of food in most a generic name ior tne r unny.)
parts of the world. SCOMBER.

Vast shoals of Mackarel S/

visit our coasts, and myriads
are taken by fishermen both
by nets and with lines. The
line of nets frequently ex¬
ceeds a mile in extent, and
of course the number of fish
contained in this enormous
net must be beyond all calcu¬
lation. On several occasions,
the meshes of the net were
Scombrus (Latinized form of Zko/aBpos)
completely choked up by fish
the Mackarel.
hanging by their gills, and
the net acted like a dredge, sweeping up myriads more fish in a solid
mass. In 1808, the whole net and its cargo sunk and were lost to the too
successful fishermen.
The profits of the fishery vary exceedingly ; sometimes the boats will
hardly take a single mackarel, and at other times, or even in different
spots, the draught of fish will nearly fill the boat. In 1834, one boat sold
in one night nearly one hundred pounds’ worth of mackarel.
The fish require to be used soon after they are taken out of the water,
as the flesh is very tender, and easily injured by exposure to the air, or
by carriage to any great distance.
When the fishermen employ the line for the capture of the mackarel,
A A
35 4 NATURAL HISTORY.

the hook is baited with a strip cut from a dead mackarel, and is suffered
to trail overboard. The fish bite eagerly at t his cannibal kind of bait, and
are frequently taken by baiting the hook with a strip of scarlet leather
or cloth.

The Tunny is a tolerably large fish, averaging four feet in length, and is
very common in the Mediterranean. Large fisheries are established
during May and June, at which season immense shoals of these fish rove
along the coast. The most approved method of fishing is by the
“ madrague ” or “ tonnaro.” A large number of long and deep nets are

Thynnus.—(Gr. Qvwos , a Tunny.)

Thynnus, the Tunny.

placed along the shore, one edge being fixed to the bottom of the sea by
anchors and weights, and the other edge kept at the surface of the water
by corks. A wall is thus formed, stretching along the coast for nearly a
mile in length. The tunnies swimming along the coast pass into this net,
and continue their course until they are stopped by other nets placed
across the principal net, and dividing it into chambers. From chamber to
chamber the unfortunate fishes are driven through openings permitting
their entrance, but preventing egress, until they arrive at the last
chamber, called significantly the “ chamber of death.” A strong net,
placed horizontally, enables the fishermen to draw the tunnies to the
surface, when a shower of blows from poles and similar weapons soon
destroys the entire shoal.
This fish is not unfrequently found on the English coast.

The Sword-fish.—The well-known Sword-fish inhabits every part of

the Mediterranean Sea, and has several times been seen near the shores
of England and Scotland.
The “sword” for which this fish is so famous, is an elongation of the
upper jaw, of great strength, and capable of doing considerable injury
to any object against which it directs its attacks. In the British
Museum is a portion of the bottom of a ship, pierced completely through
by the “ sword ” of one of these fish. Its unfortunate owner must have
 NATURAL HISTORY. ■>
O ' Jt,

instantly perished by the shock, for the sword was imbedded almost to its
base, and broken short off. In one instance, a Sword-fish attacked
a whaling-ship, and drove its weapon “ t hrough the copper sheathing, an
inch-board sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, the solid white
oak-timber of the ship twelve inches thick, through another two-and-
a-half inch hard oak ceiling plank, and lastly, perforated the head of an
oil-cask, where it still remained immovably fixed, so that not a single
drop of oil escaped.”
In the Mediterranean, the fishermen eagerly chase the Sword-fish.
The harpoon and line are used, much in the same manner as in the whale

Xiphias.—(Gr. Xicplas, shaped like a sword; the Sword-fish.)

Gladius (Lat. a Sword), the Sword-fish.

fishery. The Sicilian fishermen have a strange superstition that if the
Sword-fish were to hear a word of Italian, it would instantly dive and
escape them. They therefore restrict their vocal sounds to an unintelli¬
gible chant. It it said that the whale is an object of particular enmity
to the Sword-fish, and that ships are struck by it, being mistaken for
whales.
The length of this fish is usually from twelve to fifteen feet. It is
said to feed principally on tunnies, pursuing the shoals, and transfixing
the fish with its sword.
The Stickleback.—There are six species of Sticklebacks known to
inhabit England, the habits of all being very similar. They are most
pugnacious little creatures, and wifi fight on the smallest provocation,
dashing at each other and endeavouring to tear open their adversary’s
side with the sharp spikes that adorn their sides. The brilliant colours
with which they are decorated, only belong to the males, and not to them
if they have been vanquished. In such a case, the conqueror looks more
brilliant than before, and sails about with as much dignity as can be as*
sumed by an animal an inch and a half in length. The unfortunate
individual who has been defeated sneaks off into some corner, and soon
loses his beautiful colouring, his crimson, green, and gold panoply
changing into a very dull matter-of-fact grey.
a a 2
356 NATURAL HISTORY.

Gasterosteus.—(Gr. raar-pp, the belly; The courage of the Stickle*

ocrrtov, a bone.) backs is not only exerted
against their own species.
These little fish are quite
aquatic lemmings, and will
boldly attack a stick if it is
placed near their haunts. 1
have often known them dash
with such violence at a stick
which I have presented to
them, that the blow of their
head against the wood pro¬
duced a sensible jar.

The John Dory, rendered

illustrious by Quin the come¬
dian, who was not less known
for his comic powers than for
his love of good living, is
Aculeatua (Lat. thorny,) the Stickleback. found plentifully off the coasts
of Cornwall and Devonshire.
The derivation of its
Family XIV. Zeldae.—(Gr. Zeijs, Jupiter.)
name is not quite cer¬
ZEUS.
tain, but in all pro¬
bability it is derived
from the Trench,
doree, or golden, in
allusion to its pecu
liar golden yellow
colour.
Traditions vary as
to the spots so con¬
spicuous on its side,
Some strenuously as¬
sert that this was the
fish caught by St.
Peter when he took
the tribute-money out
of its mouth, and
upon whose sides the
marks of his finger
Faber (Lat. a Workman ; sometimes used for the and thumb were left.
fish), the John Dory. The Haddock, how¬
ever, vies with the
Dory for this honour. Other traditions are quite as vigorous in their
 NATURAL HI9TOR\. 357

assertion, that St. Christopher produced these marks while crossing

an arm of the sea, bearing the Saviour in his arms.

Family XVII. Syngnathtdax—(Gr. 2tV, together; yroidos, the jaw.j

Hippocampus.—(Gr. 'hmoKa/ATros, derived from 'Lmros, a Horse ; nd/uvn,
a joint or a caterpillar, a Sea-horse.)

Brevirostris (Lat. short-beaked), the Sea-horse.

'The singular fish called the Sea-horse has often been found off the
southern coasts of England. The habits of this fish are very singular and
interesting. A pair were kept alive for some time in a glass vessel, and
exhibited considerable activity and intelligence. They swam about with
an undulating kind of movement, and frequently twined their tails round
the weeds placed in their prison. Their eyes moved independently of each
other, like those of the chameleon, and the changeable tints of the head
closely resemble that animal.
More than once, these curious fish have been seen curled up in oyster
shells.
The singular creatures called Pipe-fish also belong to the Syngnathidae

The Remora, or Sucking-fish, is remarkable for the peculiar appa¬

ratus situated on the upper part of its head. Bv this it can adhere to
any object so firmly that it is a difficult matter to make it loose its hold.
It is often found adhering to large fish or to the bottoms of ships, pro¬
bably in both instances for the sake of the fragments of food rejected by
1 be one, or thrown overboard from the other.
The older writers on Natural History fully believed that one Remora
had the power of arresting the swiftest ship in its course, and fixing it
firmly in the same spot in spite of spread canvass and swift gales. As
the Remora is about the same size as a herring, our ancestors naturally
considered this a very curious circumstance, and wrote no few pQfens on
358 NATURAL HISTORY.

the subject. The following true account of this fish is extracted from
Macgillivray’s Voyage of the Battle-snake :—
“ Small fish appeared to abound at this anchorage (the Calvados group
of islands). I had never before seen the Sucking-fish {Echeneis reviora)
so plentiful as at that place; they caused much annoyance to our fisher¬
men by carrying off baits and hooks, and appeared always on the alert,
darting out in a body of twenty or more from under the ship’s bottom
when any offal was thrown overboard. Being quite a nuisance, and use¬
less as food, Jack often treated them as he would a shark, by sprit-sa’J
yarding,* or some less refined mode of torture. One day, some of us while
walking the poop had our attention directed to a sucking-fish about two
and a half feet in length, which had been made fast by the tail to a billet
of wood by a fathom or so of spun yarn, and so turned adrift. An
immense striped shark, apparently about fourteen feet in length, which
Family XXII. Echeneidm.—(Gr. ’Exevrjis; from e%co, I hold; vavs, a ship.)
ECHENEIS.

ltemora (Lat. 'properly, a delay), the Suclcing-jish.

nad been cruising about the ship all the morning, sailed slowly up, and
turning slightly on one side, attempted to seize the apparently helpless
fish, but the sucker with great dexterity made himself fast in a moment
to the shark’s back. Off darted the monster at full speed, the sucker
holding fast as a limpet to a rock, and the billet towing astern. He then
rolled over and over, tumbling about; when, wearied with his efforts, he
lay quiet for a little. Seeing the float, the shark got it into his mouth, and
disengaging the sucker by a tug on the line, made a bolt at the fish ; but
his puny antagonist was again too quick, and fixing himself close behind
the dorsal fin, defied the efforts of the shark to disengage him, although
he rolled over and over, lashing the water with his tail until it foamed
all around. What the final result was, we could not clearly make out.”

The Angler, or Fishing Frog, as it is more generally called, is not

uncommon in all the European seas. The peculiar formation of its pec¬
toral fins enables .it to crawl for some distance on land.
* “ Sprit-sail yarding ” is an ingenious torture invented by sailors for the especial
benefit of the shark. It is accomplished by thrusting a small spar transversely through
the poor creature’s mouth, so that, being unable to procure its.food on account of tire im¬
pediment, ;t dies by degrees from the combined effects of hunger and pain.
 NATURAL LUcSTORY. 369

On its head are two elongated bony appendages, curiously articulated

to the skull by a joint formed something like the links of a chain, and
capable of movement in any direction. The Angler couches close to the
bottom of the sea, and by the movement of its pectoral fins stirs up the
sand and mud, and agitates the bony appendages amid the turbid cloud
Family XXIII. Lophiid®.— (Gr. A6(pos, a crest. 1
LOPHIUS.

Piscatorius (Lat. fishing), the Angler.

produced. The small fishes, observing the muddy water, and taking the
filaments for worms, approach to seize them, and are instantly engulphed
in the capacious jaws of the crafty Angler.
The voracity of the Angler is so great, that when caught in a net
together with other fish, it generally devours some of its fellow-prisoners
—a useless act, for the fishermen mostly open its stomach, and recapture
the flounders and other fish found in its interior.

The Malacopterygian fishes have their fin membranes supported by

flexible rays. The Abdominal Malacoptervgii have their ventral fins
situated on the belly, without any connexion with the bones of the
shoulder.
The Common Carp is a well-known inhabitant of our ponds, lakes, and
sluggish rivers. It is a very shy and wary fish, rejecting one day a bait
which had been freely taken the day previous. In 1847, while fishing
in a small pond near Oxford, I took in one hour six or seven carp, weigh¬
ing from half a pound to nearly three pounds each. A few days after¬
wards, although the weather was equally propitious, the carp were not,
and the whole day was spent without even a bite.
It lives to a great age, and when very old its scales turn grey just as
360 NATURAL HISTORY.

Order II. . . MALACOPTERYGII.—(Gr. MaXaKos, soft; nrtpvyiov, a tin.)

Sub-order I. Abdominalia.—(Lat. belonging to the abdomen.)
Family I. . . Cyprinidae.— (Gr. KunpTvos, a Carp.)
CYPRINUS.

Carplo (Lat.) the Carp.

human hairs do. In several places in France numbers of Carp were kept
until they attained an enormous size. These great sluggish fish were
accustomed to come to the water’s edge in order to be fed at the call of
their keeper. Feeding the Carp was almost a hereditary amusement of
the later kings of France.
Yery few fish are so tenacious of life as the Carp. It is the custom
in Holland to keep these fish in nets filled with wet moss. They are fed
with bread and milk, and are preserved in health by frequent immersion
in water, in order to keep the moss thoroughly wet.
Two or three pounds is the average weight of a good Carp, but in¬
dividuals have been known weighing upwards of eighteen pounds. It is
enormously prolific, as the roe of one female weighing nine pounds was
found to contain six hundred thousand eggs. Of course comparatively
few of these eggs arrive at maturity, by far the greater number being
eaten by other fish.

The Gold-pisii or Golden Carp, is another species of the genus

Cyprinus. It was originally brought from China, about two hundred
years since, when it was considered a great curiosity; now, however, it
is quite common, and is found to live in ponds even when the surface of
the water is thickly covered with ice. The ponds in Christ Church
College, and the Botanic Gardens, Oxford, are thickly populated with
these beautiful fish, which increase with the most marvellous rapidity.
The pond in the centre of the Clarendon Printing Office was stocked with
these fish, and as the spare water from the steam-engine used in the
works passed into the pond, they throve amazingly. One unfortunate
 NATURAL HISTORY. 361
CYPR1NUS.

Barbus (Lat. Barba, a beard), the Barbel.

Auratus (Lat. gilded), the Gold-fish.

morning, the surface of the pond was covered with Golden Carp, all
floating dead. Some verdigris had formed in some part of the engine,
had been washed into the pond, and had poisoned all its finny inhabi¬
tants.

The Barbel is found in most of the European rivers. Its flesh is coarse
and unsavoury, but it is eagerly sought after by anglers, as the spirit
and vigour displayed by it when hooked afford fine sport. It is peculiarly
clever a breaking the line, a feat sometimes accomplished by a violent
blow of the tail, and sometimes by contriving to twist the line round a
root or post, and giving a sudden jerk.
It feeds principally on larvae and molluscs, inhabiting the banks, and
obtains them by rooting in the sand with its snout. The barbels, or
beards, hanging from the upper jaw, doubtless assist in these investiga¬
tions. It frequently grows to a very great size, weighing from fifteen to
eighteen pounds, and measuring upwards of three feet in length. Many
are captured by nets during the summer, at which season they frequent
the weedy parts of the river in shoals ; but in winter they retire to the
shelter afforded by banks and old woodwork. Several good swimmers
have been known to dive after the Barbel, as they lay pressed against
the banks, and to bring up one each time, not unfrequently appearing
with two, one iu each hand.

The Gudgeon.—The ease with which the Gudgeon is taken has passed
into a proverb. This pretty little fish is usually found in shallow parts
3ce NATURAL HISTORY.

of rivers, where the bottom is gravelly. If the gravel is stirred, up, the
Gudgcuns immediately flock to the place, and a worm suspended amid
the turbid water is eagerly snapped at by them. The fishermen usually
take them in nets, and keep them alive in well-boats. They are largely
purchased as baits for trolling.
The flesh of the Gudgeon is particularly delicate, and although its
length rarely exceeds seven inches, yet from the ease with which numbers
can be obtained, it forms a dish by no means to be despised.
Gobio.—(Lat. a Gudgeon.)
Abramis. — (Gr. ’A/3paws, a Bream.)

Fluviatilis (Lat. of the river), the Gudgeon.

Brama (Lat.) the Bream.

The Bream is very common on the Continent, but in England is only

found in certain rivers and lakes, such as the Medway and Trent, and
the Jakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland. It is also found in the lakes
of Ireland.
The breadth of the Bream is greater in proportion to its length than
that of most fishes. It affords excellent sport to the angler, biting
readily and resisting vigorously when hooked. The most approved
method of catching this fish is by preparing the spot with ground bait
for a day or two previous ; the Bream then assemble in numbers and bite
freely at a bait. In Ireland the Bream taken were accustomed to be
given to the poor, who split and salted them for winter provision.
Its length rarely exceeds ten or twelve inches, nor is it of any value
for the table.

The Tench.—The habits of the Tench are not unlike those of the
carp, excepting that it seems even more sluggish than that fish. It
especially delights in muddy banks of ponds, where the weeds glow
 NATURAL niSTORY. 363
thickly, Roget gives Tinca.—(Lat. a Tench.)
an account of a Tench
that had been taken
out of a pond almost
filled up with stones
and rubbish, and which
had actually grown into
the shape of the hole
where it had been
confined, evidently for
many years. The
weight of that fish
was eleven pounds
nine ounces. Four
hundred tench and as
many perch were also T7r . _ . ,T x
taken out of the same u Sans (^at. common), the Tench.
pond. This fish is even more tenacious of life than the carp.

The Roach is very common in most rivers of this country, and is

generally spread over the temperate parts of Europe. It is by no means
a large fish, rarely exceeding two pounds in weight, and but seldom
attaining that size. These fish usually live in small shoals, and pass from
one part of the river to T
another. Leuciscus.—(Gr. Aevuia-Kos; from \gvk6s, white.)

The Roach is not

unlike the Dace, but
may be easily distin¬
guished by its bright
red ventral tins, those
of the dace being
silvery white. It is
rather a favourite with
anglers, as it bites or
rather nibbles at the
bait in such a dainty
and delicate manner,
that the disappointed
fisherman not unfre- ^ ,T , 7 . . n x7 „ .
,uently finds the bait Rutllus (TLat- Amm° red>’ tU Eoach-
gone without the move- Leuciscus, the Dace.
ment of his float betraying the theft. A quick eye and a dexterous
hand are required for this sport. The float is so balanced as barely
to appear above the surface of the water, for, unlike the perch, that
dashes at the bait and boldly jerks the float at once under water, the
Roach does little more than swim under the bait as far as it can, and
364 NATURAL HISTORY.

then just gives a gentle nibble, repeating the process until the bait has
entirely left the hook.
The Dace.—The habits of the Dace are so similar to those of the
Roach as to need but little description. It is usually found wherever
the roach resides, and, like that fish, swims in shoals. It makes al

THE DACE.*

excellent bait for trolling, as the silvery whiteness of its scales renders it
a conspicuous object, and serves to attract the pike. It seldom exceeds
nine or ten inches in length.

The Bleak and tne Minnow both belong to the genus Leuciscus.
The former fish is remarkable for the use made of its scales, which when
washed in water deposit a powder much used in the manufacture ol
artificial pearls.
The Chub is also common in most of our rivers. It affords good sport
to the angler, both with a fly and with a bait.
The usual bait employed is a cockchaffer, which, when fastened to the
hook and artistically made to dance on the surface of the water, is a
temptation that few Chub can resist. This method of fishing is termed
“ dibbing,” and the peculiar movement is communicated to the bait by
tapping the butt end of the rod, while the cockchaffer or moth just rests
on the surface of the water.
Its flesh is very coarse, and requires some skill on the part of the cook
to make it fit for the table. Its weight rarely exceeds five pounds, but it is
very powerful, and requires a strong line and skilful management on the
part of the angler. A well-known piscator at Oxford, while fishing with
the fly from a small skiff, succeeded in hooking a Chub, apparently
weighing about four pounds, which actually towed him up and down
* Two drawings of this fish having been made, both have beer inserted.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 365

LEUCI8CU8.

Ceph&lus (Gr. Kecpa.Au,, a large-headed fish), the Chub.

stream for some time, until th» line, not calculated for Chub, snapped,
and the-fish of course escaped.

In some counties the Cobitis—(Gr. dim. of uufitos,

Loach goes by the name a Gudgeon.)
of “ Beardie,” in allusion
to the little fleshy particles
that hang from its lips. It
has also the name of Ground¬
ling, on account of its habit of
living close to the bottom of
the water.
It is a common fish, and
may be taken in most streams,
especially if the bait is drawn
over the bed of the stream.
The principal peculiarity about
the fish, is the comparatively
great breadth of the tail where
it joins the spine. This for¬
mation, together with the ge¬
nerally pellucid appearance of
its body, at once distinguish it
Barbatula (Lat. bearded), the Loach.
from any other fish.

The Pike.—This fierce and voracious fish is now common in most rivers
and lakes in England, although it was formerly so rare as to be rated at
ten times the vaiue of turbot.
36C NATURAL HIRTOKY.

It affords much sport to anglers, who generally employ a method of

fishing called “trolling.” A gudgeon, roach, or large minnow is so fixed
t o a number of formidable hooks, that when drawn through the water,
it spins rapidly round, and attracts the notice of the watchfui Pike, who
dashes at the glittering bait with a violence that jars the rod down to the
Family II. Esocidae.— (Lat. Esox, a Pike.)
ESOX.

Lucius (Lat. a Pike), the Pike.

very butt. Off swims the pike to his place of concealment, leisurely
turns the head of the bait downwards, and swallows it. Now, to swallow
the fish is easy enough, but the array of barbed hooks proves an effectual
obstacle to the endeavours of the Pike to get rid of the unwelcome
morsel as soon as the angler jerks the line, and gives the Pike to under¬
stand that hooks have points. The deluded Pike now endeavours to breax
the line, but a good fisherman foils all his efforts, and at last lands him,
wearied and bleeding, but ferocious to the last.
The method of fishing for Pike called “trimming” is hardly wortn
mention. A line baited with living fish is fastened to a float, and suffered
to lie on the surface of the water. The Pike, seeing the bait swimming
about, dashes at it and hooks itself in the effort.
This fish varies in size from two or three pounds’ weight, to twenty or
thirty; but a Pike weighing fifteen pounds is considered a very fine fish.
Above that weight they are almost useless for the table. A Pike
weighing less than two pounds is called a jack. In the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford is a Pike weighing thirty pounds, that was taken m
the lake at Blenheim Park. Another Pike, weighing twenty-five pounds,
was caught near Oxford a few months ago, and J have seen the skin of
jne that weighed thirty-five pounds when first caught.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 307
The appetite of this fish is almost insatiable. Mr. Jesse threw to one
Pike of five pounds’ weight, four roach, each about four inches in length,
which it devoured instantly, and swallowed a fifth within a quarter of an
hour. Moor-liens, ducks, and even swans have been known to fail a prey
to this voracious fish, its long teeth effectually keeping them prisoners
under water until drowned.

The Elying-fish.—This fish, so celebrated in most books of voyages,

is found in the warmer latitudes, but has several times been seen off our
coasts. The so-called “ flight” is very similar to that of the flying
squirrels and dragons, the fish merely springing out of the water with a
violent impetus, and sustaining itself in the air by means of its enormous
pectoral fins. It is not able to alter its course while in the air, nor to

Exoccetus.—(Gr. E^wkoitos, sleeping out [of the sea).)*

Volitans (Lat. flying), the Flying-fish.

nse a second time without repeating its course through the wrater. The
reader will notice the remarkable fact, that individuals of tnree wingless
classes, the Mammalia, the lleptiles, and the Eishes, have each the power
of sustaining themselves in the air.
The “flight” of this fish seldom exceeds two hundred yards. The
unfortunate creatures are pursued in the water by “Dorados,” errone¬
ously called dolphins, and other fishes of prey. To escape their finny
tyrants, they spring into the air, and for a while escape. IBut the gulls
and albatroses are on the watch, and pounce on the Elying-fish from
above, so that the persecuted creatures are tolerably sure to fall a prey tc
one or the other of their foes.
• The ancients believed that this and some other fishes slept on the beach.
368 NATURAL HISTORY,

The usual height of flight is about two or tlnee feet above the surface
jf the water, but it has frequently been known to exceed fourteen feet.,
and in one instance a Flying-fish came skimming into the ports of a large
man-of-war, nearly twenty feet above the water.
The size of the fish is about the same as that of a herring. Sailors
are always glad to capture it, as its flesh proves an agreeable change from
the eternal salt junk, by which the power of the sailor’s teeth is woefully
tried.
The food of this fish is molluscs and small fishes.

Family IV. Salmonidas.

Salmo. — (Lat. a Salmon.)

Salar (Lat. a Salmon), the Salmon.

The Salmon is a migratory fish, annually leaving the sea, its proper
residence, and proceeding for many miles up rivers for the purpose of
depositing its spawn. This duty having been accomplished, it returns to
the sea in the spring. The perseverance of this fish in working its way
up the stream is perfectly wonderful. No stream is rapid enough to
daunt it, nor is it even checked by falls. These it surmounts by springing
out of the water, fairly passing over the fall. Heights of fourteen or
fifteen feet are constantly leaped by this powerful fish, and when it has
arrived at the higher and shallower parts of the river, it scoops furrows
in the gravelly bottom, and there deposits its spawn. The young, called
“ fry,” are hatched about March, and immediately commence their retreat
to the sea. By the end of May the young salmon, now called “ smolts,’
have almost entirely deserted the rivers, and in June not one is to be
found in fresh water. Small Salmon weighing less than two pounds are
termed “salmon peel,” all above that weight are called “grilse.”
 NATURAL HISTORY. 369

The havoc wrought among Salmon by foes of every description is so

enormous, that notwithstanding the great fecundity of the fish, it is a
matter of surprise that so many escape destruction; for although the
fish are preserved from their human foes by many stringent regulations,
yet other foes, such as otters, who devour the large fish, and other fish
who devour the spawn, have but little respect for laws and regulations.
While in the rivers, multitudes of Salmon are annually caught, usually
oy stake nets, which are capable of confining an immense number of fish
at one time. Salmon spearing is a favourite amusement. This animated
and excitiug sport is usually carried oil by torch-light. The torches,
when held close to the surface of the water, illumine the depths of the
river, and render every fish within its influence perfectly visible. The
watchful spearman, guided by slight indications bearing no meaning to an
unpractised eye, darts his unerring spear, and brings up in triumph the
glittering captive, writhing in vain among the barbed points. In the
northern rivers this destructive pursuit is carried on to a great extent,
more than a hundred salmon being frequently taken in an evening.
Amglers also find considerable sport in using the fly for this beautiful and
active fish, whose strength makes it no mean antagonist.

Salmo.

Fario (Lat. a Trout), the Trout.

The Common Trout is found in many rivers in this country, always

a referring rapid, shallow, and sparkling streams, especially if there should
ae little falls at intervals. The Derwent and the Dove are particularly
famous for their trout. The latter river is quite the hectu ideal of a trout
stream. It never seems to know its own mind for half a mile together.
Sometimes it is rapid, frisking over stones and round trees, and
throwing up the sparkling foam in all directions. Presently it has
B B
370 NATURAL HISTORY.

changed into a silent, slow, melancholy river, with dark pools of unknown
depth, shaded by overhanging trees, and suggestive of murders success¬
fully concealed. Everywhere are the trout. Lying quietly under the
shelter of some large stone, while the water is leaping round them, are
tire moderate sized trout, darting off like meteors to snatch at a passing
fly, and as quickly returning to their concealment. In the deeper pools
are the larger fish, who are too sagacious to be deceived by the artfully
made, fly of the professed angler, yet often fall victims to the less scien¬
tific but more successful plough-boy.
Several of my schoolboy years were spent near the banks of the Dove,
which river, of course, formed one of our favourite haunts. We were
accustomed to take the large trout by the rather unsportsmanlike, but
very amusing method of “tickling.” It was excessively amusing to
watch the angry countenances of London anglers, who came to the Dove
bedizened with all the appurtenances of rods, lines, baskets, &c., and who,
after whipping the water most perseveringly for the whole morning
without a single bite, while resting their tired arms, saw the country boys
seated on the bank, armed with a long stick and a line barely two feet
long, adding every minute to the heap of glittering fishes at their side.
The usual method of fishing for trout is with a fly, but trolling with a
minnow is often successfully used, nor does the trout reject a well-selected
and properly arranged worm.
The brilliant speckled tints of this beautiful fish vary much according
to the locality and the time of year. In May the fish assume their
brightest colours and their most delicate flavour. The size of the fish
also varies exceedingly, being from half a pound in weight and about
eight inches in length, to ten or fifteen pounds’ weight.
The Smelt belongs to this family, and in its progress to the sea is de¬
stroyed in great quantities in mill-ponds, &c.

The value of the Herring family to man is almost incalculable. The

Pilchard and the Herring are very similar in appearance, but may be
easily known by the position of the dorsal fin, which in the Pilchard is so
exactly in the centre of the body, that if the fish is held by it, the body
exactly balances; while in the herring, the dorsal fin is placed rather
backwards, so that when suspended, the fish hangs with its head down¬
wards.
Unlike the herring, which visits every part of our coasts, the Pilchard
is only found on the shores of Devonshire and Cornwall. Here, howevci
: ho enormous shoals that annually make their appearance fully com¬
pensate for the limited space occupied by them. Occasionally a few
shoals are seen on the southern coast of Ireland. The coasts of Erance
and Spain are tolerably frequent resorts of this fish.
The fish are usually taken in an enormous building of nets, called “ sean
acts.” The nets used in the sea fishery are two, a large ret called the
 NATURAL HISTORY. 371
•‘stop sean,” about a quarter of a mile in length, and a hundred feet in
depth; and a smaller net, called the “ tuck sean,” about a furlong in
length, and a hundred and twenty feet in depth, the average value of
the two nets being 500/.
When the fishermen see a shoal of pilchards approaching, they imme¬
diately set out in two fishing boats, one of which carries the tuck sean

Family Y. Clupeidse.—(Lat. ClupVa, a Herring.)

Clupea.

Pilchardus (Lat. the Pilchard.)

and the other the stop sean. Guided by signs from the master-seamen,
they silently surround the shoal with the nets, the larger of which is used
to enclose a large number of fish, and the smaller to pass within the other
net, to bring the mass of fish into a small compass, and finally to prevent
them from escaping until the fishermen have leisure to remove them to
the boats.
When landed, the pilchards are taken to the store houses, salted, and
after remaining in heaps for five or six days, are pressed into casks by
powerful levers. During the pressure, which lasts about a fortnight,
fresh layers of fish being added as the former are pressed close,' an
abundance of excellent oil escapes from holes made in the cask for the
purpose. The entire refuse of the fish, consisting of the superabundant
salt, the scales and other rejected portions, is sold to the farmers as a
valuable manure. The refuse of each pilchard is calculated to manure one
square foot of land.

The Herring makes its annual appearance in the northern parts of

Scotland about June. This most valuable fish arrives in enormous shoals,
five or six miles in length and three or four in breadth. Their advent is
heralded by various sea birds, such as the gaunets and gulls, which con¬
stantly hover over the shoals and commit unceasing devastations among
them. Yet in spite of the myriads destroyed by birds and fishes, in
spite of the shoals captured by man, in spite of the vast quantity of spawn
devoured by other fishes, their numbers seem quite undiminished, and
each year they ait led by the instinct inculcated in them by Providence,
B B 2
372 natural history.

to visit the shore in incalculable numbers, not only to yield to man an

unfailing supply, but to make the necessary provision for the increase ol
their number.
The fishery is conducted by boats and nets, the whole fitting up of
each boat costing little less than 1,000/. To add to the expense, the
whole apparatus must be renewed every four or five years, as, inde¬
pendently of the injuries inflicted by the sea and the weight of fish, the
dog-fish, which unremittingly follows the shoals of herrings, is often
entangled in the nets together with its intended victims, and by its sharp
teeth and vigorous struggles makes sad ravages among the nets.

Clupea.

Harengus (Lat. the Herring).

When taken out of the water, the herring dies almost immediately, as
ao all fish that live near the surface of the water. Those, on the contrary,
as the carp, tench, eels, and the flat fish, who reside at the bottom, are
able to sustain life for a much longer period when taken out of their
native element. It is therefore necessary that the herrings should be
cured as soon as possible. The “White Herrings” are cured in the
boats, but the “ Red Herrings” are taken on shore, and suspended in the
smoke of a wood fire for twenty-four hours, in addition to the salting
that both they and the White Herring undergo.
The well-known Sprat (Clupea Sprattus) also belongs to the genus
Clupea, and, like the herring, visits our shores in large shoals. The
Sprat fishery commences in the beginning of November. Not only are
enormous quantities of this small but useful fish used as food, and sent
into all parts of this country, but they are very largely used as manure;
fish, according to the researches of Sir H. Davy, being a most powerful
manure, retaining its fertilising influence for a long time. Many thousand
tons’ weight of sprats are annually used for this purpose.
The White-bait belongs to the same family.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 373
The little Ancuovy is a fish Engraulis.—(Gr. wEyypav\ts).
of no small importance, being
very largely used in various
sauces, besides the numbers
that are preserved in pickle.
It is common in the Mediter¬
ranean, and is also found on
our coasts. The upper jaw of
this fish is longer than the
lower one; the entire length
of the fish is usually from four
to five inches, but it has been
seen measuring upwards of EncrasichSlus (Gr. ’EyKpaaLxoKos, mixed
seven inches. with bitter; the Anchovy, from, its taste),
the Anchovy.

Sub-order II. Sub-brachiata.—(Lat. sub, under; brachium, an arm.)

Family VI. . Gadidm.—(Gr. TaSos.)
Morrhua.

Callarias (Gr. KaWapias), the Cod.

The Cod.—In this Sub-order the bones of the ventral fins are placed
mder, and support the bones of the shoulder.
The well-known Cod-fish is principally found on the coasts of New-
'}*? A
o i 4i NATURAL HISTORY.

foundland, but is taken in great numbers on our own shores. The hook
is generally employed for the capture of this fine fish. An immense
number of hooks, each baited with a whelk or limpet and attached to
short lines, are fastened at intervals along a rope, which is stretched, or
shot, as it is termed, across the tide, in order to prevent the hooks from
getting entangled. Such is the voracity of the fish, that nearly five
hundred fish have been taken by one man in the course of ten hours.
The intense cold renders the Cod fishery a service ol great hardship.
When taken, the fish are placed in a well boat, through which the salt
water has a free passage, so that the cod-fish are brought to Billingsgate
still living. Several successful experiments have been made to preserve
this fish in salt water ponds, in which it appears to thrive well. The
fecundity of this fish is almost incredible, the roe of one fish having
been ascertained to contain nine million eggs. The Whiting belongs to
this family.

In the Flat-fish we see a most extraordinary instance of adaptation of

structure to peculiar circumstances. We have all seen Flat-fish, and all
know that the upper side is dark, and the under side nearly white. The
word ‘side’is used advisedly, as these curious fish actually lie on
their sides at the bottom of the water while undisturbed, or merely
feeding. When, however, they are alarmed, they rapidly assume the
vertical position, and dart off with great speed. The dark upper surface
serves to protect them from becoming too visible to enemies above. The
two eyes are also placed on the upper side of the head for obvious reasons.
In fact, the whole fish appears as if it had been laid on its side, and
rolled flat, the head also being twisted round, and the lower eye removed
to the upper surface.

The Turbot is found on the coasts of most parts of England, but

the fisheries are nearly exclusively confined to the southern coasts of
Ireland.
The fishery is conducted both by nets and lines. The net, called the
liaul-net, drags from the bottom not only turbots but other flat-fish, such
as soles and plaice. The line, used when the bottom of the sea is too
deep or rocky for the net, is armed with many hooks, baited with smelts
and other small fish. The lampern, or river lamprey, was formerly in
very great use as a bait, as its brilliant silvery appearance, and its great
tenacity of life, rendered it peculiarly fit for the capture of the voracious
but dainty turbot, who,-rejecting all stale or discoloured baits, eagerly
devours them if bright coloured and moving. The fishermen state that
the turbot will not touch a bait that has been bitten by any other fish.
On the English' coasts one turbot-line frequently extends for three miles
in length, and is furnished with 2,500 hooks, which are attached to the
main line by small horse-hair lines, each twenty-seven inches in length.
This enormous line is “shot” across the current at the turn of the tide
 NATURAL HISTORY. 375

Family VII. Pleuronectldse.—(Gr. n\evp6v, a rib or side; power ot

swimming.)
Psetta.—(Gr. yf/TTa, a Turbot.)

Maxima (Lat. greatest), the Turbot.

Each boat possesses a double set of lines, so that one line is “shot” and
another “ hauled” every turn of the tide.
The little star-like bones imbedded in the upper part of the skin ol
this fish are very curious. The dark side of the turbot is the left, on
which the eyes are also placed. Reversed turbots, and even turbots
dark on both sides, are not at all uncommon.

Solea.—(Lat. the Sole of a shoe.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Sole.

The Common Sole is too well known to need much description. This
376 M4TURAL HISTORY

fish is Hie reverse of the turbot, having the eyes and colour on the rigid
side; although, as in the turbot, varieties are not rare. It is in season
during most parts of the year, except a few weeks in March or April.
Although it is a marine fish, it seems to thrive well in river-water, or even
in a pond. Mr. Arnold kept several in a pond in Guernsey, where the soles
beeame twice as thick in proportion to their length as those living in the
sea.

Sub-order III. Apoda.— (Gr. ’A, pi’ivation; nous, a foot.i

Family IX. . . Murajnidae.—(Gr. Mvpcuva. a Sea-eel.)
Anguilla.—(Lat. a little Eel.)

Acutirostris (Lat. sharp-beaked), the Sharp-nosed Eel.

Tne Eels form the sub-order of the Apoda, or footless fish, so called
horn the absence of ventral fins.
These fish assume a form very similar to the serpents. Although on
a hasty examination they seem to be devoid of scales, yet when the skin
is dried, very minute scales may be seen through the semi-transparent
outer skin, and may be easily detached by carefully separating the two
skins.
Eels inhabit muddy ponds and rivers, and are common in many canals.
They are susceptible of cold, and constantly descend the rivers to deposit
their spawn in the sea, after which, the young when hatched work their
way up the rivers, thereby precisely reversing the habits of the salmon.
They are capable of living out of water for a long time, and often make
voluntary land excursions, either for the purpose of avoiding an insur¬
mountable fall, or in search of frogs or worms, on which they feed. In
the winter, while they are lying torpid in the mud, multitudes are taken
by eel-spears—many-pronged instruments, whose prongs are feathered
with recurved barbs, which, when pushed into the mud, entangle the
eels, and effectually prevent their escape.
There are supposed to be four species of English eel; namely, tne
Sharp-nosed, the Broad-nosed, the Snig, and the Grig.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 377
The Congek Eel is found in all the rocky parts of the British coasts*
and is exceedingly common on the coasts of Cornwall.

Cgnszr.—(Lat. from Gr. Yoyypos, a Conger Eel.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common, the Conger).

It Is usually caught with a hook, the best bait of which is a sand-

launce, a little fish belonging to the same family as the eels, and which
buries itself five or six inches deep in the sand when the tide ebbs, and
releases itself on the next flood tide. The fishermen rake it out of the
sand with iron hooks. A pilchard is a common bait for the Conger.
The size of this fish is sometimes very great. Yarrell mentions, in his
“ British Eishes,” that “ specimens weighing eighty-six pounds, one
hundred and four pounds, and even one hundred and thirty pounds, have
been recorded, some of them measuring more than ten feet long and
eighteen inches in circumference. They possess great strength, and
often form very formidable antagonists if assailed among rocks, or when
drawn into a boat with a line.”

Family X. Gymnottdce.—(Gr. Yvfxvos, naked; vwtos, the back.)

Gymnotus.

Electrlcus (Lat. electric), the Electric Eel.

The Electric Eel.—Tfns curious fish, which exhibits the singular

phenomenon of voluntary electric power residing in a living animal, is
578 NATURAL HISTORY.

an inhabitant of the fresh-water rivers and ponds of Surinam, and othei

parts of South America, where it was first discovered in the year 1677.
This power of emitting an electric shock, is apparently given it in
order to enable the creature to kill its prey. Those who have seen the
Electric Eel in the Polytechnic while being fed, will have little doubt of
this. The fish given to it are, directly it becomes aware of their pre¬
sence, instantly struck dead, and then devoured. This specimen is un¬
fortunately blind, but it has learned to turn in the direction of a paddling
in the water, made by the individual who feeds it. The fish is scarcely
in the water before a shock from the Gymnotus kills it. The usual
length of the Gymnotus is about three feet.
Captain Stedman, in his account of Surinam, gives an account of the
electric eel, which he, of course, had many opportunities of seeing. He
attempted, for a trifling wager, to lift up a gymnotus in his hands, but
according to his own words :—
“ I tried about twenty different times to grasp it with my hand, but
all without effect, receiving just as many electrical shocks, which I felt
even to the top of my shoulder. It has been said that this animal must
be touched with both hands before it gives the shock, but this I must
take the liberty of contradicting, having experienced the contrary effect.”
The eel mentioned was a small one, only two feet long; but one that had
arrived at its full growth would have given a very much stronger shock.
An English sailor was fairly knocked down by a shock from one of these
eels, nor did he recover his senses for some time. It is said that the
shock can pass up a stick, and strike the person holding it. Mr. Bryant
and a companion were both struck while pouring off the water from a
tub in which an electric eel had been placed.
Humboldt, in his “ Views of Nature,” gives a very animated description
of the method employed by the Indians to take these formidable crea¬
tures—a method equally ingenious and cruel. Knowing from experience
that the powers of the gymnotus are not adequate to a constant volley
of shocks, they contrive that the shocks shall be expended on the horses
instead of themselves.
Having found a pool containing electric eels, they force a troop of
wild horses to enter the pool. The disturbed eels immediately attack
the intruders, and destroy many of them by repeated shocks; but by
constantly forcing fresh supplies of horses to invade the pool, the powers
of the gymnoti become exhausted, and they are then dragged out with
impunity.

The Short Sun-fish.—This order derives its name from the curious
structure of the jaws, which are fixed together in a very peculiar manner.
The Short Sun-fish has been frequently taken on almost all parts of
our coasts. It is of a most singular shape, looking as if three-fourths of
 NATURAL HISTORY. 37 9

a very large fish had been cut off, leaving only the head and shoulders,
something like a marine Baron Munchausen’s horse.

Order III. PLECTOGNATHI.—(Gr. nAeKror, plaited; 7 uddos, the jaw.)

Family I. Diodontidse.—(Gr. A is, double*; o8ov$f a tooth.)

Orth ago risCus.— (Gr. "OpeayooiaKos, a Sucking pig.)

Mola (Lat. a Mill-stone), the Short Sun-fish.

It attains to a very large size, and has been known to weigh three
hundred pounds, its length being only four feet five inches.
It lives mostly at the bottom of the sea, but frequently rises to the
surface, and lies, perhaps, asleep, floating with the tide. Sailors in this
case are fond of trying their skill with a harpoon. When struck, it uses
very powerful but exceedingly awkward efforts to escape. The sailors,
of course, eat it, as they do almost anything.

The Sturgeon.—The remaining fishes belong to the Cartilaginous

sub-class; that is, their skeletons are composed of cartilage, and not ol
true bone.
The first sub-order possess free gill-covers, like those of all the pre-
380 NATURAL HISTORY.

ceding fish; but the remainder breathe by means either of slits, as in the
sharks, or holes, as in the lampreys.
The Sturgeon is remarkable for the rows of bony plates extending
along the body. It is exceedingly common in the northern parts ol

Sub-class II. PISCES CHONDROPTERYGII.—(Gr. XovSpos, cartilage;

vTepvyiou, a fin.)

Sub-order I. Eleutheropomi.—(Gr. 'EAevOepos, free ; iru\ua, a lid or cover.)

Family I. . Acipenseridae.—(Lat. Acipenser, a Sturgeon.)

Acipenser.

Sturio, the Sturgeon.

Europe, where regular fisheries are organized for its capture. Almost
every part of it is used. Isinglass is obtained by drying and shredding
the air-bladder; caviare is made of the roe of the female, and the flesh is
extensively preserved both by pickling and salting, besides the large
quantities that are consumed fresh. The flavour of its flesh is said not
to he unlike veal.
It has occasionally been taken on our coasts, usually by entangling
it.self in the nets, and although it then does some injury to the nets by
its violent struggles to release itself, it is otherwise perfectly harmless.
Yarrell mentions that a sturgeon measuring eight feet six inches in
length, and weighing two hundred and three pounds, was taken in a
stake net near Findhon in 1833. A specimen was once caught in the
Esk, weighing four hundred and sixty pounds. The female always
deposits her eggs in fresh water, and the young, when hatched, descend
to the sea, and are supposed not to return again until, in their turn,
they seek the fresh water in order to deposit their spawn.

The Sharks and Rays have no gill-covers, but the water passes through
five elongated apertures on each side of the head.
The Sharks are proverbially ferocious and dangerous creatures, and are
the pest of those seas which they infest. Their mouths are furnished
 NATURAL HISTORY. 381

with several rows of sharp jagged teeth, which can be raised or depressed
at pleasure, and which can cut through a limb or even the body of a man
with the greatest ease. The mouth of these fishes is placed beneath the
head, so that a shark cannot seize a prey at the surface of the water
without turning on its side, which evolution often gives time for its
expected prey to escape.
Sub-order II. Trematopnei.—(Gr. Tpripa, a hole pierced through anything j
iri'tco, I breathe.)
Family i. . . Scyllidaa.—(Gr. 2/cuAta, a Dog-fish.)
SCYLLIUM.

Canicula (Lat. a little Dog), the Little Spotted Dog-ji&h.

The Little Spotted Dog-fish is the most common of the Sharks that
visit our shores. It is principally known on account of the havoc it
makes among the fish during the seasons of the various fisheries, for
which reason it is most especially detested by the unfortunate fishermen,
who not unfrequently, together with their expected spoil, draw up a few
dog-fish in their nets. The dog-fish, on finding themselves entangled,
immediately commence tearing the nets to pieces with their sharp and
powerful teeth.
The empty eggs of this fish are often found washed up on the sea-shore,
and called by the name of “mermaids’ purses.” They are oblong, and
furnished at each corner with a long semitransparent convoluted tendril,
the use of which is apparently to entangle and fix the egg among the sea¬
weed, and thus prevent it from being washed on shore until the young is
hatched.
A considerable quantity of oil can be obtained from the brain of the
dog-fish, and the skin, in common with that of other cartilaginous fishes,
is made into shagreen.

The White Shark is a well-known scourge of the Mediterranean Sea

and the Atlantic Ocean. This is the creature so detested by sailors, who,
when they have caught a “shirk,” sutdecfc it to every possible indignity.
This voracious creature has been know’ to ^wallow an entire man, and
382 NATURAL HISTORY.

as it is in the habit of lurking about skips for the sake of the scraps
thrown overboard, and almost invariably swallows whatever is cast over
the side, the contents of its stomach are often of a most heterogeneous

Family II. Squalid®.

Squalus. — (Lat. a Shatlc.)

Carcharias (Gr. a Shark; from Kapxapos, jagged ; in allusion to its teeth),

the White Shark.

description. The sailors always amuse themselves by seeing what the

shark had “stowed away,” and the substances thus brought to light have
been most curious. The entire contents of a lady’s work-basket, down
to the scissors, were found in the interior of one shark, and another had
actually swallowed an entire bull’s hide—a circumstance which led the
operating sailor to remark that the shark had swallowed a bull, but could
not “disgest” the hide.
The amphibious South Sea Islanders stand in great dread of the Shark,
and with good reason, for not a year elapses without several victims being
offered to the rapacity of this terrific animal. Nearly thirty of the natives
of the Society Islands were destroyed at one time by the sharks. A storm
nad so injured the canoe in which they were passing from one island to
another, that they were forced to take refuge on a raft hastily formed of
the fragments of their canoe. Their weight sunk the raft a foot or two
below the surface of the water, and, dreadful to say, the sharks surrounded
them and dragged them off the raft one by one, until the lightened raft
rose above the water and preserved the few survivors.

The Hammer-headed Shark* inhabits the same latitudes. This

curiously constructed fish closely resembles the white shark in all respects
but the head, which is widened out at each side, exactly like a double-
headed hammer or mallet. The eyes, being placed at each extremity of
the head, must of course possess a very extended power of vision.

The Thresher, a fish which has a curious habit of springing out of

* See page 383.
 NATURAy, HISTORY 383
SphyrnTas.—(Gr. from 5,'pvpa, a Hammer.)

Zygsena (Gr. Zvyaiva), the IIammer-headed Shark.

the water, and inflicting a violent blow with its tail on any object that
annoys it, belongs to the Shark tribe.

Family IY. Pristidse.—(Gr. nolens. the Sawfish.)

Pristis.

Antiquorum (Lat. of the Ancients), the Sawfish.

The Sawfish is found in the greatest perfection in the tropical seas,
although it also inhabits the Mediterranean. The weapon from which the
fish derives its name, is a flat, long prolongation of the head, on each
edge of which are set hard tooth-like projections, curiously inserted into
the bone.
This fish has been known to employ its saw in the attack of the whale,
burying the apparently inappropriate weapon to the very root in the body
of the whale; nor are instances wanting where the saw’has been found
firmly imbedded in the hull of a ship.
The strength of the Sawfish is very great. Captain Wilson gives an
account of the capture of a Sawfish, measuring twenty-two feet in length,
and weighing nearly five tons. After the fish had been entangled in a net
384 NATURAL HISTORY

for several hours, making violent efforts to escape, Captain Wilson got a
rope firmly fixed round its saw, and set thirty men to haul at the rope,
l'he whole thirty could not move it one inch, nor was it until one hundred
men had been pulling at the rope for nearly the whole of the day, that
they succeeded in dragging it on shore. Even then it made such violent
strokes with its saw, that they were forced to fasten strong guy ropes to
prevent it from cutting them to pieces. It was finally disabled by a
Spaniard, who cut through the joint of the tail.

Family V. Raid®.— (Lat. Raia, a Skate or Ray.)

Torpedo.—(Lat. Cramp or numbness.)

Scutata (Lat. shielded), the Torpedo.

The Torpedo may fairly be considered a British fish. It affords a

second instance of the electric power residing in a fish. The organs that
produce the electric shock are shown externally by two elevations extend¬
ing from the eyes about half down the body.*
Although it has once or twice been caught on our coasts, it is usually
found in the Mediterranean, where its powers are well known, and held
in some awe. The shock that the Torpedo gives, of course, varies
according to the size of the fish and its state of health, but a tolerably
large fish in good health can, for the time, disable a strong man. Erom
the effects of its shock, it is in some parts called the Cramp-fish.
* Those who would wish to examine the structure of this most singular organ are
referred to the Museum of the College of Surgeons, where is a series of beautiful wai
models, admirably illustrating the eniue structures.
 NATURAL niaTOHV. 385

Colonel Montagu notices a Torpedo caught on a turbot line, at Tuckv.

it weiglied about one hundred pounds, and completely puzzled the fisher¬
man, who found it hanging dead on the hooks, and had never seen such
a creature before. Colonel Montagu quaintly remarks, that had it not
been dead, the fisherman would certainly have had a shock that would
have made him remember the species again.

The Rays are at first sight not unlike the turbot and sole, but a closer
examination will show that the Rays really swim with them backs up¬
wards,
, whereas the turbot swims on its side. The movement of the Rav*
is very curious, and is admirably expressed by the word “ sluddering”—
used by an old fisherman.

The Skate is caught in abundance on our shores, and in England 1 £

in much request as an article of food, although in Scotland it is used prin¬
cipally for bait.
RATA.

Clavata (Lat. from Clavus, a nail), the Thornback Skate.

The Thornback Skate derives its name from the spmy armature of
the tail, with which the fish defends itself most vigorously by bending
itself almost into a semicircle and lashing about with its tail. The
female of the Thornback Skate is termed a Maid. It often attains to a
large size, the largest known being twelve feet in length, and nearly ten
in width.
The jaws of the Rays arc exceedingly powerful, and enable them to
crush with perfect ease the various shell-fish on which they f«ed.
380 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Sting Hay is another species, which is armed with a serrated

bone in its tail, witli which it can inflict painful and even dangerous
wounds.

Sub-order III. Cyclostomi.—(Gr. Kvk\os, a Circle; <tt6/j.a, the mouth.)

Family I. . . . Petromyzonidce.—(Gr. rGrpos, a Stone ; /ui/£o>, I suck.)
PETROMYZON.

Marinus (Lat. Marine), the Lamprey.

The Lamprey.—These curious fishes, in many respects the lowest in

organization of the vertebrate animals, are chiefly remarkable for the
singular construction of the mouth, which, formed like that of tne leech,
enables the Lampreys to hold firmly to any object by suction. The
breathing apparatus appears externally to consist of fourteen small
apertures, seven on each side of the neck. Their progress through the
water is accomplished by a rapid undulating movement.
The Marine Lamprey is found in the Mediterranean, and in most of
the northern European rivers. It has also been discovered in America.
A few are caught in the Thames almost every year, but the Severn is its
usual haunt. Like many other fishes, it travels for many miles up rivers
for the purpose of depositing its spawn, at which time it is considered
to be in the highest perfection.
The spawn is deposited in furrows, some excavated by the parent
Lampreys, who, by the help of their sucker-like mouths, rapidly remove
even large stones.

The Lampern, or River Lamprey, is plentifully found in many rivers

of England. It is extremely common at Ashbourne in Derbyshire,
inhabiting the Dove and its tributary brooks. Strange to say, the
inhabitants of Ashbourne held it in some abhorrence, and there was only
one individual possessing sufficient strength of mind to eat them. He
found them a most agreeable addition to his ordinary diet. The Lam-
perns, or Larapreens as they were called, used to lie in masses of
 NATURAL HISTORY. 387

eighteen or twenty together in a hole, and if disturbed, set off down the
stream with some speed.

Lampetra.—(Gr. Aaypdvw, I hold ; irirpos, a Stone.)

Fluviatilis (Lat. of the river), the Lampern.

It was formerly held in great repute as bait for turbot, cod, and other
fish, but in consequence of the diminished supply other substances have
been employed. Its length is usually from twelve to fifteen inches. In
some counties it is called Seven-eyes, in allusion to tie breathing
apertures in the neck.

The Myxine, which, although a decided fish, was classed by Linnaeus

among the worms, occurs frequently on the eastern coasts of this country.
The fishermen find it within the bodies of fish attached to the lines.
The Scarborough fishermen call such fish “robbed,” as the Myxine, in
the course of a single tide, will devour the whole fish, except the skin
and bones. It is usually found in the body of the cod

Family II. Myxintdse.

Myxine.—(Gr. Mv£7vos, from uv£ci, slime.)

Glutinosa (Lat. glutinous), the Myxine or Glutinous Hag-fish.

It is quite blind, but is supposed to derive considerable aid from the
eight barbules ranged round its mouth. Six individuals have been found
in the body of a single haddock.
Aiong the under surface of the body are two rows of pores, from
which the Myxine is enabled to throw out a most copious gelatinous
secretion, apparently for the purpose of escape from its enemies. The
length of the Myxine is from twelve to fifteen inches.
c c 2
 388

Division II. INVERTEBRA7 A.—(Lat. without vertebra.)

Class VI. . MOLLUSCA.—(Lat. from mollis, soft; properly, a soft nut.)
Order . . . CEPHALOPODA.—(Gr. Ke<j>a\?f, the head; Troth, a footO
Family . . Octoptdae.—(Gr.’O/cm, eight; ttovs afoot.)
OCTOPUS. *

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Cuttle-fish.

The Mollusca have neither spine nor bones, the nervous system con¬
sisting of a number of nervous knobs called “ ganglia,” which give oil
filamentous nerves in different directions.
Few Molluscs possess eyes, but in one or two, as the snails and slugs,
those organs are to be found, and in the higher Molluscs, such as the
Cuttle-fish, we see not only large and brilliant eyes, but also organs of
hearing.
The Cephalopoda, so called from the organs of movement surrounding
the head, are divided into naked and testaceous,f or covered with a shell.
The Common Cuttle-fish is an example of a naked cephalopodous
mollusc. This repulsive looking creature is common on our shores, and
is, in spite of its unpleasant appearance, often used for food. Its eight
long and flexible arms are covered with suckers of various sizes, enabling
their owner not only to fix itself firmly to the rocks on which it dwells,
but to seize and retain with the greatest tenacity any unfortunate fish or
shell that may happen to come wdthin its reach. Its powerful parrot-like
beak enables it not only to devour fishes, but even to crush the shells
and Crustacea that are entangled in its deadly embraces. In this country,
Or, Octapus. + Derived from Lat. testa, a shell.
 NATURAL HIETORtf. 389

the Cuttle does not grow to any great size, but in the Indian Seas it is
absolutely dangerous, and the crews of boats are forced to be armed with
a hatchet, to cut off the arms of the cuttle-fish.
There are few who have not heard of the colour called “ sepia.” This
is, or ought to be, prepared from a black pigment, secreted by the Cuttle¬
fish, and used in order to escape its foes, by blackening the water with
the ink, and hurrying off under shelter of the dense cloud of its own
creating. Dr. Buckland actually drew a portrait of a fossil Cuttle-fish
with some of its own ink that still remained in its body.
The substance sold in the shops as cuttle-fish bone is a chalky substance
secreted from the mouth of the fish, and composed of an infinite number
of plates, joined by myriads of little pillars.
At a meeting of the Ashmolean Society at Oxford, Dr. Buckland,
while exhibiting some relics of a huge fossil Saurian, said, “ I know
where that fellow lived, I know where he died, and moreover, I know
what he had for dinner on the day that be died. He had a cuttle-fish for
dinner, and here is its bony ring, which I found in the Saurian’s stomach.’5
The entire body is soft, and encased in a coarse, leather-like skin,
unprotected by any shell.

The Argonaut, or Nau¬ Argonauta.— (Lat. a sailor in the ship

tilus, is an example of the Argo.)
testaceous Molluscs. This
curious creature, about which
so many marvellous and po¬
etical tales have been told, is
very abundant in the Medi¬
terranean.
It has been clearly proved
that the Nautilus does not
urge itself along the surface
of the water by the expanded
arms used as sails. These
arms are in fact used to cover
the shell, and it is from these
that the beautful shell is se¬
creted. The Argonaut pro-
pels itself through the sea by
violently < jectiug water from
the tube with which it, as
well as the cuttle-fish, is fur¬
nished for that purpose. The
colours of the living animaL
of the Nautilus are exceed¬
ingly beautiful. Argo (Bat.), the Argonaut or Paper
The arms of this creature Nautilus.
390 NATURAL HISTORY.

are furnisned with suckers. Its shell, when the poulp the living
Argonaut is called) is still existing, is flexible and semi-transparent; but
when the animal is taken away the shell soon becomes rather opaque and
is very fragile.
The fossil Ammonites belong to the testaceous Cephalopoda.

Shells are secreted from a part of the inhabitant called the “ mantle,"
and of course, as the shell is always added round the rim, as may be seer
by taking a small snail in the spring, it naturally follows, that as the
animal becomes larger, so the mantle becomes larger, and secretes a
larger ring of shell.
Many shells, as that of the oyster, are deposited in layers, a fine
membrane interposing between each layer: they are therefore called
membranous shells. Most membranous shells are lined with a brilliant
enamelled substance, called “ nacre:” “ mother of pearl ” is the nacre
of the pearl oyster. That of the fresh-water mussel is a beautiful azure.
The other structure of shells is called “ porcellaneous,” because they
look like porcelain or china. The common cowrie is a well-known
instance of a porcellaneous shell. Some shells are so transparent as to
resemble glass, and are therefore called “ vitreous.” *
Shells are divided into Univalve, or one-valved shells, such as the snail;
and Bivalve, or two-valved shells, such as the oyster. Those of the
Univalve Molluscs are capable of protecting themselves when withdrawn
inside the shell by a horny plate called the “ operculum,” f which
completely closes up the aperture, and which may be seen in the peri¬
winkle. The closing membrane found in the common snail, if taken in
the winter, is called the epiphragma,| and is supposed to be hardened
mucus.

The Gasteropoda move by means of a fleshy disc or foot on the under

surface of the body, and by the alternate expansive and contractive
movements of this foot, the creature is enabled to crawl. The Gastero¬
poda inhabit both land and water, unlike the bivalves, which are
exclusively inhabitants of the latter element.
If the shell of a Gasteropodous mollusc be broken, it has the power of
repairing the injury by secreting fresh layers of shell from the mantle
within.
The Slugs are well-known invaders of our gardens, and, together
with the snail, the caterpillar, and the mysterious blight,” are objects of
the gardener’s most intense hatred. The Black Slug is usually found by
hedge-banks, and in grassy meadows. It seldom ventures out by day,
especially if the day be bright; but at night, when the dew is on the
ground, it may be seen trailing its dark length through the herbage, or
* Derived from Lat. vitrum, glass. J- I.at. a cover or lid.
X Gr. ’E7r<0pa7^io, a cover.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 391

Order . . GASTEROPODA. — (Gr. racm/jp, the belly; -jtovs, a foot.)

Sub-order, Pulmobranchiata.— (Pulmo, the lungs; branchial, gills.)
Family . Limacidse.—(Gr. Aet^a|, a Slug.)

UMAX.

Axer (Lat. black), the Black Slug.

eageny devouring the leaves. While employed at night in decoying

moths, by means of a fragrant compound of sugar, beer, and rum, spread
on the trunks of trees, I used constantly to find my bait attacked by
huge slugs of all kinds, descending and ascending towards the sweet but
dangerous banquet. The small Grey Slug (Limax cinerea) is more
common in gardens than the black slug.

The Common Snail.—Several species of Snails inhabit this country,

among which the Edible
Snail (Helix poniatia), the Family, Helictdse.—(Gr. twistsd.)
Belted Snail (Helix nemo-
HELIX.
rails), and the common Gar¬
den Snail {Helix aspersa),
are the most conspicuous.
The Edible Snail was im¬
ported into England by the
liomans, who prized them
highly, and fattened them in
a building erected for that
express purpose, as indeed is
now done in some parts of
the Continent. This snail
grows to a large size, nearly
attaining the magnitude of Aspersa (Lat sprinkled), the Common Snail
an ordinary closed fist.
The eyes of the snail are placed at the extremity of the tentacula, oi
“ horns ” as they are usually called.
S92 NATURAL HlhTOHY.

The common garden snail is so well known that no description of it is

needed. It lays eggs very large in comparison with the size of the
parent; they are about the size of small peas, round, soft, and semi¬
transparent. They are deposited about two inches below the surface of
the earth.
This creature is very tenacious of life. A living snail was exhibited at
the Ashmolean Society at Oxford, which had made a long sea voyage,
packed up in cotton wool. An immersion in water soon brought the
inhabitant to view, and when it was exhibited it was crawling about a
box in perfect health.

Family, Turbintdm.—(Lat. Turbo, a Whorl.)

ScalarYa. — (Lat. Scala, a Ladder, or stairs.)
Family, Coniidse.—(Qr. Kwvos, a Cone.t
coxus.

Prutiosa vi.at. valuable), the Royal Staircase Wentletrap.

Generalis (Lat. general), the Cone.

The Royal Staircase Wentletrat affords us an excellent and most

beautiful example of the Turbinidse. It is a native of the Chinese and
Indian seas, and was formerly so scarce that a specimen two inches in
length would sell for a hundred pounds. Even now, a very fine specimen
cannot be obtained under six or seven pounds. Eor this reason, the
‘•oeeific name “pretiosa” was affixed to it by Lamarck.
As an example of the large family of Cones, we will take the common
Cone, vv.'iose beautiful marbled colour and elegant shape render it a most
acLwe shell.

The Money Cowry and the Whelk.—The Cowries are not less cele¬
brated for the elegance of their form, and the beauty of their markings,
than for the curious circumstance that one species is used as current
coin in Guinea and Bengal, thus being employed for the same purpose
 K^TUHAL, history. 393

by two entirely distinct races of men, situated in different quarters of

the globe. Their value is of course small in proportion to gold or silver.
At the present time a rupee in Bengal is worth 3,200 Cowries, the value
of the rupee being 2s. 3d. of our money.
The Buccinlloe are so named from their fancied resemblance to a
trumpet. The common Whelk is everywhere abundant on our coasts,

Family, Cypraeidae.—(Gr. from Kvirpos, Cyprus.)

Family, Buccinldae. (Lat. Buccina, a Trumpet.'
Aricia. — (Lat.) BTJCCINUM.

Alcteta (Lat. the stamp on money), the Money Cowry.

. Undatum (Lat. wavy), the Whelk.

and is taken in such profusion that it is largely exported for food, and
may be seen on the street stalls of the metropolis exposed for sale, like
the oyster and periwinkle.
The proboscis of this creature is of a most singular structure, and by
means of the numerous teeth with which it is armed, it is able rapidly to
bore its way through shells, and then to feed upon the unfortunate
inmate. The hermit crab often takes possession of the empty shells of
the Whelk.
The famous Tyrian purple was obtained from one of the Buccinidse,
Purpura imbricata.

The beautiful Tiiorny Woodcock,* sometimes csdied by the name of

Venus’ comb, is an excellent example of the Muricidas. This elegant
shell is an inhabitant of the Indian Ocean.

The Limpets are spread over every latitude, except the Arctic regions.
The common Limpet f is to be found on every rock and large stone at the
sea-side. The mode of its attachment to the rocks is very curious, and
well repays a careful examination. Every one who has seen a living
* See page 394 f Ibid.
394 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Mu riel dee.—(Lat. Murex, the purple shell-fishd

MUREX.

TribQlus (Lat. a Thistle), the Thorny Woodcock.

zirripet knows how firmly it fixes itself to the rock. This is denj by the
inhabitant creating a vacuum on the under surface of its body, which
Causes the pressure of the atmosphere to keep it so tightly fixed to the

Order, CYOLOBRANCHIATA.—(Gr. KvkXos, a circle; &pdyxLa’ gills.)

Family, Patellidse.— (Lat. Patella, a Porringer.)
PATELLA.

Vulgata (Lat. made common), the Limpet.

rocks, that a blade of a strong knife is required to detach it. Fre¬

quently the margin of the shell adapts itself to the shape of the substance
to which it adheres, proving that it must remain fixed in the same spot
for a long time, and rendering it difficult to imagine from whence it can
obtain sufficient nourishment to support life.
Sometimes a large shell may be picked up covered with limpets, that
adhere firmly to it in spite of the rolling of the waves, and the tossing?
about to which it must necessarily be subjected.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 395

Order, CONCUIFFRA.— (Gr. Koyxy, a Mussel-shell; <p(pu, 1 beard

Family, Pectintdae.—(Lat. Pecten, a Scallop.)
PECTEN.
We now arrive at the Bivalve Mol¬
luscs. It has been already stated that
the Bivalves are all aquatic. These crea¬
tures are enabled to keep their shells firmly
closed by means of a powerful muscle.
Those who have attempted for the first
time to open an oyster, must be convinced
of the strength of this muscle. The two
shells are united by a powerful and ex¬
tremely elastic hinge, which after the death
of the animal opens the shells widely.
The Bivalves do not enjoy such powers
of locomotion as the Univalves, yet some,
as the fresh-water mussel, can urge them¬
selves along by means of a fleshy organ Jacobeeus (Lat. from a proper
name),* the Scallop.
called the foot; and so powerful in some is
this organ, that by means of it the animal can not only burrow in the
sand, but actually leap out of a boat. The rapid opening and shutting of
the valves is used by some, as the scallop, as a means of progression. It
is believed that the Bivalves have no visual organs.
The common Scallop is found along our southern coasts, and in the
seas of Europe. This shell was formerly used as the badge of a Pilgrim
to the Holy Land.
“-His pilgrim’s staff he bore,
And fix’d the Scallop in his hat before.”

It is a singular fact, that in the stomach of the common Scallop is

found an earthy deposit, which, when boiled in nitric acid in order to
dissolve the animal and other portions, exhibits under a powerful micro¬
scope animalcules precisely similar to those which, in a fossil state, form
the earth on which the town of Richmond in America is built.

The Common Oyster has been for many ages considered as a delicacy
for the table. In the times of the ancient Homans, we find that our
“ Native Oysters” were exported to Home, and there placed in the Lucrine
Lake, where they were fattened.
On our coasts the oysters breed in large beds, to which vast quantities
of young oysters are conveyed by the fishermen, and suffered to increase
without molestation. Newly-formed beds are untouched for two or three
years. During the months of May, June, and* July,f the oysters breed,
* Because the pilgrims to the shrine of St. James (Sancti Jacobi), called by the
Spaniards Santiago, also bore the Scallop.
t Most people are acquainted with the proverb, that oysters are in season during ths
months in which is the letter S.
306 NATURAL HISTORY.

and are considered unfit for food. At this time tne young, called "spat,”
are deposited in enormous numbers. They instantly adhere to the sub¬
stance among which they fall; and this, whatever it be, is called cultch,’
and is protected by severe penalties. About May the fishermen separate
the spawn from the cultch, which is then thrown back into its former
Ostrea.—(Gr. ‘'Ocnpeov, an Oyster.)

Edulis (Lat. edible), tlte Oyster.

place. After May it is felony to disturb the cultch, as were it -removed,

mussels and cockles would rapidly take the place of the oysters.
The oysters are taken in the proper season by the “ dredge,” a kind of
small net fastened round an iron frame-work, which scoops up the oysters
and many other marine animals.
Tne- part of the oyster called the “ beard,” is in reality the respiratory
apparatus.

The Pearl Oyster is the animal from which those highly valued orna¬
ments, pearls, are extracted. The pearl is nothing more than “ nacre,”
deposited in the shape of globular drops instead of being spread over the
inner surface of the shell, in which case it is known as Mother-of-Pearl.
These valuable shells are found both in the Old and New World.
Ceylon is very famous for its pearl fisheries. The fishermen are trained
t :> remain a long time under water, and are assisted in their descent to
the bottom of the sea by a heavy weight tied to their feet. They
rapidly gather all the Pearl Oysters in their way into a basket, and when
in want of air, give a signal to their friends above, who draw them to the
surface by a rope. The Oysters are then left to putrefy for som6
weeks, when they are carefully washed, and the pearls extracted.
 NATURAL HISTORY. Wl
Family, Meleagrinidae.—(Gr. MeAecryofs.)
SvELEAGR?N s

Margaritifera (Lat. Margarita, a pearl; fero, I bear), the Pearl Oyster.

The Chinese have a method of forcing oysters, or rather mussels, to

form pearls, by artfully placing beads in their shells, round which a layer
of nacre is deposited, and the beads then perfectly resemble real pearls

Family, Mytiltdae,—(Gr. MimAos, a Mussel.)

MYTi'LTTS.

Edulis (Lat. edible), the Edible Mussel.

The Sea Mussels are usually fixed where the tide leaves them alter¬
nately wet and dry, and it is worthy of notice that those “ shell-fish”
398 NATURAL HISTORY.

which are exposed to variations of this kind are enabled to close then
shells so firmly as to prevent any evaporation. One species is extensively
used as an article of food.
The river mussels occasionally produce pearls of some value. The
nacre of these mussels is of a beautiful azure blue.

Order, CIRIUIOPODA.—(Lat. Cirrus, a lock of hair;7)cs, a foot.)

Pentalasmis.—(Gr. Herrs, five; eAaaua, a plate.)

Anatifera (Lat. Goose-bearingI, the Bernicle.

The Bernicle.—At first sight, the Bernicle bears a close resemblance

to a mussel-shell fixed to a long stem. On a closer examination, however,
the difference is at once apparent. The shell is in fact composed of five
pieces, and through the aperture of the shell are thrust two rows of arms,
or “ cirrlii,” as they are more properly called. These cirrhi serve to en¬
tangle the small Crustacea or molluscs which pass near their sphere of
action, and which are then carried to the mouth and speedily devoured.
The Bernicle is always found adhering to some larger object, usually
floating wood, and is very common on the hulls of ships. Although the
perfect animal is permanently fixed, it has been discovered that the
young are free and capable of locomotion ; nor is it until a week or two
has passed, that they finally settle themselves.
The name Anatifera, or Goose-bearing, has been given to this animal
on account of the ancient story of the production of the Bernicle-goose.
This fable has already been related under the article. Bernicle-goose.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 399

Class VIJ. . CRUSTACEA.—(Lat. Crusta, a crust or shell.)

Sub-class I. MALACOSTRACA.—(Gr. MaAa/cos, soft; oarpaKov, a shell.)*
Order I. . . DECAPOD A.—(Gr. A exa. ten ; nous, a foot.)
Sub-orderI. Decapoda-brachyura.— (Gr. Bpax^s, short; oupa, a tail.)
Family I. . Canceridfe.—(Lat. Cancer, a Crab.)
CANCER.

Pagurus (Gr. nhyvvpu, I fix; oupa, a tail), the Crab.

The Crustacea are almost all aquatic animals. They have no internal
skeleton, but their body is covered with a strong crust, which serves for
protection .as well as for strength. Their whole framework consists of
a series of rings fitted to, and working in each other; some forming
limbs, and others developing into the framework supporting the different
organs. From this reason, they and the remaining animals, as far as the
star-fishes, who have no limbs at all, are called “ articulated” animals.
Their method of growth is very curious. Other animals, as they
increase in size, experience no particular inconvenience. Not so the
Crustacea. Their bodies are closely enveloped in a strong, unyielding
mail, which cannot grow with them. Their armour is therefore cast off
every year, and a fresh coat formed to suit their increased dimensions.
Not only is the armour cast off, but even the covering of the eyes, the
tendons of the claws, and the lining membrane of the stomach, with it?
teeth.
They all also possess the curious power of reproducing a lost or injured
limb. In the former case, a fresh limb supplies the place of that lost:
and in the latter case, the animal itself shakes off the injured joint, and
* So nailed because their shell Is soft compared with that of thf univalve or bivalve
radlusi'S
400 NATURAL HISTORY.

a new one soon takes its place. Lobsters, when alarmed, frequently
throw off their claws.
The Decapods, as their name imports, are the fortunate possessors of
ten legs, five at each side. They also possess three pairs of jaws, besides
the teeth in the stomach. They breathe by means of branchiae or gills,
fixed at each side of the throat or chest, often erroneously called the
head.*
The Common Crab belongs to the short-tailed Decapods. It is
abundantly taken on our coasts by fishermen, who employ for its capture
a wicker basket called a “creel” or cra.b-pot. The crab-pots are made
each with an aperture which permits the animal to enter, but forbids its
egress—just like a common wire mouse-trap. A piece of a fish is
fastened at the bottom of the creel, and the whole apparatus let down to
the bottom of the sea, guarded by a line connected with a float, by means
of which the fishermen draw it up and then remove its contents. Each
float has a peculiar mark, by which the fisherman knows his own. When
taken, the crabs are kept alive in well-boats, until wanted.

The Hermit Crab is not so well Sub-orderll. Decapoda-anomoura.—

protected as most of his relations, (Gr. Auo/uos, unaccustomed;
for his tail has no shelly armour. ovpa, a tail.)
He is therefore forced to protect Family III. Paguridse.—(Gr. U-pyvvp.i,
to fix; ovpd, a tail.)
his undefended tail by putting it
into an empty shell, usually that of PAGURUS.
a whelk, and then walks about,
dragging his curious house after
him. Sometimes, two hermit crabs
wish to obtain possession of the
same shell, and then there is a battle
royal. When the crab grows larger,
he only has to change his old shell
for a new one, and it is very amusing
to see these creatures slipping their
tails first into one shell, and then
into another, until they have pleased
themselves with a good fit.
They are very common on our
coasts, and maybe found of all sizes,
from the crab that fills a tolerably
large whelk shell, to the little one
whose habitation hardly exceeds Bernhardus (Lat. proper name),
the size of a pea. the Hermit Crab.
The Land Crabs make annual e irsions to the sea in large armies
* These animals have no distinct head; that and the thorax being merged into wh*l
naturalists call “ cephalo-thorax.” or head-thorax.
 NATURAL history. 401
They go straight forward, and nothing except a house or such insur¬
mountable barrier can stop them. Those of Jamaica are particularly
celebrated.

Sub-order III. DECAeoDA-MAonouRA.—(Gr. Maxpos, long; ovpa, .a tail.)

Family V. . . Astacidse.—(Gr. ’Acttukos, a Lobster.)

Potamobius.—(Gr. UoTands, a river ; fiidw, to liva.)

Astiicus the Cray-fish.

The long-tailed crustaceans include the Lobster, Shrimp, &c.

The River Cray-eish is common in most of our rivers and brooxs.
[t resides in holes in the bank, sometimes excavated by itself, but more
often the deserted habitations of water-rats. In rocky situations it
lives under and among the stones. The excellence and delicacy of its
flesh causes it to be much sought after. The usual method of catching
these animals is by lowering a net to the bottom of the water, baited
with a piece of meat. The cray-fish soon discover this and come in
numbers to the bait, when the net is suddenly hauled up, and most of
the cray-fish secured. Some, however, escape by darting off backwards,
a movement produced by the violent bonding of their tails. It is a
favourite amusement with boys to search for them in their holes, and
drag them from their concealment.

The common Lobster is found in great abundance on our coasts,

usually in the clear rocky waters. The fishermen take great numbers of
lobsters in baskets made ou the same principle as those used for the
capture of the crab. The powerful tail of the lobsters enables them to
spring through a great distance if alarmed, and they have been seen to
pass nearly thirty feet. They direct their course with wonderful accuracy,
and can throw themselves through apertures hardly larger than the size
of their bodies : of course they spring tail foremost.
The grasp of the lobster’s claw is so tight that to break off the claws
is often the only method of disengaging its hold.
 402 NATURAL HISTORY.

ASTAOUS. Although enor¬

mous quantities
are destroyed every
year, they are so
prolific that the
supply never fails.
The so-called
lady’s-fingers ot
the Lobster are its
breathing appara-
tus.

The Prawn and

the Shrimp are
so familiar to every
Gammarus (Lat.) the Lobster. one as to need
but little descrip¬
tion. Both are taken in nets swept along the sandy bottom of the sea.
The chief distinction in the appearance of these two creatures is the
serrated or toothed
Family VI. Crangontdse.—(Gr. Kpayywv, a Shrimp.) ridge which runs
Family VIII. Pakemonidae.—(Gr. TlaXalpcov, a proper along the back oi
name.) the head, or rather
crangon. pal aim on. carapace, of the
Prawn. When in
their natural state,
they are of a brown
colour, and only as¬
sume the pinkish
hue when boiled.
Spirits of wine has
the same effect.
The Presh-water
Shrimp (Gammarus
Pulex), and the
Water-Flea (Baph-
nia Pulex), both
so common in our
rivers and ponds,
are placed among
Bulgaria (Lat. common), the Shrimp.
the Crustaceas.
Sen atus (Lat. toothed, jagged), the Prawn.
 NATURAL history. m

Class MIL ARACHNIDA.—(Gr. ’A.p&xrnh a Spider.)

Order . . . PULMONARIA *—(Lat. Pulmo, the Lungs.)
Family . ■ Araneidse.—(Lat. Aranea, a Spider.)

Myoale.—(Gr. MuyaAt], the Shrew-mouse.)

Avicularla (Lat. Aviciilus, a little Bird), the Bird bpider.

The Class Arachnida, or the Spiders, are by many supposed to be

insects. Such, however, is not the case. The Arachnida possess eight
legs, while the true Insects only have six; they undergo no transforma¬
tions, they possess no wings or antennae (the place of the latter organs
being supplied either by two jointed claws, as in the Scorpions, or bv
two fangs, as in the Spiders); and their eyes are simple instead of
compound.
Could people divest themselves of the horror felt at the sight of these
creatures, especially of the larger sort, they woidd be well repaid by the
interesting instinct displayed by all the Spiders, who do not differ from
each other more in form than in habits. Those of our own country
afford an ample field, which has been as yet but imperfectly trodden.
There are the Gossamer Spiders, who float high into the air, borne upou
an almost invisible thread; the Water Spiders, who form an air-tight

* So called, because the animals belonging to this class breathe by means of air-sacs,
called by Latreille, Pneumobranchiae, or lung-gills. The Trachearia, on the contrary,
breathe by means of tracheae, or air-tubes branching through the whole system, like tha
insects.
D D 2
4.0* NATURAL HISTORY.

dwelling under the wave; the Hunting Spiders, that creep stealthnj
upon their prey, and then spring on it like lightning; the beautiful
Garden Spiders, who weave from their self-afforded stores their geome¬
trical nets; the Pirate Spiders, who skim over the surface ©f the waters,
and snatch up the drowning and helpless fly; together with many others,
whose form and habits must be familiar to any observer of Nature.
On account of the limited space that can be appropriated to each
Class, a short account of some of the principal species of this Class is
all that can be given.
The enormous Spider represented above is a native of Surinam, and
was brought into notice by that indefatigable naturalist, Madame Merian.
Her account of it is very short. She relates that it carries about with
it a habitation, resembling the cocoon of some of the moths, and that it
is armed with sharp fangs and inflicts dangerous wounds, at the same
time injecting into the wound a poisonous liquid. She also tells us that
it feeds principally upon ants, but that in their absence it drags little
birds out of their nests, and then, as she pathetically observes, “ sucks
all the blood out of their poor little bodies.” * Here, however, it is
generally supposed that Madame Merian has been imposed upon, as is
evidently the case in another portion of her work, where she has drawn a
curious insect, compounded of the head of a lantern-fly, and the body of
a cicada. She seems to have had her doubts on the subject, for she
takes care to say, “ The Indians told me.” f

THE GARDEN SPIDER.

* “ Formicarum defectu, ipsas e nidis tollunt aviculas, omnemque corpuscuiis cruorenr

exsugunt.”—Merian. Met. Insect. Sur. p. 18.
1 “ Persuasum mihi ab Indls est.”—Id. p. 49
 NATURAL history. 405
The common Garden, or Geometrical Spider, as it is called from the
mathematical regularity of its net, is an excellent example of the Spiders.
The net is formed from a gummy substance secreted in an apparatus
called the spinneret, through the holes of which the gummy secretion is
drawn, and becomes hard when exposed to the air. .Each thread is com¬
posed of many thousand lines. When the web is completed, the Spider
generally hides itself under a leaf or other convenient lurking-place, and
from thence pounces upon any unwary fly that has entangled itself in
the slender meshes. Should the fly be a large one, the Spider rapidly
encircles it with fresh threads until it has bound its wings and legs to
the body, and then breaking off the few threads that held it to the net,
bears it off triumphantly to its hiding-place. Frequently the Geometrical
Spider sits in the centre of the web, apparently enjoying the air, and if
disturbed shakes the net so violently that its shape is completely obscured
by the rapidity of the vibrations.
The House Spider makes a thicker and irregular web, and hides itself
at the bottom of a silken tunnel communicating with the web. An
acquaintance of mine had so far tamed a huge house spider, that it would
come and take a fly out of his hand. He states, that as it sat at the
bottom of its den, its eyes gleamed like diamonds.
Several endeavours have been made to procure silk from spiders, but
although a sufficient quantity has been obtained to weave gloves from,
yet spiders are so pugnacious that they cannot be kept together. The
eggs of the Spiders are enclosed in a silken bag, and when hatched,
the young keep closely together, and when dispersed by an alarm,
soon re-assemble.
The Tarantula, whose bite was fabled to produce convulsions which
could only be appeased by music, is a spider of considerable size, inhabit¬
ing the south of Europe. It lives in holes about four inches deep in the
ground.

The Scorpion *—These formidable creatures inhabit most of the hotter

parts of the globe. They are quite as pugnacious as the spiders, and if
several are placed in one box, they will fight until few survive, who
immediately devour their fallen foes.
The maxillae of the Scorpion are developed into large claws, like those
of the lobster. With these, the Scorpion seizes its prey, and while holding
it pierces it with its sting, which is situated at the extremity of its tail.
The tail is composed of six joints, rendering it very flexible.
The sting of this creature is exceedingly painful, and with some persons
dangerous; indeed, the sting of the large black Scorpion of Ceylon is
said to cause death.
* fcr.e page 406.
106 NATO HAT. TIISTORTr.

Family, Scorpiontdse.— (Lat. Scorpio, a Scorpion.)

SCORPIO.

Europaeus (Lat. European), the Scorpion.

Order, TRACHEAIUA.—(From Trachea, a word used to represent the

tubes through which insects aud other animals breathe;—the
windpipe.)
Family, Acarldae.—Gr. vAKapt, a Mite.)

Leptus.—(Gr. Ae7TTos, small.)

Autumnalis (Lat. belonging to Autumn), the Harvest-bug.

The Harvest-bug.—These creatures are mostly minute, requiring the

aid of a microscope fully to develop their form; but some are consi¬
derably larger, and their organs can be distinguished with the naked eye.
In this order are included the common cheese-mite, the harvest-bug, the
water mites, &c.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 407

Class IX. . INSECTA.—(Lat. Insecare, to cut into.)

Sub-class I. INSECTA MANDIBULATA.—(Lat. mandare, to chew.)
Order L ,. COLEOPTERA.—(Gr. KoAeds, a sheath; irrlpov, a wing.)
Family I . Cicindelldse. (Lat. Cicindela, properly, a Glowworm.)
CICINDELA.

Campestris (Lat. of the fields), the Tiger-beetle.

The Tiger-beetle.—The body of an insect is divided or cut into three

parts, called the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The body is de¬
fended by a horny integument, divided into rings and connected by
a softer membrane. The legs are six in number. Many insects possess
wings, and in all the rudiments of those organs are perceptible. The eyes
are compound, that is, a number of eyes are massed together at each side
of the head; and so numerous are they, that in the compound eyes of the
ant are 50 lenses, in the house-fly, 3,000, in the butterfly, 17,000, and in
the hawk-moth, 20,000.
The insects pass through three transformations before they attain their
perfect form. The first state is called the larva* because the future insect
is masked under that form; the second is called thepupa,f on account of
the shape often assumed; and the third is called the imago,% as being the
image of the perfect creature. Insects breathe by means of air-tubes,
called tracheae, which penetrate to every part of the body, even to the
extremities of the limbs, antennae and wings. The air gains access to the
tubes by means of small apertures called spiracles. The tubes are pre¬
vented from collapsing by a delicate thread wound spirally between the
two membranes of which the tubes are composed. This wonderful and
beautiful arrangement not only prevents the tubes from collapsing', but
keeps them flexible. There are, according to Stephens, whose arrange¬
ment is the one usually followed, fourteen orders of insects. Examples
will be given of each, and their names explained. The most perfect insects
are placed first.
* From Lat. Larva, a mask. t From Lat. Pupa, a doll.
1 From Lat. Imago, an image <?xeffi*?v
108 NATURAL HISTORI.

There are two great divisions of insects, namely, those which bite and
eat solid food with jaws, as the beetles, locusts, bees, &c., and those
which suck liquid food through a proboscis, as the butterflies, flies, &c.
The first order of insects derives its name from the sheath or covering
with which the wings are defended.* This is a very extensive order, as,
exclusive of exotic and other foreign beetles, it has been discovereu
that no less than three thousand five hundred inhabit this country. The
first in order of the British insects, are the Tiger-beetles, so called from
their activity and voracity. The most common of these is the ordinary
Green Tiger-beetle, that may be seen any hot summer’s day, glancing in
the sun on sandy banks. The exceeding beauty of this insect is beyond
all description. The upper surface of the body is a deep, dead green,
changing under the microscope to a glossy gold, shot with red and green;
the surface of the abdomen covered by the wings, and the entire under¬
surface of the body, are brilliant emerald green, and when the insect is on
the wing it sparkles in the sun like a flying gem. Nor is this the last of
its attractions, for when handled it gives forth a scent closely resembling
that of the verbena. It is indeed as beautiful among insects as the tiger
is among beasts, and is, perhaps, the more ferocious of the two. It runs
and flies with great activity, and takes to the wing as easily as a bee or
fly, and is in consequence rather difficult to capture without a net. Its
jaws are long, sharp, curved like a sickle, and armed with several teeth.
Its eyes are large and prominent, enabling it see on all sides. Its length
is rather more than half an inch.

Family, Carabidae.—(Gr. Kapaftos, a Beetle.

CARABUS.

Cancellatus (Lat. chequered), the Ground-beetle.

The Ground-beetle is one of our largest and most beautiful beetles

Cts general colour is a coppery green, and its wing-cases are ornamented
with several rows of oblong raised spots. Its length is about an inch.
* Thi9, as well as the general covering of insects, is composed principally of a sub¬
stance called by chemists, chitine.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 409
The Burying-beetle.—This curious beetle derives its name from it
habit of burying any small
dead animal left on the sur¬ Family, Silphidse.—(Gr. SiA^rj, a Burying*
face of the ground. With beetle.)
such rapidity does it work, Necrophagus.—(Gr. N expos, a dead body
that two beetles have been <pa-yeiv, to eat.)

known to cover up a sparrow

within a few hours ; and so
unwearied are they, that if
several Burying-beetles are
placed in a vessel filled with
earth, and kept constantly
supplied with dead frogs,
mice, &c., they will continue
to bury them as long as the
supply is kept up. The
object of this remarkable
instinct, so beneficial in its
Vespillo (Lat. a bearer of the dead),
effects, is to furnish food
the Burying-beetle.
for the young who are
hatched from eggs laid in the body of the animal during its burial. In
this way innumerable carcases, which would pollute the atmosphere, are
removed, and made beneficial to the soil.

The Lamellicorn Beetles are exceedingly useful to mankind. Many

of them act as scavengers and farmers, for they not only remove putre¬
fying substances from the surface of the ground, but bury them beneath.
The Stag-beetle is the largest of British insects. Although so
formidably armed, it is quite harmless, and only uses its enormous jaws
to break the tender bark of trees, in order that the sap on which it feeds
may exude. The mouth of this beetle is very small, and is furnished
with a brush, with which it licks up the food. Several of these beetles
lived for some time on moist sugar. During the winter, it hides in the
earth, making for itself a kind of cave, very smooth inside.* This
beetle is common in the New Forest.
The Dor-beetle is a very common English insect. At the approach
of evening, it may be seen whirling round in the air with a dull humming
sound. The country children call it the Watchman, comparing it to a
watchman going his rounds in the evening. It usually lays its eggs on
a rounded mass of cow-dung, and then buries the whole mass in the
ground. When caught, it pretends to be dead.
The Dor-beetle is very tenacious of life. I have now in my cabinet
a specimen of this insect, which I took on the wing. It had lost several
* In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, is an excellent specimen of the winter habitation
of thi9 beetle, with the beetle itself enclosed.
410 NATURAL HISTORY.

legs, one wing-cover or elytron, the whole of the contents of the abdomen,
and part of the thorax. I suppose that a bird must have been eating it,
and have been disturbed, for when thrushes, blackbirds, jackdaws, &c.,
Family, Lucanidse.—(Lat. Lucanus, the Stag-beetle.)
LUCANUS.

Family, Geotrupldae.—(Gr. Tij, the Earth; rpvirdu, to bore.)

GEOTBUPES.

Family, Melolonthulae.—(Gr. MnXoXuvOij, a Cockchaffer.)

MELOLONTHA.

Cervus (Lat. a Stag), the Stag-beetle.

Stercorarlus (Lat. Dung), the Dor-beetle.
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Cockchaffer.

eat large beetles, they begin by picking off the wings, limbs, &c. 1 also
took, in May 1852, a cockchaffer walking along very unconcernedly, who
had lost both his wings and elytra, and all the contents of the abdomen.
The Cockchaffer needs not much description. Its larva works great
mischief during the spring, as it feeds on the roots of plants, and cuts
them off witli its sharp sickle-like jaws. Where many of these
“grubs” have been, the grass curls up, and dries like hay. One farmer
actually collected eighty bushels of the grubs of the Cockchaffer on his
farm. Fortunately the thrushes, blackbirds, rooks, and many other birds,
are inveterate destroyers of the grubs, and devour myriads of them. It
is for this purpose that these birds pull up the grass, and not to spoil or
devour the herbage, as is generally supposed.
The huge Hercules and Atlas Beetles, and larger still, the Goliath
Beetle, belong to the Lamellicorns.
 NATURAL HISTORY 411

The Glowworm may be seen in the warm summer evenings, shedding

its pale green light on grassy banks. The female insect gives out a much
stronger light than the male, Family, Lampyrldge.—(Gr. A.d(xircv, to
and there is some light visible shine; ovpd, a tail.
even in the larva, The light LAMP'fRIS.
of this insect proceeds from
the abdomen The light
given out by the firefly,
another kind of beetle inha¬
biting South America, pro¬
ceeds from three yellow tu¬
bercles placed on the throat.
The grub or larva of the
Glowworm is of a singular
form, and is furnished with
a brush at the extremity of
the tail, with which it _
cleanses its body from dust Noctiluca(Lat.night-shmmg), the Glowworm.
or the slime of the snails on which it frequently feeds.
Of the two insects represented in the engraving, that on the left is
the male, the female being that on the right.

The Death-Watch.—The formerly terrible Death-Watch is now

generally known to be merely a small beetle. Indeed it is nothing more
than the creature that per¬ Family, Ptinldge.— (Gr. tttt)p6s, winged.)
forates the round holes in
Anobium.—(Gr. dvd, through; Blocv, I live.)
old “worm-eaten” furniture
and wood-work. The “ tick¬
ing ” is produced by striking
the head against the wood.
If there is a Death-Watch in
the room, it is easy to incite
it to begin to tick, by striking
with the head of a pin on the
panelling. There are several
insects that produce this
sound,the Anobium striatum,
tesselatum, and pertinax.
The last-named is so called Tesselatum (Lat. tessdated), the Death- Watch.
from the pertinacity with which it simulates death if alarmed, preferring
to suffer the severest treatment rather than give signs of life.

The Music-Beetle.—The beautiful Beetles of which the common Musk-

Beetle is an excellent example vary considerably in size; some being several
inches in length, while some are hardly one-quarter of an inch long. The
412 NATURAL TTTSTORY

extreme length of their antennae is the most conspicuous property, and

from that peculiarity they are at once recognised.
A small moth, Adela de Geerella, possesses the same peculiarity. The
length of the moth is about a Quarter of an inch, and the length of the
antennae more than an inch and a half. The antennae wave about with
every breath of air, as if the insect had become entangled in a spider’s
web, and escaped with some of the loose threads floating about it.

Family, Cerambycidge.—(Gr. KepdjujSi^, the Musk-beetle.)

CERA MB YX.

Moscliatus (Lat. mushy), Mush-beetle.

The Musk-beetle is a large insect, common in most parts of England.

It is extremely common at Oxford, and is found in old willow-trees, with
which Oxford is surrounded. Its peculiar scent, something resembling
that of roses, often betrays its presence, when its green colour would
have kept it concealed. When touched, it emits a curious sound, not
unlike that of the bat, but more resembling the faint scratching of a
perpendicularly-held slate pencil. Its larva bores deep holes in the trees,
which are often quite honeycombed by them.

The Rove-beetles form an exceedingly extensive section. Some are

so small as to require the assistance of the microscope to discover their
shape, and others, as those represented on the next page, are more than
an inch in length. The small species are usually on the wing, and it is
very amusing to see them alight, and with their flexible tails tuck their
long and beautifully shaped wings under the elytra, run about for a
moment, and then again take to flight. These are the creatures that
 NATURAL HISTORY. 413
cause so much annoyance by flying into one’s mouth or eye in the warm
months.

Family, Staphylimdse.—(Gr. 2t«<|>uA?j/os, the Rove-beetle.)

CuEOPHlLUS.—(Gr. Kpeas, flesh; (piAeTv, to love.)

Maxillosua (Lat. large-jawed), the Rove-beetle.

The Great Rove-beetle is commonly found upon decaying ar.imal

substances. It is most formidably armed with two large, curved, sharp
mandibles, the bite of which is tolerably severe; and more than once,
when the creature has been recently feeding upon putrid substances,
dangerous results have followed.

I much regret that want of space has withheld me from giving accounts
of many most interesting beetles particularly some of the Carabidse,
the Silphidse, Ptinidaj, and the Water-beetles. These last inhabit the
water, and swim with remarkable activity. They occasionally come to
the surface for a fresh supply of air, which they carry down between the
elytra and the upper surface of the abdomen. They fly very well, but
the construction of their limbs prevents them from walking. They
cannot be kept in a limited space, as they are very fierce and voracious,
and in one case when a male and female were placed in a jar filled with
water, only one day elapsed before the male was found dead and half
devoured by his disconsolate widow.

The Earwig is placed in an order by itself, called Dermaptera, from

the soft elytra. The wings are large and exceedingly beautiful, and the
method of folding by which they are packed under the very small elytra
is very curious. The use of the forceps seems principally for the
purpose of folding the wings and placing them in their proper oositiou
 414 NATURAL HISTORY.

Order II. DEItMAPTERA.— (Gr. Aep/j.a, skin; nrepov, a wing,^

Family. . Forficulidse.—(Lat. Dim. of Forfex, a pair of Shears.)
forficula.

Forcipata.—(Lat. possessing forceps), the Earwig.

under tneir cases. Ten species of earwigs inhabit England. The eggs
of the earwigs are hatched, and the young protected by the parent.
The insect represented is chosen as being rather a rare species.

Order III. ORTHOPTERA.—(Gr. "OpOos, straight; irripov, a wing.)

Family . Locustidse.—(Lat. Locusta, a Locust.)
LOCDSTA.

Tartarica (Lat. of Tartary), the Locust.

The Locust.—These pests of the wanner countries of the earth

belong to the order called Orthoptera, because the wings are not folded
transversely.
They fly in countless myriads, and where they descend, they devour
every particle of green herbage—the trees are stripped of their leaves,
the grass and corn is eaten to the very ground; for their jaws are so
strong as to inflict a severe wound when the insect is incautiously
 NATURAL HISTORY. 415
naidled. Nor does the mischief end with their life, for their dead bodies
often accumulate in such numbers that the air is even dangerously
infected. They infest Africa and Central Asia, but they annually make
incursions to Europe, where the damage they occasion is much less
reparable than in their native lands; for there the power of vegetation is
so great that a few days repair the injuries caused by them, but in
Europe a whole year is required for that purpose. The following
account of these creatures is extracted from Mr. Cummings South
Africa:—
“ On the following day I had the pleasure of beholding the first flight
of locusts that I had seen since my arrival in the colony. We were
standing in the middle of a plain of unlimited length, and about five
miles across, when I observed them advancing. On they came like a
snow-storm, flying slow and steady, about a hundred yards from the
ground. I stood looking at them until the air was darkened with their
masses, while the plain on which we stood became densely covered with
them. Ear as my eye could reach, east, west, north, and south, they
stretched in one unbroken cloud ; and more than an hour elapsed before
their devastating legions had swept by.
“ Locusts afford fattening and wholesome food to man, birds, and all
sorts of beasts; cows and horses, lions, jackals, hyaenas, antelopes,
elephants, &c. devour them. We met a party of Batlapis carrying
heavy burdens of them on their backs. Our hungry dogs made a fine
feast on them. The cold frosty night had rendered them unable to take
wing until the sun should restore their powers. As it was difficult to
obtain sufficient food for my dogs, I and Isaac took a large blanket
which we spread under a bush, whose branches were bent to the ground
with the mass of locusts which covered it, and having shaken the branches,
in an instant I had more locusts than I could carry on my back; these
we roasted for ourselves and our dogs.”
Our common grasshoppers belong to this order, but require no de¬
scription.

Although the Eield-Cricket is not a very rare insect, it is but seldom

caught, as it is very shy, and its holes, to which it instantly resorts
when alarmed, are very deep and crooked. The female of this insect is
armed with a very large ovipositor, nearly as long as its abdomen.
Although the Eield-Cricket is endowed with large and strong jaws, it
does not make use of them when handled, but only employs them in
fighting with its own species. The hinder legs are long and powerful,
appearing to be excellent limbs for leaping. The Eield-Cricket, however,
never seems to use them for leaping, but contents itself with crawling
ignominiously. These qualities render the Eield-Crickets an easy prey
when they are once driven from their holes; but when they are only at
the mouth of their caverns, as is their usual custom, they dive back so
416 NATURAL HISTORY.

fast that they cannot be captured. Force is useless to get these creatures
out of their holes, as the stroke of a spade would probably cruslFthem
to pieces, and their holes
Family, Aehetfdas. (Gr. Ax^ras, a Chirper, are £00 deep for them to
i. e. the Grasshopper.) he reached by any instru-
acheta. ment.
The best method for in¬
ducing the Field-Cricket
to leave its dwelling-place,
is by thrusting a pliant
stalk of grass into the hole,
which accommodates itself
to the windings of the
passage, and brings out the
inhabitant in great wrath
to see what intruder has
been trespassing.
It is a noisy insect, and
utters its shrill cry while
seated at the mouth of its
hole, but instantly ceases
if alarmed, and disappears
Campestris (Lat. belonging to tlie field), the into its hiding place. From
Field Cricket. the middle of May to the
middle of Jnly, its cry may
be heard by night as well as by day.

The House-Cricket.—This well-known iusect delights to live in

places that are always warm,
acheia.
and consequently is found
swarming about ovens,
kitchen fire-places, and lo¬
calities of a similar na¬
ture. It makes its resi¬
dence by cutting away the
mortar with its powerful
jaws, and so effectually will
it do so, that it sometimes
eats completely through
the wall, opening commu¬
nications between two or
more houses. The manner
in which it bears heat is
wonderful, as it will live
within a few inches of a
Coiuestlcus (Lat. domestic), the House Cricket. nerce lire.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 417
But Jie aridity and heat of the atmosphere in which it lives, render it
very liable to thirst, and it consequently seeks every opportunity of
quenching its thirst, by gnawing holes in wet linen, devouring any
moist crumbs that may lie on the floor, or boldly climbing the milk-pan,
in which latter case it gets a little too much liquid, and is generally
f‘ found drowned ” next morning.
The wings of this insect, as well as those of the Field-Cricket, are
very beautiful, and marked with an elegant pattern. The Cricket never
appears to use them except at night, when it may be taken on the wing.
The Mole-Cricket.—The curious insect called the Mole-Cricket is
not uncommon in England. It inhabits sandy banks, digging deep holes,
and forming chambers in Gryclotalpa.—(Lat. Gryllus, a Cricket
winch the eggs are laid. The tal a Mule ,
tore legs closely resemble
those of the mole, and are
used for the same purpose.
From its not unmusical cry
it is called in some parts ot
England the Churr-worm,
and near Oxford the rustics
call it “ Croaker.”

The Leaf Insect is an

inhabitant of South America.
Not only does it resemble a
leaf in shape, but even in Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Mole-CricJcet.
colour, and its legs may be easily mistaken for dry twigs. Even the
ramified veinings of the leaf are preserved on its wings. It is singular
PhyllIa.*—(Qr. <t>vA\oy, a Leaf.)

Foliata (Lat. like a leaf), the Leaf Insect.

that while some insects closely resemble vegetables, some vegetables, as
the Orchidaceae, should as closely resemble insects. Nearly connected
* I have preferred to place these two insects in close proximity, as they bo.h affortf
a curious instance of resemblance to another part of creation.
E Ji
 418 NATURAL niSTORY.

with this insect, is the Praying Mantis, so called from the curiou*
manner in which it holds its fore legs. It is very voracious and ex¬
ceedingly quarrelsome, fighting with the fore legs, which it uses like a
sword. In China the inhabitants keep them in cages, and set them to
fight as in other countries certain barbarians keep cocks for the same
purpose -
Family, Blattidae.—(Lat. Blatta, a Cockroach.)
BLATTA.

;Orientalis (Lat. Eastern), the Cockroach.

The Cockroach.—Once upon a time, the French Academy were com¬
piling a dictionary. Being determined to be quite accurate, they sub¬
mitted each scientific word to some one skilled in that particular branch.
One of these words was “Lobster,3’ which the academicians defined as a
little red fish that runs sideways. The word being zoological, came under
Cuvier’s notice, who, on reading the definition, observed that it would
have been a very good one, but for three trifling circumstances, the first
being that, the lobster is not red until boiled, secondly, that it is not a
fish, and thirdly, that it does not run sideways.
In like manner the Cockroach has suffered under the hands of English
housewives, who express their abhorrence of it under the name of “ Ifiack
beetle,” a name egregiously false, as, in the first place, it is not black,
and in the second place, it is not a beetle.
As is seen from the position of the insect, it belongs to the order
Orthoptera, and its colour is a mahogany red. But, red or black, beetle
or not, if, is a very great plague, and fully deserves all the maledictions
heaped upon it, which are not likely to be decreased by the fact that d
is not even a good old English nuisance, but one of modern importation.
Its unpleasant character has caused innumerable plans to be laid for
its destruction. Among these, strewing the ground with the peel of
cucumber, or with red wafers, is said to be effectual in destroying the
Cockroaches, but perhaps no plan is so successful as the glass pan with
sloping sides, which lets the insects fall in, but prevents their escape
altogether.
The eggs of the Cockroach are deposited, indeed, in little cases or
purses, something like those of the shark, but without the strings
 NATURAL HISTORY. 419

Down one side a thick toothed ridge runs, and by this ridge the young
esoape when hatched.
The male Cockroach is furnished with very handsome wings, while the
female is entirely destitute of these organs, and only possesses four little
scales to mark their position. In the engraving, the right hand figure
represents the male, the left being the female. These figures were drawn
by the aid of the camera lucida, from specimens captured expressly for
the purpose.

The Common May-fly is so well-known an insect that it needs no long

description. It is the fly so familiar to anglers under the name of
the “ Drake.” It is to be found order NEUROPTERA.
in swarms in the end of May (Gr. Nevpuv, a nerve; 7rrepov, a wing.)
and the beginning of June,
Family, Ephemerfdse.—(Gr. icp^pupos,
rising and falling in the air in
living for one day only.)
its peculiarly undulating man¬
ner. EPHEMERA.

The May-fly spends the first

portion of its existence in the
water, under the shape of a
longish grub, with leaf-like ap¬
pendages to its tail. About
May, the grubs may be seen to
leave the water, and to crawl
up the banks or climb the stems
of aquatic plants. The skin
then splits, and the May-fly
creeps out. But it cannot im¬
mediately fly, as its wings are
soft, and like two split peas.
A short interval of exercise in
the open air soon loosens them,
and they are gradually shaken Vulgata (Lat. common), the May fly.
out until they have attained their full size, when the insect flies off. There
is, however, another change yet. In a short time, the May-fly again
settles, and sheds the entire skin a second time, even including the co¬
vering of the wings. These cast skins are often found sticking on the
bark of willow-trees by the side of wmters, and are mistaken for dead
May-flies.

The Dragon-fly.—Well do the Dragon-flies deserve their name.

Fierce, voracious, active, and powerful, they are a scourge to the insects.
Few but the Coleoptera can escape them. They are on the wing nearly
4he whole day, seizing and devouring flies, spiders, and various insects;
nor can even the broad-winged butterfly escape them: so voracious are
lliey, that when held in the hand they will devour flies, &c., if held
e e 2
420 NATURAL HISTORY.

within their reach, and they have even been known, when their bodies
have been severed in two, to eat flies, although they had no stomach to
put them in. I once caught a dragon-fly in my net, and while holding

Family, Libellulidse.—(Lat. Libellala, a Dragon-fly.)

LIBELLULA.

Depressa (Lat. flattened), the Dragon-fly.

it by the wings I presented to it no less than thirty-seven large flies in

Lupid succession, all of which it devoured, together with four long-legged
spiders. It would probably have eaten as many more had I not been
tired of catching flies for it.
A very great variety of these beautiful insects inhabit England. Some,
tV o Agrionidae, whose head resembles that of the hammer-headed shark,
ars of every vivid colour imaginable, floating in the air like beams of
azure, emerald, and rosy light, while others have their wings marked
with large indigo-coloured spots. The larva of the Dragon-fly inhabits
the water, and is quite as voracious as in its perfect state. Affixed to
its head is a curious set of organs, called the mask, which it can extend,
and use for the purpose of seizing its prey, and holding it to its mouth.

The Ant-lion.—This insect in its perfect form, although it is very

elegant, exhibits no peculiarity worthy of notice, but in its larva state
its habits are so extraordinary as to have excited general attention. As
it is slow and awkward in its movements, it has recourse to stratagem
for capturing the agile insects on which it feeds. Choosing a light sandy
soil, it digs for itself a conical pit, at the bottom of which it conceals
itself, leaving only its jaws exposed. When an unwary insect approaches
 NATURAL HISTORY. 421
too near the edge of the pit, the sand gives way, and down rolls the
insect into the very teeth of the concealed Ant-lion, who instantly

Family, MyrmelSomdae.—(Gr. MvppnZ, an Ant; \4oov, a Lion.)

MYRMELEON.*

Formicarum (Lat. of ants), the Ant-lion.

pierces its prey with its calliper-shaped fangs, and sucks out its juices
through the jaws, which are hollow. Should, however, the Ant-lion miss
its prey, and the insect endeavour to escape, its captor instantly makes
such a turmoil by tossing up the sand with its closed jaws, and oovering
each side of the pit with the moving grains, that the insect is tolerably
certain to be brought down to the bottom, and is seized by the Ant lion,
who immediately drags it below the sand. When the insect is very
strong and struggles hard to escape, the Ant-lion shakes it about as a
dog does a rat, and beats it against the ground until it is disabled.

Family, Termitidoo.—(Lat. Termes, properly a twig, also the insect.)

TERMES.

Bellicosus (Lat. warlike.)

The Termites, or White Ants as they are very erroneously called

Delong to the Neuroptera, and are therefore not ants at all. These inseeti
* The winged Ant-lion is reduced one-half in size, and the f gure on the right ™>pr@
ents the larva.
422 NATURAL history.

live in large societies, and build edifices, sometimes of enormous size,

and almost as hard as stone. Twelve feet in height is quite common, so
that were we to compare our works with theirs, St. Peter’s in Rome,
and St. Paul’s in London, fall
infinitely short of the edifices
constructed by these little
creatures. The common Ter¬
mite inhabits Africa. Not only
does it build these houses, but
runs galleries underground, as,
curiously enough, although
blind, it always works either at
night or in darkness. In each
house or community, there are
five different kinds of Ter¬
mites:—1. the single male, or
king, whose life is very short;
2. the single female or queen:
these are the perfect insects,
and have had wings, but have
lost them soon after their ad¬
mission into their cell; they
also have eyes; 3. the soldiers
or fighting men: these possess
large jaws, do no work, but
THE WHITE ANT.*
repel adversaries and watch
as sentinels; 4. the pupae,
who resemble the workers, except that they possess the rudiments of
wings; and 5. the larvae, or workers. These do all the work, i. e. they
collect food, attend to the queen, and watch over the eggs and young,
and build and repair their castle. These are more numerous than all the
other kinds.
On the approach of the rainy season, the pupae obtain wings and issut
forth in swarms. Pew, however, survive. Myriads are devoured bj
birds, reptiles, and even by man; and many are carried out to sea, and
perish there. Those that do escape are speedily found by the labourers,
who enclose a, pair in a clay cell from which they never emerge. The
male soon dies, but the female, after rapidly increasing to nearly three
inches in length and one in breadth, continues to lay eggs unceasingly
for a very long time. This cell becomes the nucleus of the hive, and
round it all the other cells and galleries are built.
These insects are terribly destructive, as they eat through wooden
beams, furniture, &c., leaving only a thin shell, which is broken down
* The upper figure is the Winged or King Termite, and below is represented one o?
the houses. In the cut on p. 421, the large figure is that of the female or Queen Termite;
the left-hand one is the labourer, and the right-hand figure represents the soldier.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 423

with the least extra weight, and many are the occasions when an unsus¬
pecting individual, on seating himself on an apparently sound sofa or
chair, finds himself, like Belzoni in the Pyramid, reposing among a heap
of dust and splinters.
Mr. Cumming describes the habitations of the White Ant in these
terms:—
“ Throughout the greater part of the plains frequented by blesboks,
numbers of the sunbaked hills or mounds of clay formed by the white
ants occur. The average height of the ant-hills in these districts is from
two to three feet. They are generally distant from one another from
one to thiee hundred yards, being more or less thickly placed in different
parts. These ant-hills are of the greatest service to the hunter, enabling
him with facility to conceal himself on the otherwise open plain.”

Order V. TR1CUOPTERA.—(Gr. 0pf£, liair; Tcripov, a wing.)

Family, Phryganidaj.—(Gr. 'bpvyo.vov, a dry stick; alluding to their
habitations.)
PHRYGANEA.

Grandis (Lat. large), the Caddis-yly*

The Caddis-fly.—This fly is well known to every angler both in its

larva and in its perfect state. The larva is a soft white worm, of which
fishes are exceedingly fond, and it therefore requires some means ol
defence. It accordingly actually makes for itself a movable house ol
sand, small stones, straws, bits of shells, or even small living shells, in
which it lives in perfect security, and crawls about in search of food,

* In this cut the «ases of the Caddis-worm are of the natural size, but the insect in the
«entre is reduced one half.
124 NATURAL HISTORY.

dragging its house after it. When it is about to become a pupa, it spin*
a strong silk grating over the entrance of its case, so that the water
necessary for its respiration can pass through, but at the same time all
enemies are kept out. When the time for its change has arrived, the
pupa bites through the grating, rises to the surface, and crawls out of
the reacli of the water, which would soon be fatal to it. The skin then
splits down the back, and the perfect insect emerges.
The order is called Trichoptera, because the wings, instead of being
covered with scales as are those of butterflies, are clothed with hairs.—
There are many species of Caddis-flies.

Order VI. HYMENOPTERA.—(Gr. 'Tfirjv, a Membrane; -rcrepov, a wing.)

Family . . Ichneumonidm.—(Gr. 'lx^ev/xccu, a Hunter.x

PlMPLA.—(Gr. to fill.)

Manifest&tor (Lat. a pointer out), the Ichneumon^jiy.

The Ichneumon-ply.—We have now reached a most important and

interesting order. In it are contained the bees, wasps, ants, &c. This
is the only order where the insects possess stings. The wings are four
in number, with certain veinings upon them, the shape and number of
which in many cases distinguishes the species.
The Ichneumons form a very large section. They are most useful to
mankind, as one ichneumon will destroy more caterpillars than a man
could kill in his lifetime. They do not, as most other insects, deposit
their eggs upon vegetable or dead animal substances, but they actually
bore holes in other insects, while they are still in the larva state, and leave
the eggs to hatch in their living receptacle. The most common ichneu¬
mon (microgaster glomeratus) is a very small insect, not so large as an
ordinary gnat. This little creature may be seen searching for caterpillars.
It generally selects the common cabbage caterpillar, and sitting upon it,
pierces with its sting, or ovipositor as it is called, the skin of the cater¬
pillar and deposits an egg. After repeating this operation many times
 NATURAL BT9T0RY. 425

.t flies off, and the caterpillar proceeds as before in the great business of
its life, that is, eating, and continues in apparently perfect health until
the time for its change into the chrysalis state occurs. The good condition
of it, however, is merely deception, for the offspring of the little ichneu¬
mon have all this while been silently increasing in size, and feeding on
the fat, &c. of the caterpillar, but cautiously avoiding any vital part, so
that the plump appearance of the caterpillar is merely produced by the
young ichneumons lying snugly under the skin. Just as the caterpillar
commences its change, out come all the ichneumons, looking like little
white maggots, and immediately each spins for itself a yellow oval case,
frequently enveloping the form of 1 he now emaciated caterpillar. In a
few days a little lid on the top of each case is pushed open, and the
perfect flies issue forth, and immediately commence their own work of
destruction.
I have examined hundreds of caterpillars in the course of dissection, and
have seldom found them free from ichneumons. I took out of one small
goat caterpillar 137 of these insidious destroyers. I found them useful
auxiliaries in dissection, as they had usually consumed all the fat, leaving
the important organs ready cleared.

The remaining Hymenoptera are furnished with true stings, that is,
with stings to which is attached a poison apparatus, like that belonging
to the teeth of venomous snakes.
The Wood Ant is the largest of our British species. It is found
principally in woods, and builds a large nest, which looks like a hillock of
sand and earth, intermixed with bits of stick, leaves, &c. The interior of
this hill is chambered out into
Family, Formiddm.—(Lat. Formica,
a variety of apartments, and an Ant.)
is traversed by passages. The
FORMICA.
so-called ants’ eggs are not
eggs at all, but Vtxepupa cases
of the insect, and if opened,
the perfect insect is seen
curled up inside. In the
autumn, the ants burst forth
by thousands, and may be
seen hovering in clouds above
the nest. Their beautiful
wings do not last long, for
when a female ant escapes,
and founds an infant colony,
Rufa (Lat. red), the Wood Ant.
her wings are soon lost, just
as a highly accomplished young lady gives up her velvet painting and
cross-stitchery when she marries and has a large family. Few do
escape, as the birds find these living clouds a most agreeable and plentifuJ
repast.
[26 NATURAL HISTORY.

Ants do not, as has been so frequently said, lay up stores of corn fo:
the winter, for they are in a state of torpidity during the cold months,
and require no food. Moreover, an anc would find as much difficulty in
eating or digesting a grain of corn as we should in devouring a truss of
straw.
In each nest are three kinds of ants,—males, females, and neuters, or
workers.

Family, Vespldae—(Lat. Vespa, a Wasp.)

VESPA.

Crabro (Lat. a Hornet), the Hornet.

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Wasp.

The Wasps.—Let us honour the Wasps as the first paper-makers, foi

of that material is the nest composed. The paper is rough and coarse,
certainly, but it is still paper. The Wasp, in order to make this paper,
rasps off fibres of decayed wood, which it afterwards mashes with its
teeth into a pulp, and then spreads the pulp in layers, when it hardens
and forms coarse paper.
The dreaded Hornet is usually found in woods, where it builds its
nest in the hollows of trees. A deserted hut is a favourite spot, and when
occupied by a full nest of hornets, is not particularly safe to enter, as the
sting of this insect is peculiarly severe. In 1847, while on an entomo¬
logical excursion in Bagley Wood, I saw five hornets sitting in a row,
gnawing a dead branch. I was rather fearful of disturbing them, but at
the same time, they were much wanted for a museum. They were all
secured by tapping each in succession with a twig, and receiving it in my
net as it flew off. Each bit a hole in the net, which had to be repaired
before it could be used again with safety.
 NATURAL HISTORY. 427

It feeds lpon other insects, and even attacks and devours the formidable
wasp.
The Common Wasp builds its nest in the ground, usually in banks.
The comb is laid horizontally, and not vertically like those of the bee.
As the cells are made of paper, they will not hold honey, nor does the
wasp endeavour to collect honey, although it is very fond of it, and
never loses an opportunity of robbing a bee-hive, although its natural
food is flies or other animal substances. Nor does it despise sugar, as
every grocer’s window testifies. Very few wasps survive the winter,
and those who do, immediately set about forming a new nest. Only
a few cells are made at first, but the number rapidly increases, until the
nest is furnished with about sixteen thousand cells.
Some wasps build nests upon the branches of trees, and others sus¬
pend them from the branches.

The Bee.—This useful little creature is so well known that a length¬

ened description of it would be useless. A merely general sketch will
be quite sufficient.
The cells of the bee are, as is well known, made of wax. This wax is
secreted in the form of scales under six little flaps situated on the under

Family, Apidoe.—(Lat. A pis, a Bee.)

APIS.

Melliftca (Lat. Mel, honey; facere, to make), the Honey Bee*

side of the insect. It is then pulled out by the bee, and moulded with
other scales until a tenacious piece of wax is formed. The yellow sub-
* In the cut, the upper figure ie the Queen Bee; that on the left the Worker; and that
on the right the Drone.
 128 NATURAL HISTORY.

stance on the legs of the bees is the pollen of flowers. This is kneaded
up by the bees, and is called bee-bread.
The cells are six-sided, a form which gives the greatest space and
strength with the least amount of material, but the method employed
by the bees to give the cells that shape is not known. The cells in
which the drone or male bees are hatched, are much larger than those of
the ordinary or worker bee. The edges of the cells are strengthened
with a substance called propolis, which is a gummy material procured
from the buds of various trees. This propolis is also used to stop up
Crevices and to mix with wax when the comb has to be strengthened.
The royal cells are much larger than anv others, and are of an oval
shape. When a worker larva is placed in a royal cell, and fed in a royal
manner, it imbibes the principles of royalty, and becomes a queen
accordingly. This practice is adopted if the queen bee should die, and
there be no other queen to take her place.
The Queen Bee is lady paramount in her own hive, and suffers no
other queen to divide rule with her. Should a strange queen gain
admittance, there is a battle at once, which ceases not until one has
been destroyed.
At the swarming time, the old queen is sadly put out by the encroach,
ments of various young queens, wdio each wish for the throne, and at
last is so agitated that she rushes out of the hive, attended by a large
body of subjects, and thus the first swarm is formed. In seven or eight
days, the queen next in age also departs, taking with her another supply
of subjects. When all the swarms have left the original hive, the re¬
maining queens fight until one gains the throne.
The old method of destroying bees for the sake of the honey was not
only cruel but wasteful, as by burning some dry “puff-ball” the bees
are stupefied, and shortly return to consciousness. The employment of
a “ cap ” on the hive is an excellent plan, as the bees deposit honey
alone in these caps, without any admixture of grubs or bee-bread. Extra
hives at the side, with a communication from the original hive, are also
useful.
The queen bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. Of these about
eight hundred are males or drones, and four or five queens, the re¬
mainder being workers.

The Swallow-tailed Butterfly.—We now arrive at the Haustellate

Insects, so called, because they suck liquid food through an apparatus
resembling the proboscis of an elephant. The first order of haustellate
insects is the Lepidoptera, containing the butterflies and moths. The
butterflies always fly by day, from which circumstance they are some¬
times called Diurnal Lepidoptera. Most of the moths fly by night, and
are called Nocturnal Lepidoptera. This is not a rule, however, as many
moths fly by day, and some butterflies come out in the evening.
 XATJilAL UlSTOKY. 4 2(J

Butterflies are usually lighter in the body than moths, from which
insects they are easily distinguished by the shape of the antennae, which
in the butterflies are slender, and terminate in a small knob, but in the
moths terminate in a point, and are often beautifully fringed.
The name Lepidoptera is given to these insects because their wings
are covered with myriads of minute scales, by which the beautiful
colouring of the wings is produced. These scales vary in size and
shape, according to the species, or the part of the wing from which they
are taken. Under the microscope they aie most exquisite objects, and
well repay a long and careful examination.

Sub-class II. INSECTA HAUSTELLATA.—(Lat. haurire, to suck up.)

Order I. . . LEPIDOPTERA.—(Gr. Ae-rrls, a scale; irrtpov, a wing '
Family . . . Papilionidee. — (Lat. Papilio, a Butterfly.)

papilYo.

MachSon (Gr. a proper name), the Swallow-tailed Butterfly*

The Lepidoptera pass through three distinct changes before assuming

their perfect form. They first exist in the larva state, in which state
they are called caterpillars. They then pass to the pupa state, when
they are known by the name of “ aurelias” f or “ chrysalides,” J both
words being derived from words signifying gold, from the golden lustre
oi the pupa of certain butterflies. When they have remained in the
pupa state during a time, varying from a few days to two years, they
burst their shells and issue forth in their full and perfect beauty. This

* This figure is about one-third smaller than the inseet. f Lat. Aurw.n, gold
4 Gr. Xottrcs, gold.
*30 natural history.

transformation has /or many ages been used as an illustration ol' the
resurrection after death.
The beautiful insect represented on p. 429 is not very uncommon in
some parts of England, especially in the fenny parts of Cambridgeshire.*
It flies with exceeding rapidity, nearly in a straight line, and is vciy
difficult to capture.
The colour of the wings is blacK, variegated most beautifully with
yellow markings, and near the extremity of each hinder wing is a ciroular
red spot, surmounted by a crescent of blue, and the whole surrounded
by a black ring.

Vanessa.—(Lat. a proper name.) Argynnis.—(Gr. a proper name.)

Adippe (proper name), the Silver-spotted Fritillary.

Atalanta (proper name), the Red Admiral.

The Fritillaries are well deserving of notice for the delicacy ol

their colouring, and the beauty of their markings. The Silver-spotted
Fritillary is remarkable for the peculiar appearance presented by the
under surface of the wings, which look as if they had been studded with
pieces of burnished silver leaf. It is found mostly on thistles in woods,
and is very common in Bagley Wood near Oxford, about the end of June,
or during July.
The Ued Admiral is one of the most gorgeous of our butterflies.
The colour of the wings is a deep black, relieved by a broad band of
scarlet across each, and a series of semicircular blue marks edge each
v\ ing. It is usually found in woods and lanes, where there are nettles,
as the larva feeds upon that plant. It appears about the middle o'
August.
* I once saw it in the water-meadows near Oxford
 NATURAL HISTORY. 431

The Death’s-head Moth.—This lamily is called Sphingidas on

account of the sphinx-like attitude that the caterpillars of some species
assume. The larva of the Puss-moth (Cerura vinula) is particularly
celebrated for this position. It holds the plants on which it feeds with
its hinder feet, and raises the fore part of its body, just as the sphinx is
represented. When in this position, it seems so remarkably self-satisfied,
that the gardener of llosel, a famous naturalist, was quite disconcerted,
affirming that he never saw insects hold their heads so high.

Family, Sphingtdee.—(Qr. the Sphinx.)

AcherontIa.—(Gr. ’Ax^pomos, belonging to Acheron.)

Atrupos (Gr. proper name; one of the Fates), the Death's-head Moth.

The Death’s-head Moth is the largest of the British Lepidoptera, as

it not unfrequently measures nearly six inches across the wings. Its
rather ominous name is derived from the singular marking in the thorax,
which does not require much imagination to represent a skull and cross-
bones.
Some naturalists have asserted that this moth makes its way into bee¬
hives, and robs the inhabitants of their honey, disarming their resent¬
ment by a curious squeaking noise which it has the power of producing.
The uneducated rustics have a great horror of this insect, and consider
its appearance as a most disastrous omen. In a small village removed
from the influence of railways, on one Sunday morning, as the inhabitants
were going through the churchyard, a Death’s-head Moth appeared on
the path. Every one recoiled in dismay, and no one dared approach the
dreaded object. Sundry heads were shaken at the evil omen, and various
urophetic remarks made. At last, the blacksmith summoned up courage.
432 NATURAL HISTORY.

and witli a great jump, came down on the unfortunate moth, and happily
destroyed it. The people were in blissful ignorance that, as there were
several fields near planted with potatoes, on which vegetable the cater-
illar generally feeds, there were probably a few hundred of Death’s-head
loths in the vicinity.
I have this specimen now in my possession; it is of course mashed
quite fiat. It is a very singular fact, that those who, living so much in
the open fields, would be supposed to have correct knowledge of natural
phenomena, are really profoundly ignorant of facts that pass daily before
their eyes. I have already mentioned the popular superstitions re¬
garding efts.
In common with many other nocturnal insects, the eyes of the Death’s-
head Moth shine at night like two stars, which adds considerably to the
terror inspired by its appearance.

The Humming-bird Moth.—This curious insect is called the Hum¬

ming-bird Moth, because its ap¬
Family, Sesiidse. pearance when on the wing exactly
Macroglossa.—(Gr. Maxpos, long; resembles that of a Humming-bird.
yXutatra, the tongue.) It feeds on the wing as the bird
does, hovering before each flower
and sucking out the honey by
means of its very long proboscis.
It is very shy, and darts off if the
slightest movement is made; but
if the spectator remains perfectly
quiet, the moth sees no danger,
and will continue its meal within
a yard of him. The moth appears
to gain confidence if it is not dis¬
turbed, and in a few days will
S\,jllatarum, the Humming-bird Moth. become almost tame, permitting
the spectator to whom it is accus¬
tomed, to approach quite closely without appearing alarmed.

The Tiger-Moth.—This common but beautiful moth is found in the

beginning of autumn. It runs on the ground with such swiftness as to be
often mistaken for a mouse. I have more than once seen a kitten chasing
a tiger-moth among the flowers in a garden, evidently deceived by its
resemblance to a mouse. The larva is popularly called “the woolly bear.”
It is rather large, and is surrounded with tufts of long elastic hairs of a
reddish brown colour, which serve as a defence against many enemies.
When disturbed, it rolls itself round, just as a hedgehog does, and if on
a branch, suffers itself to fall to the ground, when the long hairy covering
defends it from being injured by the fall. When the caterpillar is about
 NATURAL HISTORY. 433

Family, Arctifdre.—(Gr. “Apktos, a Bear; in allusion to the popular name

of the larva.)

arctIa.

Caja (Lat. proper name), the Tiger-moth.

to change into a pupa, it spins a kind of hammock, and lies there until it
comes forth as a moth.
The colour and markings of this moth vary considerably. The usual
tints are, the thorax brown, the body red striped with black. The two
anterior wings are cream colour, marked with bold patches of a deep
brown: the posterior wings are bright red, spotted with bluish black.

The larvae of the Geometrid^: move in a very singular manner. When

preparing to make a step, they hold firmly by their hinder legs to the
substance on which they are moving, and then stretch out their body to
the fullest extent, as if measuring their distance. After these pre¬
liminaries, they take a firm hold with the fore feet, and draw the hinder
feet up to them, forming their body into an arch or loop. When at rest,
the caterpillars often deceive an observer by their close resemblance to
twigs, as they stretch themselves out motionless from the branch.
The family is very large, and contains many interesting species, but want
of space compels me to omit all but the insect represented on page 434,
the Swallow-tailed Moth. The caterpillar of this moth feeds princi¬
pally on the elder, willow, and lime, and the moth appears in June and
July. It is one of the largest of the British Geometridse, as the spread
of the wing considerably exoeeds two inches. Its colour is a pale yellow
434 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Geometrldse.— (Gr. Teopirp-^s, a Laud-measurer.)

OuRArTERYS.—(Gr. Ovpd, a tail; tttepov, a wing.)
Family, Alucitidse.
AlucIta.—(Linnean nams.)

Sambucarla (Lat. Sambucus, the Elder-tree), the Swallo tv-tailed Moth.

Hexadactyla (Gr."E£, six; SdarvAos, a finger), the Many-plumed Moth.

and the lines across the wings are deep yellow. It derives its name from
the shape of the hinder wings.
The Many-fltjmed Moth is found towards the close of autumn,
usually running about windows. It is very small, measuring barely half
an inch across the wings. The structure of the wings is very curious,
each of the two anterior wings being divided into eight beautiful feather¬
like rays, and each of the posterior into four rays. Nearly allied to this
are the common Feather Moths, the most common of which is the White-
plumed Moth, whose wings measure nearly an inch across, and are divided
rnto five feathered rays.

Diftera.—The insects of this order possess but two wings, the

place of the others being supplied by two little organs something like
drum-sticks, called “ balancers.” Without these the insect seems to
be unable to direct its flight.
All are familiar with the Common Gnat. This pretty tormentor passes
its larval existence in the water, in which state thousands may be seen
in any uncovered water-butt, wriggling about with the most untiring
energy, or reposing head downwards, only leaving the end of the tail at
 NATURAL HISTORY. 435

Order II. DIPTERA.—(Gr. A Is, twice ; -rr^pov, & wing.)

Family, Culicldae.— (Lat. Culex, a Gnat.)

CULEX.

Family, (Estrldao.—(Gr. OlaTpos. the Gad-fly.)

(ESTRUS.

Piplens (Lat. humming), the Gnat.

Bovis (Lat. of the Ox), the Gad-fly.

the surface. The reason for this is very curious. This larva breathes
through its tail, and is moreover enabled by means of a fringe of hairs to
carry air down with it.
It is a singular circumstance, that although the larva lives in the water,
yet were either the eggs or the perfect insect to be submerged, they
would be destroyed. The instinct of the Gnat in order to fulfil all three
conditions is very beautiful. When the Gnat wishes to deposit its eggs,
it rests on a leaf or twig on the surface of the water; it then takes each
egg separately, and fastens them side by side in such a manner that they
actually form a little boat, which will neither fill with water nor upset,
however the water may be agitated. In a few days the eggs are hatched,
when a little lid opens in the under end of each egg, and down tumbles
the larva into the water.
After remaining in the water for some days it assumes the pupa form.
In this state it floats at the surface with the back of the thorax upper¬
most. Soon this splits, and the insect emerges, standing on its own cast
skin, which forms a raft for it until its wings are fully dry, when it takes
to flight, leaving behind it the empty shell floating on the water. This
change may be witnessed any warm day in summer.
The Gadfly has from the most ancient times been known as the terror
of the herd. At the sound of its approach the cattle are driven almost
mad with terror. The young gadflies are nourished under the skin, where
they remain until they are fit to pass into the pupa state, when they bury
themselves in the ground, and after a fev/ days spent under the earth,
issue forth in their perfect state.
436 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Bombylidse (Gr. BouBv\ios, a Humble BeeA

bombylIus.

Medius (Lat. in the midst), the Humble Bee-fly.

The Humble Bee-ely.—This very curious insect is found in the early

days of spring, and may be seen hovering over the primroses and other
spring flowers. It feeds in the same manner as the Humming-bird Moth,
and much resembles that insect in many of its habits.

Order IV. APHANIPTERA.—(Gr. Acparfjs, invisible; tttHov, a wing.

Family . . Pulicidte.—(Lat. Pxdex, a Flea.)
PTJLKX.

Irritans (Lat. irritating), the Flea.

The Flea.—-The strength and agility of this curious but annoying
little insect is perfectly wonderful. Many of my readers have doubtless
seen the exhibition of the Industrious Fleas, who drew little carriages,
and carried comparatively heavy weights with the greatest- ease. The
apparatus with which it extracts the blood of its victims is very curious,
and forms a beautiful object under a microscope of low power. Its leap is
tremendous in proportion to its size. This property it enjoys in common
with many other insects, among which the Common Grasshopper, the
 natural history. 457

Frog-hopper, and the Halticas, or Turnip-flies are conspicuous. In all

these insects the hinder pair of legs are very long and powerful.

I am here most reluctantly compelled to close this little work. Most

willingly would I have entered into a sketch of the remaining Classes.
These, however, are so numerous, and their habits are so different from
those of the creatures whom we have already examined, that even a very
slight description would consume too much space and time.
Here, then, I take my leave of the reader, with a sincere hope that the
perusal of this volume will not only have proved interesting, but will
also have given him some insight into the beautiful order of the animated
world.
 INDEX

A3D0MINA1I4, 360. Anobium, 411. Babyroussa, 14/.

Abramis, 362. Anseres, 304. Badger, 58.
Acanthopterygii, 351. Anserin®, 305. Balaena, 78.
Aearidae, 406. Ant, Wood, 425. Balaenidae, 77.
Accentor, 212. Ant-Eater, Great, 160. Barbel, 361.
-Hedge, 212. -- Middle, 161. Barbus, 361.
Accentorinae, 212. -Little, 162. Bat, Long-eared, 24.
Accipiter, 181. Ant-Lion, 421. -Vampire, 21.
Accipitres, 164. -White, 421, 422 Batrachia, 345.
-Diurni, 164. Anthropoides, 291. Beagle, 44.
- Nocturni, 183. Anthus, 216. Bear, 61.
Accipitrinae, 180. Aphaniptera. 436. -— Grizzly, 62.
Acherontia, 431. Apidae, 427. - Polar, 64.
Acheta, 416. Apis, 427. Beaver, 82.
Achetidae, 416. Apoda, 376. Bee, Honey, 427.
Acipenser, 380. Apteryginae, 283. - eater, 197.
Acipenseridae, 380. Apteryx, 283. Beetle, Burying, 409,
Adder, Puff, 333. Aquila, 171. -Cockchaffer, 41C
Adippe, 430. Aquilinae, 171. -Dor, 410.
Adjutant, 295. Arachnida, 403. -Ground, 408.
Admiral, Red, 433. Araneidae, 403. -Musk, 412.
Agarnidae, 329. Arctia, 433. -Rove, 413.
Agouti, 95. Arctiidae, 433. -Stag, 410.
Alauda, 248, 249. Arctomys, 102. -- Tiger, 407.
Alaudinae, 248. Ardea, 289. Bernicla, 305.
Albatros, Wandering, 319. Ardeidae, 288. Bernicle, 398.
Alca, 314. Ardeinae, 289. Bernicle Goose, 30t.
Alcedinidae, 196. Argala, 295. Bison, 108.
Alcedininae, 196. Argonaut, 389. Bittern, 292.
Alcedo, 196. Argonauta, 389. Blackbird, 220.
Alces, 135. Argus, 267. Blatta, 418.
Alcidae, 313. --Pheasant, 267. Blattidae, 418.
Alcinae, 313. Argynnis, 430. Blindworm, 327.
Alligator, 344. Aricia, 393. Bloodhound, 42.
Alligatoridae, 344. Armadillo, 159. Boa, 336.
Alucita, 434. Arvicola, 91. Boar, 147.
Alucitidae, 434. Arvicolina, 91. Boidae, 336.
Ampelidae, 224. Asinus, 137. Bombylidae, 436.
Ampelinae, 224. Ass, 137, 138, 139. Bombylius, 436.
Ampelis, 224. Astacidae, 401. Booby, 322.
Amphibia, 345. Astacus, 402. Bos, 14)3, 105.
Aaas, 308. Astur, 180. Boselaphus, 115.
Ana dae, 304. A teles, 17. Botaurus, 292.
Anatin ®, 308. Athene, 184. Bovidae, 103.
Anchovy, 373. Auk, Great, 314. Bovina, 103.
Angler, 359. Aves, 164. Bovrer-bird, Satin, 240
Anguilla, 376. Avocet, 298. Bradypidaj, 156.
Ancriut, 327. Axis. 132. Bradypu*. 156.
 INDEX 439
Bieam, 362. Cerambycidae, 411. Coniidae, 392.
Bubalus, 106,107 Cerambyx, 411. Conirostres, 228.
Bubo, 185. Cerastes, 334. Conus, 392.
Buboninae, 185. Certhia, 202. Coot, 303.
Buccinidae, 393. Certhidae, 202. Coracia, 238.
Buccinum, 393. Certhinae, 202. Coracias, 194.
Buceros, 251. Cerco\epts3, 66. Coraciidae, 194.
Bucerotidae, 251. Cercoleptina, 65. Coraciinae, 194.
Bufo, 346. Cervina, 129. Cormorant, 323.
Buffalo, 106. Cervus, 129, 130, 131 Corncrake, 302.
•-Cape, 107. Cete, 78. Corvidae, 228.
Bulldog, 46. Chaffinch, 243. Corvinae, 229.
Bullfinch, 250. Chameleon, 330. Corvus, 232, 234, £35, 236
Bull-frog, 346. Chameleonidae, 330. 237.
Bull-head, 352. Chamois, 118. Cotile, 193.
Bunting, 247. Charadridae, 287. Cottidae, 352.
-Yellow, 247. Charadrinse, 288. Cottus, 352.
Burying-beetle, 409. Chatterer, Waxen, 224. Coturnix, 273.
Bustard, Great, 286. Chelidon, 193. Cowry, 393.
Buteo, 174. Chelonia, 339, 341. Crab, 399.
Buteoninae, 174. Cheloniadae, 341. - Hermit, 400.
Butterfly, Atalanta, 430. Chenopis, 307. Cracticornis, 297.
-Fritillary, 430. Chetah, 38. Crane, 288.
■-Swallow-tailed, 429. Chicken, Mother Cary’s 317. -Demoiselle, 291
Buzzard, 174. Chiff-chaff, 208. Crangon, 402.
-Honey, 175 Chimpansee, 11. Crangonidae, 402.
Chinchilla, 98. Cray-fish, 401.
Cacatua, 256. Chinchillina, 98. Creeper, 202.
Cachalot, 83. Chough, 238. Creophilus, 413.
Caddis-fly, 423. Chub, 365. Cricetus, 91.
Calamodyta, 204. Cicindela, 407. Cricket, Field, 416.
Callithrix, 19. Cicindelidae, 407. ■- House, 416.
Camel, 124. Ciconia, 294. - Mole, 417.
-Bactrian, 126. Ciconinae, 294 Crocodile, 342.
Camelina, 124. Circinae, 182. Crocodilidae, 342.
Camelopardalis, 121. Circus, 182. Crocodilus, 342.
Camelopardina, 121. Cirrhopoda, 398. Cross-bill, 250.
Camelus, 124, 126. Civet Cat, 39. Crossopus, 69.
Canary, 246. Clotho, 333. Crotalidae, 331.
Cancer, 399. Clupea, 371, 372. Crow, 236.
Canceridae, 399. Clupeidae, 371. -Hooded, 237.
Canis, 41, 51, 52. Coaita, Spider Monkey, i7. -Nutcracker, 22;
Canina, 41. Coati Mondi, 65. Crustacea, 399.
Capercaillie, 274. Cobitis, 365. Cuckoo, 260.
Capra, 119. Cobra de Capello, 337. Cuculidae, 260.
Caprimulgidae,. 188 Coccothraustes, 242. Cuculinae, 260.
Caprimulginae, 188 Cockatoo, Great Sulphur, Cuculus, 260.
Caprimulgus, 188. 256. Culex, 435.
Capybara, 95. Cockchaffer, 410. Culicidae, 435.
Carabidae, 408. Cockroach, 418. Curlew, 297.
Carabus, 408. Cod, 373. - Stone, 287,
Caracal, 36. Coleoptera, 407. Cuttle-fish, 388.
Carduelis, 246. Colubridae, 337. Cyclobranchiata, 394
Carp, 360. Colubrina, 336. Cyclosaura, 326.
Carrier, 265. Columba, 261, 262. Cyclostomi, 386.
Cassowary, 281 Columbae, 261. Cyclothurus, 162.
Castor, 92. Columbidae, 261. Cygninae, 305.
Castorina, 92. Columbinae, 261. Cygnus, 305, 306.
Casuarius, 281. Colymbidae, 311. Cynocephalus, 16.
Cat, 35. Colymbinae, 311. Cypraeidae, 393.
-Civet, 39. Colymbus, 311. Cyprinidae, 360.
-Tiger, 34. Conchifera, 394. Cyprinus, 360, 361.
Catoblepas, 112. Condor, 167. Cypselinae, 190.
Cebidae, 17. Cone, 392. Cypselus, 190, 191.
Cephalopoda. 388. Conger, 371,
440 INDEX.

Dabcliick, 313. Eider Duck. 310. Frog, 345.

Dace, 363, 364. Eland, 115. - Bull, 346.
Dactylophori, 351. Elanoides, 176. - Fishing, 359.
Daraa, 133. Elephant, Indian, 140. - Tree, 346.
Dasypidae, 158. - African, 144. Fulica, 303.
Dasypina, 159. Elephantidae, 140. Fuligulinae, 310.
Dasyprocta, 95. Elephantinae, 140.
Dasyproctina, 95. Elephas, 140, 144. Gadfly, 435.
Dasypus, 159. Eleutheropomi, 380. Gadidae, 373.
Death’s Head Moth, 431. Elk, 135. Gallinae, 266, 269.
Death-Watch, 411. Emberiza, 247. Gallinula, 302.
Decapoda, 399. Emberizinae, 247, 248. Gallinulinae, 302.
•-- Anomoura, 400. Emu, 282. Gallus, 209.
-- Brachyura, 399. Emydosauri, 342. Gannet, 322.
-Macroura, 401. Engraulis, 373. Garrulinae, 228.
Deer, Fallow, 133. Entellus, 16. Garrulus, 228.
■- Musk, 128. Ephemera, 419. Gasteropoda, 391.
- Red, 130. Ephemeridae, 419. Gasterosteus, 356.
- Rein, 134. Ephialtes, 185. Gazella, 118.
Delphinidae, 84. Equidae, 136. Gazelle, 118.
Delphinus, 84. Equus, 136. Gecko, 328.
Dendrosaura, 330 Erinaceus, 70. Geckotidae, 328.
Dentixostres, 204. Erinacina, 69. Geissosaura, 326.
Dermaptera, 414. Ermine, 56. Genet, 40.
Picotyles, 148. Erythacinae, 210. Genetta, 40.
Didelphina, 74. Erythacus, 211. Geometridae, 434.
Didelphys, 74. Esocidae, 366. Geotrupes, 410.
Didinae, 284. Esox, 366. Geotrupidae, 410.
Didus, 284. Exocoetus, 367. Gibbon, Agile, 14.
Diodontidae, 379. Giraffe, 121.
Diomedea, 319. Glires, 88.
Dipina, 99. Falco, 177, 178. Glow-worm, 411.
Dipper, 217. Falcon, Gyr, 177. Glutton, 58.
Diptera, 435. - Peregrine, 178. Gnat, 435.
Dipus, 99. - Stone, 287. Gnoo, 112.
Diver, Great Northern, 311. -- Swallow-tailed, 176. Gnu, 112.
Dodo, 284. Falconidae, 171. Goat, 119.
Dog, Bull, 46. Falconinae, 177. Goat-sucker, 188.
- King Charles’s, 42. Felidae, 26. Gobio, 362.
- Newfoundland, 41. Felina, 26. Goldfinch,244.
- Pug, 47. Felis, 35. Gold-fish, 361.
- Shepherd’s, 48. Ferae, 26. Goose, Bernicle, 305.
Dog-fish, Spotted, 381. Fieldfare, 218. - Solan, 322.
Dolphin, 84. Fishing-frog, 359. Goshawk, 180.
Dormouse, 99. Fissirostres Diurnae, 190. Gradientia, 347.
Dory, John, 356. -Nocturnae, 188. Grallae, 287.
Dove, Ring, 261. Flamingo, 304. Grebe, Crested, 312.
-Stock, 262. Flea, 436. -— Little, 313.
-Turtle, 262. Fly-catcher, Spotted, 223. Greenfinch, 245.
Draco, 329. Flying-fish, 367. Greyhound, 49.
Dragon, Flying, 329. Forficula, 414. Grosbeak, 242.
Dragon-fly, 420. Forficulidae, 414. Grouse, Red, 275.
Dromaius, 282. Formica, 425. - Black, 275.
Duck, Wild, 308. Formicarinae, 217. Gruinae, 288.
-Eider, 310 Formicidae, 425. Grus, 288.
Dzigguetai, 138. Fowl, domestic, 269. Gryllotalpa, 417.
Fox, 53. Gudgeon, 362.
Eagle, Golden, 171. Foxhound, 44. Gueparda, 38.
-Whiteheaded, 173. Fratercula, 313. Guillemot, 316.
Earwig, 414. Fregata, 324. Guinea-fowl, 271.
Echeneidae, 358. Frigate Pelican, 325. Guinea-pig, 95.
Echeneis, 358. Fringilla, 243, 244, 245. Gull, Black-backed 320
Ectopistes, 263. Fringillidae, 242. Gulo, 58.
Eel, Sharp-nosed, 376. Fritillary, Silver-spotted, Gurnard, 351,
-Electric, 377, 430. Gymnotidae, 377
 INDEX 441
Gymnotus, 377. Ichneumon-fly, 424. Limax, 391.
Gypaetidae, 164. Ichneumonidae, 424. Limosinae, 297.
Gypaetus, 164. Icterinae, 241. Limpet, 394.
Gyps, 169. Icterus, 241. Linnet, 244.
Gyrfalcon, 177. Iguana, 329. -Green, 245.
Iguanidae, 329. Lion, 26.
Hag-fish, Glutinous, 387 Insecta, 407. Lizard, 326.
Haliaetus, 173. Insecta Haustellata, 429. Llama, 127.
Hamster, 91. - Mandibulata, 407. Loach, 365.
Hare, 96. Invertebrata, 388. Lobster, 401.
-Alpine, 97. Locust, 414.
Harvest-bug, 406. Jacana, 301. Locusta, 414.
Hawfinch, 242. Jacchus, 19. Locustidae, 414.
Hawk-owl, 183. Jackal, 52. Lophiidae, 359.
-Sparrow, 181. Jackdaw, 235. Lophius, 359.
Hedgehog, 70. Jaguar, 33. Loris, 21.
Helicidas, 391. Jay, 228. Loxia, 250.
Helix, 391. Jerboa, 99. Loxina, 250.
Hen Harrier, 182. Jerboidae, 98. Lucanidae, 410.
-Water, 302. John Dory, 356. Lucanus, 410.
Heron, 289. Luscinidae, 204.
Herpestes, 40. Kahau, 15. Luscininae, 204.
Herring, 372. Kangaroo, 72. Luscinia, 205.
Hippocampus, 357. Kestrel, 179. I.utra, 60.
Hippopotamina, 154. Kingfisher, 196. Lynx, 37.
Hippopotamus, 154. Kinkajou, 66.
Hirundinidae, 190. Kite, 175. Macaco, 20.
Hirundininae, 192. Koodoo, 114. Macaw, Blue and Yellow
Hcrundo, 192. 254.
Hobby, 178. Lacertinidae, 326. Mackarel, 352.
Holodactyli, 352. Lagopus, 275, 276. Macrocercus, 254.
Hominidse, 1. Lammergeyer, 164. Macroglossa, 432.
Homo, 1. Lampern, 387. Macropidae, 72.
Hoopoe, 198. Lampetra, 387. Macropina, 72
Hornbill, Rhinoceros, 251. Lamprey, 386. Macropus, 72.
Hornet, 426. Lampyris, 411 Magpie, 230.
Horse, 136. Lampyridae, 411. Malacopterygii, 360.
-- Sea, 357. Landrail, 302 Malacostraca, 399.
Hound, Blood, 42. Lanidae, 225. Mallard, 308.
- Fox, 44. Laninae, 225. Mammalia, 1.
- Grey, 49. Lanius, 225, 227. Man, 1.
Howler, Ursine, 18. Lapwing, 288. Mandrill, 16.
Humble Bee-fly, 436. Laridae, 320. Manina, 15S.
Humming-bird, Bar-tailed, Larinae, 320. Manis, 158.
200. Lark, Sky, 248. Mareca, 308.
-Cora, 200. - Tit, 216. Martin, 193.
- Double-crested, 200. - Wood, 249. -Chimney, 192
-Gould’s, 200. I.arus, 320. -Sand, 193.
-Moth, 432. Leaf Insect, 417. Marmoset, 19.
-Ruby-throated 199. Lemur, 20. Marmot, 102.
Hydrobata, 217. Lemuridae, 20. Marmotta, 102.
Hydrochcerina, 95. Leo, 26. Marten, Pine, 55.
Hydrochoerus, 95. Leopard, 31. Martes, 55.
Hyasna, 39. -Hunting, 38. Mastiff, 46.
Hyenina, 39. Leopardus, 31, 32, 33, 34. May-fly, 419.
Hylobates, 14. Lepidoptera, 429. Meantia, 349.
Hymenoptera, 424. Leporidae, 96. Megapode, Mound-makirg
Hypotriorchis, 178, 179. Leptoglossae, 326. 278.
Hystricidae, 94. Leptoptilos, 295. Megapodida?, 277
Hystricina, 94. Leptus, 406. Megapodius, 278.
Hystrix, 94. Lepus, 96, 97. Meleagrina, 397.
Leuciscus, 363, 365. Meleagrinae, 270.
Ibex,119. Libellula, 420. Meleagrinidae, 3S7
ibis, Sacred, 296. Libellulidae, 420. Meleagris, 270.
Ichneumon, 40. Limacidae, 321. Meles, 58
442 INDEX

Mellivora, 57. Neuroptera, 419. Palaeornis, 255.

Melolontha, 410. Newt, 347. Palamedeidae, 301.
Melolonthidae, 410. Nightingale, 205. Pandion, 172.
Menurinae, 204. Nucifraga, 229. Pangolin, 158.
Merlin, 179. Numenius, 299. Panther, 31.
Meropidae, 197. Numida, 271. Papilio, 429.
Meropinae, 197. Nutcracker, 229. Papilionidae, 429.
Merops, 197. Nuthatch, 203. Paradise, Emerald Bird ol,
Micromys, 90. Nyctea, 184. 239.
Miller’s Thumb, 352. Nyctisaura, 328. Paradisea, 239.
Milvinae, 175. Nylghau, 113. Paradiseidae, 239.
Milvus, 175. Parinae, 213.
Mocking Bird, 221. Ocelot, 34. Parra, 301.
Mole, 67. Octopidae, 388. Parrakeet, Ringed, 255.
Mollusca, 388. Octopus, 388. Parrinae, 301.
Monkey, Entellus, 16. CEdicnemidae, 287. Partridge, 272.
-Proboscis, 15. CEdicneminae, 287. Parus, 213, 214.
-Spider, 17. CEdicnemus, 287. Passer, 246.
Monodon, 86. CEnanthe, 210. Passeres, 188.
Morrhua, 373. CEstridae, 435. Patella, 394.
Morse, 76. CEstrus, 435. Patellidae, 394.
Morunga, 76. Ophidia, 331. Pavo, 266.
Moschina, 128. Opossum, 74. Pavoninae, 266.
Moschus, 128. Orang Outan, 13. Peacock, 266.
Motacilla, 215, 216. Oriole, Baltimore, 241. Peccary, 148.
Motacillinae, ,215. -Golden, 223. Pecten, 395.
Moth, Death’s-head, 431. Oriolinae, 223. Pectinid®, 395.
-Humming-bird, 432. Oriolus, 223. Peewit, 288.
-Many-plumed, 434. Ornismya, 200. Pelias, 335.
-Swallow-tailed, 434. Ornithorhynchina, 162. Pelecanidae, 321.
-Tiger, 433. Ornithorhynchus, 162. Pelecaninae, 322.
Mouse, 89. Orpheus, 221. Pelecanus, 324.
-harvest, 90. Orthagoriscus, 379. Pelican, Frigate, 325.
Mullingong, 162. Orthoptera, 414. -White, 324.
Muraenidae, 376. Ortolan, 248. Penguin, Cape, 315.
Murex, 394. Ortygometra, 302. Pentalasmis, 398.
Muricidae, 394. Oryx, 116. Perea, 352.
Muridae, 88. Osprey, 172. Perch, 352.
Murinae, 88. Ossei, 351. Percidae, 352.
Mus, 88, 89. Ostrea, 396. Perdicinae, 272,
Muscicapa, 223. Ostrich, 279. Perdix, 272.
Muscicapidae, 223. Otinae, 286. Pernis, 175.
Muscicapinae, 223. Otter, 60. Petrel, Fulmar, 317.
Mussel, Edible, 397. Otus, 286. -Stormy, 317.
Mustela, 56, 57. Ounce, 32. Petromyzon, 386.
Mustelina, 55. Ourapteryx, 434. Petromyzonidae, 386
Mycetes, 18. Ouzel, Water, 217. Pettichaps, 208.
Mygale, 403. Ovibos, 111. Phaeton, 321.
Myoxina, 99. Ovis, 120. Phaetoninae, 321.
Myoxus, 99. Owl, Barn, 186. Phalacrocorax, 323.
Myrmecophaga, 160. -Burrowing, 184. Phatagin, 158.
Myrmecophagina, 160. -Great-eared, 185. Phasianidae, 266.
Myrmeleon, 421. -Hawk, 183. Phasianinae, 267.
Myrmeleonidae, 421. -Scops-eared, 185. Phasianus, 268
Mytilidae, 397. -Snowy, 184. Pheasant, 268.
Mytilus, 397. Ox, 103. -Argus, 267,
Myxine, 387. — Musk, 111. Philomachus, 300.
Myxinidae, 387. Oyster, 396. Phoca, 75.
-Pearl, 397 Phocaena, 85.
Naja, 337. Phocidae, 75.
Narwhal, 86. Pachyglossae, 328. Phocina, 75.
Nasua, 65. Paguridae, 400. Phcenicopterinae, 304.
Natrix, 338. Pagurus, 400. Phcenicopterus, 304.
Nautilus, Paper, 389. Palaemonidae, 402. Phryganea, 423.
Necrophagus, 409. Palaemon, 402. Phrvganidae, 423.
 INDEX. 443

Phyllostomina, 2) Quagga, 1S9- Scolopax, 299.

Phyllia, 417. Quail, 273. Scomber, 253.
Physeter, 83. Querquedula, 310. Scomberid®, 353.
Pica, 230. Scops-eared Owl, 185.
Picid®, 257. Rabbit, 97. Scorpio, 405.
Picin®, 257. Racoon, 65. Scorpion, 405.
Picus, 257, 258. Raia, 385. Scorpionid®, 405.
Pigeon, Domestic, 265. Raid®, 384. Scyllid®, 381.
-Passenger, 263. Rallid®, 302. Scyllium, 381.
Pike, 366. Rallin®, 302. Sea-horse, 357
Pilchard, 371. Ram, 120. Sea], 75.
Pimpla, 424. Ramphastid®, 253. -Elephant, 76.
Pipit, Meadow, 216. Ramphastidin®, 253. Secretary Bird, 182.
Pisces, 351. Ramphastos, 253. Serpentarius, 182.
-Chonderopterygii,380. Rana, 345. Sesiid®, 432.
-Malacopterygii, 360. Rangifer, 134. Shark, White, 382.
-Ossei, 351. Rat, 88. -Hammer-headed, 383
Platalea, 293. -Water, 91. Sheep, 120.
Plecotus, 24. Ratel, Honey, 57. Shrew, Mouse, 69.
Plectognathi, 379. Rattle-snake, 331. -Water, 69.
Pleuronectid®, 375. Raven, 232. Shrike, Great Grey, 225.
Podicepinae, 312. Recurvirostra, 298. - Red-backed, 227.
Podiceps, 312, 313. Recurvirostrin®, 298 Shrimp, 402
Poephagus, 110. Red Admiral, 507. Silphid®, 409.
Pointer, 45. Redbreast, 211. Simia, 13.
Polecat, 56. Redstart, 211. Simiad®, 11.
Porcupine, 94. Regulus, 209. Siskin, 245.
Porpoise, 85. Reindeer, 134. Sitta, 203.
Portax, 113. Remora, 358. Sittin®, 203.
Potamobius, 401. Reptilia, 326. Skate, Thornback, 385.
Pouter, 264. Rhinaster, 151. Skylark, 248.
Poultry, 269. Rhinocerina, 150. Sloth, 156.
Prawn, 402. Rhinoceros, 150, 151. Slowworm, 327.
Presbytes, 15, 16. -two-horned, 151, Slug, 391.
Primates, 1. Rhinoceros Hombill, 252. Snail, 391.
Pristidae, 383. Ring-dove, 261. Snake, Rattle, 331.
Pristis, 383. Roach, 363. -Ringed, 338.
Proboscis Monkey, 15. Roebuck, 129. Snipe, 299.
Procellaria, 317. Roller, 194. Solan Goose, 322.
Procellaridfe, 317. Rook, 234. Sole, 375.
Procellarin®, 317. Rove-beetle, 413. Solea, 375.
Procyon, 65. Ruff, 300. Somateria, 310.
Proeyonina, 65. Rupicapra, 118. Sorex, 69.
Proteid®, 349. Ruticilia, 211. Spaniel, Water, 42.
Proteus, 349. Sparrow, 246.
Psetta, 375. Sable, 55. -hawk, 181.
Psittacidae, 254. Salamandrid®, 347. -hedge, 212.
Ptarmigan, 276. Salientia, 345. Spheniscin®, 315.
Pteromys, 101. Salmo, 368, 369. Spheniscus, 315.
Ptilonorhynchinae, 240. Salmon, 368. Sphingid®, 431.
Ptilonorhynchus, 240. Salmonid®, 368. Sphyrnias, 383.
Ptinid®, 411. Sandpiper, 297. Spider, Bird, 403.
Puff Adder, 333. Sarcorhamphid®, 167. Spoonbill, White, 293
Puffin, 313. Sarcorhamphos, 167, 168. Springbok, 117.
Pulex, 436. Saura, 326. Squalid®, 382.
Pulicidae, 436. Saw-fish, 383. Sq^ualus, 382.
Pulmobranchiata, 391. Saxicola, 210. Squirrel, 100.
Pulmonaria, 403. Scalaria, 392. -Flying, 101.
Puma, 33. Scallop, 395. Stag, 130.
Putorius, 56. Scansores, 253. Stag Beetle, 410
Pyrrhocoracinae, 238 Scincid®, 327. Staphylinid®, 413.
Pyrrhula, 250. Sciurin®, 100. Starling, 242.
Pyrrhulin®, 250. Sciurus, 100. Steinbok. 119.
Scolopacid®, 297. Sterna, 321.
Quadruiuana, 10. Scolopacin®, 299 Sternin®, 32).
444 rNDEX.

Stickleoack, 356. Thalassidroma, 317. Vanellus, 288.

Stoat, 56. Thrush, Misseltoe, 217 Vanessa, 430.
Stockdove, 162. -Song, 219. Vertebrata, 1.
Stone Curlew, 287. Thynnus, 354 Vespa, 426.
Stork, 294. Tiger, 29. Vespertilionidae, 2.
Strepsiceros, 114. - Cat, 34. Vespertilionina, 24
Strigidae, 183. Tiger Moth, 434. Vespidae, 426
Striginae, 186. - Beetle, 407 Viper, 335.
Strix, 186. Tigris, 29. Viperina, 331
Strobilosaura, 329. Tinea, 363. Viperidae, 333.
Struthio, 279. Tinnunculus, 179. Viverra, 39.
Struthiones, 279. Titlark, 216. Viverrinae, 39
Struthionidae, 279. Titmouse, Blue, 214. Vulpes, 53.
Struthioninse, 279. -Great, 213. Vulture, Griffon, 169
Sturgeon, 380. -Long-tailed, 214. -King, 1 fS.
Sturnidas, 240. Toad, 346. Vulturidae, 169.
Sturninae, 242. Torpedo. 384. Vulturinae, 169.
Sturnus, 242. Tortoise, 339.
Sub-brachiata, 373. Totaninae, 297. Wagtail, Pied, 215.
Sucking-fish, 359. Toucan, Toco, 253. -Yellow, 216.
Suina, 147. Trachearia, 406. Walrus, or Morse, 76
Sula, 322. Trematopnei, 381. Wapiti, 131.
Sun-fish, 379. Trichicina, 76. Warbler, Blackcap, 207.
Surnia, 183. Trichicus, 76. -Dartford, 206.
Surninas, 183. Trichoptera, 423. -Garden, 208.
Sus, 147. Trigla, 351. -Grasshopper, 201
Swallow, Esculent, 194 Wasp, 426.
Triglidae, 351.
Swan, 305. Tringinae, 300. Water-hen, 302.
-- Black, 307. Tringoides, 297. Waxwing, Bohemian, 224.
■-Whistling, 306. Triton, 347. Weasel, 57.
Swift, 191. Trochilidte, 199. Wentletrap, Royal Staircase
-Alpine, 190. Trochilus, 199. 392.
Swrord-fish, 355. Troglodytes, 11, 204. Whale, 78.
Sylvia, 206, 207, 208, 209. Trogon, 195. -Spermaceti, 83.
Syn,;j,\thid£e, 357. Trogonidae, 195. Wheatear, 210.
Tropic Bird, 321. Whelk, 393.
Taja^u, 148. Trout, 369. Whitethroat, 206.
Talegallus, 277. Tumbler, 264. Widgeon, 308.
Tunny, 354. Wolf, 51.
Talpa, 67.
Turbinidae, 392 Wolverene, 58.
Talpidae, 67.
Turbot, 375. Wood Ant, 425.
Talpina, 67.
Tamandua, 161. Turdidae, 217. Woodcock, 299.
Tantalinae, 296. Turdinae, 217. Woodcock, Thorny, 394.
Turdus, 217, 218, 219, 220 Woodlark, 249.
Tapir, 146.
Tajirina, 146. Turkey, 270. Woodpecker, Green, 258.
Tapirus, 146. -— Brush, 277, -Spotted, 257.
Tarantula, 405. Turtle. 341. Wren, 204.
Teal. 310. Turtle-dove, 262. -Golden-crested, 208
Tee-Tee, Collared. 19. Turtur, 252. -Willow, 209.
Tench,363. Wryneck, 259.
Tenuirostres, 198. Ungulata, 103.
Xiphias, 355.
Jermes, 421. Upupa, 198.
Termitidae, 421. Upupidae, 198. Yak, 110.
Tern, Common, 321. Upupinae, 198. Yellowhammer, £47.
Terrier, English, 47. Uria, 316. Yuncinae, 259.
- Scotch, 47. Urinae, 316. Yunx, 259.
Testudinidae, 339. Uropsophus, 331.
Testudo, 339. Ursidae, 61. Zebra, 139.
Tetrao, 274, 275. Ursina, 61. Zebu, 105.
Tetraonidae, 272. Zeidae, 356.
Tetraoninae, 274. Vampire Bat, 21. Zeus, 356.
Ihalarctos, 64 Vampirus, 21. Zootoca, 326.

RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY.