The Adventist Movement in Trinidad: A Case-Study in Intercultural Communication

THE ADVENTIST MOVEMENT IN TRINIDAD: A CASE-STUDY
IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
APPROVED:
Major Professor
Minor Protessor A
k
Chairman,. Department of SpH^ch and Drama
Df.snl of the Graduate School

Noel, Augustine B., The Adventist Movement in Trinidad;
A Case Study in Intercultural Comraunication. Master of Arts
(Speech and Drama), December, 1971, 107 pp., bibliography,
48 titles.
The problem with which this study is concerned is that
of devising methods to assist teachers of Christianity in
reaching and attracting a fast-growing and enlightened
country. The Adventist church, along with other churches, is
being challenged in communicating its message to a populace
consisting of varied ethnic groups.
This investigation has a two-fold purpose: (1) to study
intercultural communications in order to locate principles
which are applicable to missionary endeavors, and (2) to
place these principles at the disposal of missionary personnel
for their selective use in disseminating the beliefs of
Christianity.
In addition to the findings accruing from intercultural
communication studies, data has been secured from "The General
Conference," East and South Caribbean Conferences of Seventh-
day Adventists, and an Emeritus Minister/Teacher of the church.
Primary source material has been supplied by the writer who
has served in the capacities of Church Pastor, Conference Ex-
ecutive Committee member, and Evangelistic Campaign participant.
The thesis is composed of five chapters, each of which
has a bibliography, and Chapters II, III, and IV carry rec-
ommendations in direct regard to the particular chapter
investigation.
A brief historic account of the country and the movement
is given in Chapter I, along with the intercultural problems
facing the Adventist church in Trinidad.
Chapter II presents the internal operations of the
church as they relate to (a) the method of communication-
flow, (b) the social atmosphere, which is a sequel to the
level and extent of communication, and (c) the state of the
organization in terms of goal-setting and goal-achievement.
In Chapter III, the causes of church-society conflicts
are presented, and the solutions to these conflicts are dis-
cussed. The chapter stresses that many of the frictions
which the church has experienced were avoidable had it not
made a self-fulfilling prophecy. An examination of the "so-
cial to save" approach is made, and the findings are that
social action of the church is the pathway to societal growth,
An investigation of intercultural communication prin-
ciples is made- in Chapter IV. There are many cultures and
an understanding of any of these is useful. But a communi-
cator can be misled into conceiving that a knowledge of one
culture presupposes knowledge of another. The chapter shows
that a missionary can be a victim of culture shock if he
cannot adjust to culture jolts.
Disorganization and conflict are experienced by individ-
uals of a society who are caught in the wave of cultural lags,
or uneven change. Very important to missionary endeavors in
cross-cultures is the aspect of accommodation. The chapter
also points out that while the missionary is a culture change-
agent he must not deteriorate to impose his own culture on the
local people.
The final chapter is divided into two parts: (1) the
conclusion, which summarizes the foregoing chapters, and (2)
discussion of areas for future research. The study concludes
that missionary activity is most productive when missionary
workers in intercultural configurations intelligently and em-
pathically adapt to the native cultures of differing groups.
Ignorance of the basic concepts, principles, and techniques
of cultural anthropology, and of native ways and values may be
understandable but are not justifiable. Recommendations are
made in connection with each chapter with the view to reducing
conflict and effecting better communication.
THE ADVENT1ST MOVEMENT IN TRINIDAD: A CASE-STUDY
IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
by
Augustine B. Noel, B.A.

Denton, Texas
December, 19 71
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter • Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1 .
Trinidad as a Nation
The Adventist Movement in Trinidad
Intercultural Problems in Trinidad
Statement of the Problem
Purposes of the Study-
Chapter Bibliography
II. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Church Operations
Church Membership
Church Administration
Denomination-wide Relationships
Organizational Bottlenecks
Intrareligious Climate
Goals
Recommendations
Conclusion
III. EVANGELISTIC METHODOLOGY 28
Interreligious Climate
Religious Conflicts
Public Relations
Social to Save
Credibility of the Church
Message Dissemination
Internal Aspects
External Aspects
Terminologies
Recommendations
Conclusion
IV. COMMUNICATING CHRISTIANITY IN A MULTICULTURED
SOCIETY 62
Intercultural Communication and its

Barriers
The Nature of Culture
Chapter Page
Assumptions of Culture
Plural Culturalism
Culture Change
Extent of Change
Rate of Change
Object of Change
Culture-change Process
Conditions Favorable to Change
Teaching Christianity Without Imposing
Culture
Cultural Implications of Conversion
Christianity Through the Cultural
Context
Recommendations
Conclusions
V. CONCLUSION 99
Summary of the Thesis
Areas for Future Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY 106
IV
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the annals of history men have been projecting them-'

selves in the pursuit of forming, developing, and maintaining
organizations. Those organizations that have withstood the
ravages of time are those which have received revision after
revision.
Innovation is the life-blood of organizations. New

ideas and practices not only stimulate people but open up
new vistas toward the horizons of success. While not all
change is progress, all progress necessitates change. Shailer
Matthews observes that "A contented man is the most dan-
gerous member of a community. .True, he can be counted upon
not to head revolutions or even to bolt his party ticket; but
he is a millstone around the neck of progress" (2, p. 123).
If this observation was true years ago, its veracity is

multiplied manifold in this era of knowledge explosion.
Whether the church, as an institution, will survive is con-
tingent upon its ability to cope with the times and to ad-
dress itself successfully to contemporary events.
This thesis will concentrate on the role of intercul-
tural communication with a missionary perspective. The
Seventh-day .Adventist Movement in Trinidad will be used as
a case-study in this project.
Chapters Two and Three reveal internal and external
interrelationships of the church. In Chapter Four, focus
will be given to principles utilized in communication on the
cross-cultural level. A statement of conclusion will con-'
stitute Chapter Five.
Trinidad as a Nation
Trinidad and Tobago constitute an independent state
(since August 31,. 1962) within the British Commonwealth.

These two islands, separated by a 19-mile-wide channel, are
situated off the northeast coast of Venezuela.
West Indians of African descent, as well as East Indians,
account for the bulk of the population, which is now approxi-
mately 1,200,000. The rest of the population is composed of
mixed European descent (English, Spanish, French, Portuguese).
The main religious groups in the. country are Roman Catholic,
Hindu, Anglican, Moslem, Presbyterian, Baptist, Seventh-day
Adventist, Pentecostal, and Jehovah's Witnesses.
This territory accommodates the local headquarters of

the Adventist church, which has a population of 15,678 (1971),
and is served by "20 ordained ministers, 20 credentialed mis-
sionaries, 14 licensed ministers, 4 Bible instructors, and
other types of workers" (l, p. 12).
The Adventist Movement in Trinidad
The teachings of Seventh-day Adventists came to this
country through the publication "Patriarchs and Prophets,"
by E. G. White. The reading of this book along with corre-
spondence with the International Tract and Missionary So-
ciety caused many individuals to espouse the seventh day of
the week (as Sabbath) doctrine.
In 189 3 Charles D. Adamson went to Trinidad from Antigua '

and organized a "Sabbath school" group in the city of Port of
Spain. The first Adventist minister, A. W. Flowers, went
from the United States of America to Trinidad in 189 4 and was
joined by F. B. Grant. The first Adventist church to be or-
ganized in Trinidad was the church at Couva, on November 23,
1895 (3, pp. 1329, 1330).
The church has developed over the years so that today
it has ninety-one congregations, apart from school operations.
It must now, however, "contend" with strong heterogeneous re-
ligious bodies within its society.
Some church practices of the quiet past are inadequate
for the stormy present. If the church is to have any worth-
mentioning impact on society, it must act in close relation-
ship to society. Gilbert W. Olson points out that "As men
become Christians, the reconstruction of society among humane
and productive lines becomes more and more possible. The
growth of the Church is a necessary forerunner to major
advance in societal structure" (4, p. 17). The church, not
being unmindful of tradition, must keep abreast of the times.
Intercultural Problems in Trinidad

Some cultural aspects of the Seventh-day Adventist church
are different from those of other religious.groups. The eating
and drinking habits of this church, for example, constitute a
striking difference. This church teaches that its members must
avoid the use of swine products and alcohol as beverage, but
some other church groups make no such distinction in their
eating. The eating habits of the Seventh-day Adventists, there-
fore, are a distinguishing (cultural) mark of this church.
This problem sometimes assumes bi-polarized proportions.
On the one side, other Christians see the Adventists as living
in Old Testament ceremonialism. On the other side, Adventists
brand those Christians as "worldly."
Then there is the ethnic-group versus the Christianity
problem. East Indians in Trinidad feel that when their
children become Adventists, for instance, they will inter-
marry with Negroes. Here is both a cultural and racial di-
lemma. First, from the religious viewpoint, Islam, or
Mohammedanism, is not Christianity. Second, East Indians are
not Negro. Although they may occupy the same geographical
space, the diversity of culture resides in race and religion.
A lay-evangelist of Indian origin seems to appreciate
the predicament and allows his East Indian family to
participate in his meetings as far as possible. He also
invites Indian Adventists both to attend his meetings and
to meet with Indian visitors. The situation is similar with
other ethnic groups, excepting that the Chinese may not
understand the English language well.
The Adventist church in Trinidad baptized over 1,359

persons between January, 19 70 and March, 19 71, of whom thirty-
one were Hindus, and none froijti the other races.
Cultural problems emanating from religious as well as
ethnic and social differences,represent some of the inter-
cultural difficulties extant in the Trinidad society. If
"within a given culture," Alfred G. Smith says, "communica-
tion has many complex effectsr . . . when communication takes
.
place between two [or more] cultures, these effects are even
more complex" (5, p. 565).
There is need for new approaches in the communicative
role of the church to provide: a more successful encounter
with a multi-cultural and changing society.
Statement of the Problem

From the viewpoints of intercultural communication and
the utilization of modern communication methods, Christianity
is being seriously challenged,in meeting and attracting a
fast-growing, enlightened country. The existence of a cul-
tural interface in Trinidad presents a problem to the church
in the dissemination of its message. To arrive at more
effective ways of communicating Christianity in a cross-
cultural context is urgent and crucial.
Purposes of the Study

1. To study cross-cultural communications and to locate
principles applicable to missionary activity.
2. To make available to church workers and missionaries,
recommendations which can be adaptably implemented for
a more effective transmission of Christian teachings.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gibson, Jesse 0., 107th Annual Statistical Report of

Seventh-day Adventists, Washington D.C,, December 31,
1969,
2. Matthews, Shailer, The Church and the Changing Social '
Order, New York, The MacMiilan Company, 1909.
3. Neufeld, Don F., Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia,
Vol. X of Commentary Reference Series, edited by Julia
Neuffer, Raymond F. "Cottrell, Donald ~E. Mansell and
George A. Selivanoff (.10 volumes) , Washington D.C.,
1966.
4. Olson, Gilbert W., Church Growth in Sierra Leone, Grand
Rapids, William B. Eerdsman Pub. Co., 1969.
5. Smith, Alfred G., Communication and Culture, New York,
Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1966.
CHAPTER II
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The functions and motions of the church will be dealt

with in this chapter. The manner in which.communication
flows within the organizational framework of the church is
described.
Although the church depends upon supernatural guidance,
it requires some human figure to help steer the visible di-
mension of its institutional life.
*
Church Operations
The basic unit of the Seventh-day Adventist denomination
is the local church. The local church acts either through
its elders, deacons, and other officers constituting the church
board, or by the vote of the entire congregation. It takes
care of matters of local administration, for example, the ad-
mission and dismissal of members, and the election of its '
officers.
The local church works in close cooperation with its

pastor,who has overall charge and responsibility and who is
appointed to his post by the conference executive committee.
A conference usually constitutes a statewide territory, or a
similar territory within natural geographic boundaries.
Church Membership
In the case of church admission, membership necessitates
(1) conversion., (2) acceptance of the principles and doc-
trines of the church, and (3) baptism. In some instances,
"those requesting membership who have been previously baptized
by immersion may be received on their profession of faith . . .
Seventh-day Adventists whose membership records are unavail-
able may also.be received on profession of faith" (3, p. 253).
Church membership, in terms of transfer, requires (1) request
from the member intending to transfer to•the home church .
through the church clerk who notifies the minister or local
elder who in turn notifies the church board, and (2) consider-
ation by the board and final action by the church.
Church Administration
Every church member has a voice in electing the local
church officers who, with the pastor, lead out in the admin-
istration of the church's affairs. The pastor is primarily
the spiritual leader of the church but is also leader and
advisor of the officers'. He ranks above the local elder and
usually serves as chairman of the church board. He, with
the assistance of the elders and church officers, is respon-
sible for all church activities. The representative' admin-
istrative body of the local church is the church board, which
is elected annually.
10
.Denomination-wide Relationships
The Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia records that
the local church aids its pastor in his evangelism,
and under his leadership and under the counsel of
departmental leaders from the conference and higher
organizations it carries on lay evangelism and other
activities . . . . The local church is an integral
part of a worldwide organization (3, p ; 256).
A group of local churches form a conference (or mission),
a number of conferences form a union conference, while the
unions, grouped under divisions, form the General Conference
organization.
There is a combination of presbyterian and congregational

elements in the Seventh-day Adventist church policy. Its
authority stems from the membership whose representatives
govern through a five-stage organization, namely, the local
church, Conference, Union, Division, and General Conference.
Beyond the local church level there is limited lay represen-
tation in the governing bodies, but the local church has
distinct prerogatives of its own.. A representative system
may well describe the government of the church.
Organizational Diagram
General
Conference
Divisions
Unions
Conference
Churches
11
Organizational Bottlenecks
The conference president stands at the head of the
combined churches in his conference territory. Since he is
regarded as the chief elder or overseer of all those churches,
much responsibility devolves upon him. But since he occupies
such an elevated position, he largely determines what informa-
tion workers of lower brackets know and have access to. The
only counterpart of his on the conference level is that of
the secretary-tresurer.
Although these two officers do not necessarily set
aside duly appointed workers of the conference, or duly
elected officers of any church within their province of
jurisdiction, they are empowered to act on behalf of the or-
ganization. The quality and quantity of information .reach-
ing departmental secretaries as well as pastors, district
leaders, and churches, lie in the hands of these men.
Take, for example, a mid-year, or a year-end executive
committee which bristles with importance and volume of items.
Executive committee members know of the agenda when they meet
for committee work. They are unaware of the nature of the
agenda before they arrive, and when they arrive they are un-
aware of much of the facts. When a particular item comes up
for discussion, facts must then be given by the president or
the secretary who built the agenda.
Committee members are faced with information as the
officers filter it, and these members are at a disadvantage,
12
also, because of a time element. In a special sense, these
conference officers are "gatekeepers." It cannot be denied
that someone must be responsible for passing on the relevant
data, but the time, amount, and type of information released
put message recipients at a disadvantage.
Men in those positions of trust are usually men of some'
ability and'integrity. Does this, however, preclude the
possibility of their expressing things through their percep-
tive field? There have been instances when executives have
given information that was inadequate. It is necessary to
insert that/ despite the fact that they are well intentioned
and honest, they are men. They may "open" or "close" the
gate of discussion and investigation according to: (1) their
faithfulness and stability in their reproduction, (2) the
amount of interest or lack of it they manifest by even un-
wittingly changing the emphasis of the information, and (3)
the amount of systematic distortion (through deliberate bias)
or random distortion (through careless or ignorant bias)
employed.
Pastor X received correspondence from one of the ex-
ecutors who took enough time to state to the pastor that he
would receive certain financial allowances because of a
certain type of arrangement. But this executor did not pass
on any information which would enlighten the minister on what
assistance he should expect. There is a policy which
governs that type of employment agreement. The official

13
did not think it necessary to impart adequate information,

and the minister did not have access to the operating
policy.
Even though the officer was seeking to engage the min-
ister's services, he was yet controlling the amount and kind
of knowledge to be received by the prospective worker. The
prospective worker is thus circumscribed. He must wait for,
and abide by, whatever information is allowed him.
Departmental secretaries are not vested with adminis-
trative or executive authority. Their relation to the field
is an advisory one. Many times these workers are given in-
formation which is not available to other ministerial workers.
When projects and recommendations come from a department of
the higher organization, they may be presented to the relevant
department of the lower one in an interpretative form. In
this area, also, information-filtering takes place.
The receiving department of the local Conference now
takes the recommendations and tailors them to fit the needs .
and framework of the local department. Then this set of in-
formation is circulated throughout the local churches via the
district pastor or the particular church department. In many
instances, the person presenting the project to the church
would synopsize and summarize so that certain bits of infor-
mation are deleted. The omissions may be intentional, based
on what the communicator deems significant, or they may be
an honest oversight due to (a) misunderstanding of certain
14
terms of expressions, (b) a cursory reading or limited

understanding of the.correspondence, (c) limited time to
present the project, and (d) even failure to grasp "im-
portant" points and communicate them.
Sometimes technical "secrets" are not released on
time to ministers of districts. News of importance is at
times delayed during some operations, like public evange-
lism. If the news is transmitted earlier to fellow ministers/
more effective contacts will be made. Withholding the news
until workers' meeting, for example, limits the amount of
success which may come to the ministerial working force of
the organization. In this situation there may be direct re-
luctance on the part of "successful" workers to disseminate
information.
Intra-religious Climate
The organizational structure of the church permits free-
dom of movement among members of a congregation in terms of
association and .social intercourse. Each church group is
expected to form a close unit in its various facets of wor-
ship and activities. Religious education classes, like the
study of the Saturday morning lesson, form an integral part
of the church's activities. This period has come to* be
known as "the church at study."
For the spiritual development of members, services may
consist of thought-provoking talks, the relating of some
15
impressive missionary experiences, and periods of prayer.

Missionary endeavors are also conducted on behalf of persons
who are not members of the church.
Projects for the social development of members are
periodically promoted. It is not unusual for the church
group to arrange for events ranging from elocution contests
to trips to the sea in the program for social expression.
Statements of satisfaction with the church and its
"philosophies" are not unusual for Adventist congregations.
Expressions of gratitude to God for helping them find the
church have crowded many meetings. The church apparently
possesses a-high degree of built-in .security, happiness,
surety of purpose, worthwhile goals, and confidence in a
bright future. There seems to.be a positiveness in members'
minds that if they meet the conditions of personal right-
eousness, their lives will extend far beyond the grave to a
heavenly realm where they live forever in a constant state
of unimaginable joy.
Generally speaking, the morale of most church groups ••
appears to be high. Most of the church members regularly
attend services and identify with the programs of the church.
Very often suggestions from lay members are entertained and
sometimes implemented in church departmental operations.
Members, in the main, seem to have confidence in the
leadership of their church. This confidence has been shaken
thouah. i nfrecment.lv. bv the demotincr or disfellowshioina of
16
a leader for church violation. However, such disciplinary

action toward a church member has resulted in greater "unity"
for some churches, since the delinquent is viewed as one
being overcome by "the devil and his sophistries." In some
other churches the same disciplinary action has not seemed
to affect them.
Although a beautiful and accurate picture is painted

above, the church has not lived without its imperfections
and weaknesses. While measures against some delinquent
members have been well accepted, similar measures against
others have met with negative reactions such as verbal ex-
pressions of displeasure, as well as requests by the dis-
satisfied persons for transfer to other church localities.
There have been times when such persons refused to attend
any church services, anywhere. The ecclesiastical structure
of the church is calculated to help prevent disharmony and
to help reduce or remove it should it arise, but the method
used has not always worked.
Some departments within the church tend to cater to

themselves and "run their own show." "We will run our pro-
gram, and they will run theirs," has been the statement and
attitude at times. This has been seen with departments like
the Missionary Volunteers and the Lay Activities. Desire
to excel above the other department or church has led to
separateness, unwholesome competition, and working at cross-
purposes. It becomes difficult sometimes to teach Adventism
17
to non-members when those within the church cannot

freely interact.
When the membership comes together for transacting
the business of the church, some occasions are "stormy."
Unfriendly behavior sometimes takes place as hurt feelings
and hard feelings are defined by hasty, angry words. This
may be accompanied by members creating factions to achieve
certain ends. Moves to dominate and control the meeting
have been seen. It has become necessary for the chairman
to employ methods of conflict management. A knowledge of
these principles should be available to all presiding of-
ficers .
There have been evidences of misunderstandings among
workers and members. These disagreements and negative
reactions to them have had effects on the functioning of
the cause, such as one being "cold" with another, and work-
ers leaving. One top-ranking officer who worked in Trini-
dad, but now working in another area, said: "the work in
is a very challenging one but it is interesting, and
the working force is a united, good-spirited one. . . .
There is a spirit of unity and goodwill among the workers
that is perhaps better than that in South Carib." (South
Carib is the conference of which Trinidad/Tobago forms.the
main part.)
The most valuable asset of the church is its present
18
are visited constantly and invited regularly to services.

They are looked for at services and commended when they
come. But shortly after they have become members they do
not receive the.care and attention which was accorded them
before they became members. They soon become members
anonymous. With some disillusionment they plod on because
it is the thing to do, but the romance is gone. Because
of the helplessness they feel in moving into a new pattern
of life, they need as much friendliness and help as they
received prior to their being baptized.
On account of the varying circumstances surrounding
their conversion and the different life-styles to which they
had been accustomed,' many of these persons become discour-
aged by the new demands on their lives. Since some of these
are unable to quickly habituate these new patterns, and
since they do not regularly obtain adequate new-converts1
help, they revert to their former ways. To illustrate this,
the church started out in January, 1963 with 10,217 members
and ended 19 6 8 with 14,575, a gain of 4,358 members. Over- •
the same period its losses through apostasies alone figured
1,446 (6, p. 32).
There needs to be a more systematic arrangement for the
visitation and fellowship of members, especially the new
ones. Then there should be better rapport between old and
new members with more constructive comportment on the part
of the former.
19
The divulging of members' confidences to others

has produced both fear and the loss of trust. Problems
have been created and increased because of this, along
with practices of gossip and rumor. It is indeed bad
ethics to attack personalities in the delivery of sermons,
but a worse effect has been felt where leaders have shown
preference to some members and despised others. Because
leaders sometimes fail to care for all members on an equal
basis, members have expressed feelings of frustration.
In the attempt to simultaneously champion both sides of a
dispute, pastors have been caught in the middle of the
trouble.
Goals
The primary goal of the church is to make available
its message to every person within its geographic confines.
Every activity deliberately carried out by the church is
expected to be motivated by this goal.
The organization is so structured that various ap-
proaches can be made in an effort to bring about the same
result—making disciples. These various approaches are
represented by the many departments of the organization,
each striving to accomplish its purpose. In the process,
intraorganizational strain takes place. Some tension and
conflict are experienced among these departments in that the
same individuals may belong to different departments. Mem-
bers of the "Sabbath School" department, for example, are
20
also members of the "Lay Activities" department. These

persons must either split themselves equally or show
preference for one of the roles. Members of one department
may become strong advocates of their own area—thus creating
some harmful competition.
The departments may have similar functions and thus
call for similar types of missionary activity and reports.
The Lay Activities department, for instance, is the adult,
missionary section of the church, while the Missionary Vol-
unteer Society is the youth's missionary section of the
church. But both departments have areas of commonality such
as Bible readings, Gospel meetings, .missionary visits, and
literature distribution.
Whether these departments, should work separately and
report as individual units, or report together, has created
some contention. In seeking to realize the same goal, the
problem of competitive recruitment has occurred. The more
attractive department wins the larger number of recruits,
thus producing a sense of "victory."
The winning of people is the primary goal of the church,
but the enthusiasm to travel at high speeds in the pursuit
of this objective has created the establishment of numerical
*
goals. In the last biennial session of the church (1969),

the Secretary of the Conference proposed as one of the "great
objectives to which we should strive during the coming bieri-
nium. . .to create a total evangelistic thrust and to aim at
a target of 2,500 baptisms each year" (6, p. 29).
21
Action to achieve the primary goal may carry acceptance,

but the effort to accomplish it can be so desperate that a
displacement of goals may occur. Goals for souls" may
displace "souls as goal." The priority—souls — may be
superseded by the means-—desperate effort.
This situation leads to another problem, that of constant
measurement. In order to "produce" these souls, a certain
pace and vigil have to be maintained, resulting in a swift
production of converts. This accelerated method has been
partly responsible for the quick loss of some members. Etzioni
says that
frequent measuring tends to encourage overpro-
duction of highly measurable items and neglect
of the less measurable ones. When a factory
puts great pressure on its production people to
increase their efficiency, they might well pro-
duce more items of a lower quality (2, p. 9).
Goals are necessary to any organization, and they serve
many functions: • .
They provide orientation by predicting a future
state of affairs which the organization strives
to realize, . . .they constitute a source of
legitimacy which justifies the activities of an
organization and, indeed, its very existence.
Moreover, goals serve as standards by which the
members . . . and outsiders can assess the suc-
cess . . . effectiveness and efficiency (2, p. 5).
Overemphasis of goals has pressured many church workers to
accept "half-baked" converts.
In addition, a great deal of promotional work occurs
during the church service, in particular, during the worship
service. Pep-talks on behalf of "ingathering" or "mission
22
extension" campaigns, or some fund-raising project, have

consumed much time. Many persons, including visitors,
develop the impression that the goal of the church is a
material one. As Etzioni observes,
A church may initiate social activities to
attract members to religious services, but
if the social activities. . .become the
major focus of the participants' commit-
ments then they undermine the achievement
of the religious goal (2, p. 16).
Recommendations
The organizational structure of the church has been
discussed from the standpoint of its operations. Areas with
pressing needs for change have been discussed. In the light
of these needs, the following recommendations are presented.
To facilitate more intelligent discussion and better

decisions, agendas should be supplied to committee members
prior to the day of committee meetings. This procedure does
not apply to emergency meetings, but to regular meetings. In
order to enhance meaningful discussion,. information about
agenda items should accompany the agenda.
A second aspect dealing with organizational bottlenecks
relates to the careful planning of change. More effort should
be exerted by the administration to make working policies
more accessible to all workers, even before workers need to
use them. Furthermore, verbatim copies of policies from the
higher organization should be passed on to all workers along
with the local conference applications and interpretations.
' 23
There needs to be a greater team-spirit among workers.

This should be encouraged by the setting up of regular work-
shops in which success methods of workers can be recalled and
shared. These occasions will lend themselves to an atmo-
sphere of comradeship and thus help to minimize professional
jealousy.
Pastors and church leaders need to become more sensitive
to the frictions.which exist among the departments of the
church. By the use of coordination methods these overseers
should help effect a greater sense of oneness throughout the
departments.
Ministers and other leaders who preside at church busi-
ness meetings encounter situations in which members come in
conflict with one another. The following principles offered
by Don Edward Beck are helpful in conflict reduction:
I. Conflict managers should seek to create both the atmo-
sphere and the methodology for open communication
between the groups and, at the same time, promote
mutual trust among the individuals involved (1, p. 8)-.
II. Conflict managers should attempt to deal profession-
ally with the crucial friction points that exist be-
tween the groups involved (1, p. 9).
9
III. In specific conflictual situations, the Conflict

Managers must enhance the influence of the peacemakers
and, correspondly, negate or blunt the influence of
the agitators (l, p. 10).
24
All members of the church should be regarded as in-
dividuals and they should be treated as such by other members,
leaders, and administrators. Leonard. Sayles states that
"Stereotypes and beliefs influence what we hear. A person
with strong prejudice is often confronted v/ith information
that contradicts it. The prejudice may be so strong that he
will twist the information to support it" (5, p. 9).
Not only should members be regarded as individuals, but
leaders should recognize that differences in experience and
background often influence the type of responses they re-
ceive as they communicate with members.
Conference executives should develop a more effective
approach in dealing with workers. They should demonstrate
friendliness and impartiality toward all members. While
criticism is administered, praise should be distributed as
well.
New converts experience difficulty in the early stages
of their church adjustment. "Helpers" should be provided to
assist them during this period. They should be catered to
according to their social needs and background experience.
Walter Rauschenbusch observes that
Clubs and fraternal societies can pick their

material, the church cannot. It must take in
all sorts and conditions of men, and has a
special call to seek out and draw in the most
abandoned and lost. It has to take the material
furnished to it by secular society. If that
material is degenerate the work of the church is
harder (4, p. 306).
25
In addition to the church procuring help for those

new members, these "rescue" workers must be trained and
become familiar with the attempts of the new members in
order to rally faith and hope in them. The training should
include a working knowledge of the way newcomers generally
relate to their new religious, social, economic state, and
therefore give them supportive assistance. This assistance
offered each convert must be based on his individual cir-
cumstance.
The subject of goals has been covered in this chapter.
More stress, should be given to those features which come
closest to the organizational goal, that is, the recruit-
ment of new church members. Emphasis should be placed on
the virtues, such as love, faithfulness, and cooperation,
rather than on high promotion of monetary projects. This
will reduce or even preclude any impressions of religious
commercialism.
Conclusion
This chapter has presented the operational pattern of
the Adventist church in Trinidad in terms of how it affects
personnel and membership interaction. Attention has been
paid to the importance this church attaches to -goals and
the corresponding enthusiasm exerted to achieve those goals.
The measure of communication-filtering that occurs be-
tween administration and church members has been described.
26
Also, the peril new believers face as they espouse their

newly found faith has been examined. Recommendations re-
lating to areas needing improvement have been made.
The next chapter will deal with the evangelistic method-
ology of the church for propagating its teaching among the
members of society.
1. Beck, Don Edward, "Communication Through Confrontations

A Case Study," an unpublished paper presented at the
International Communication Association, Phoenix,
April, 19 71.
2. Etzioni, Amitai, Modern Organizations, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964.
3. Neufeld, Don F., Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia,
Vol. X of Commentary Reference Series, edited by Julia
Neuffer, Raymond F. Cottrell, Donald E. Manswell and
George A. Selivanoff (10 volumes), Washington D.C., 1966
4. Rauschenbusch, Walter, Christianity and the Social Crisis,
New York, The MacMillan Co., 1914.
5. Sayles, Leonard, "Why Isn't It Easier?" reprint from
Supervisory Management, June, 1966.
6. Secretary's Report to the 28th Biennial Session of The
South Caribbean Conference, Trinidad, July 29, 1969.
CHAPTER III
EVANGELISTIC METHODOLOGY
While the previous chapter dealt with the functions of

the church as they relate to internal affairs, this chapter
presents the basic attitudes of that church in its communi-
cation contact with the community in general.
This chapter will show what the ethos of the church
appears to be and will als.o delineate the causes of public
antipathy toward the organization.
If the church lags behind and deals in outgrown methods,
it will lose power over the ablest minds, perhaps the young
people first, and all ages later on.
Inter-religious Climate
Religious Conflicts
Religious wars continue today on the battle field of -.
the churches. Wars between Roman Catholics and Protestants
might be somewhat understandable, but there is also a war
hotly waged by Protestants with Protestants. Although they
*
are supposedly working toward a common objective, there is

intergroup competition and hostility. Protestants are pro-
testing against Protestants.
29
Admission must be made that,, as a church, the Adventists
recognize that they have an adversary. They identify that
adversary as Satan, but often times, by their behavior, they
extend this Satanic circle to include people of other reli-
gious persuasions. They reassure themselves of the fact
that they are Seventh-day Adventists and because of the
nature of their doctrines they must necessarily be in con-
flict with others. As Rozanne Ridgway said, in addressing
a "Woman's Day Colloquium" audience, "we continue to see our-
selves with particularized vision—this is our own vision of
ourselves. All nations act to promote their own preservation
as they see it" (15, p.l).
Members of the ghurch seem to determine for themselves
a compulsory conflict with other Christians and, in their
behavior, they go about seeking to self-fulfill this prophecy.
People sometimes work at cross-purposes, owing to differences
in background experience and the nature of the task, but
disagreements caused by "unguarded" speech must be avoided.
To advocate unpopular doctrines, like Saturday being
the Christians' Sabbath, is in itself a great point of dis-
pute with other Christians. To antagonize people by using
unpleasant remarks (as shall be seen under the discussion
"Terminologies") merely increases the difficulty of per-
suading those very same people. Ellen G. White says:
We profess to have more truth than other denominations,

yet if this does not lead to greater consecration, to
30
purer holier lives, of whaL benefit is it to us?

. . .God is dishonored by those who profess the
truth when they are at variance and enmity with
one another (20,p. 620).
This statement is reinforced by another from the same
author: "You have given the people the rich treasures of
God's word, but your manner has been so condemnatory that
they have turned from them" (18, p. 174). In the conflicts
between this church and other religious groups, each group
has been critical of the other. Each group sees the other's
members and ministers as "sheep thieves," and this condition
has led to the one holding the other suspect.
About three years ago special news was received from
the top executive of the church. His letter showed both
haste and anxiety. He was intimating all local churches
that one from another denomination was coming over to the
Conference territory with literature and that one had strong
influence. The administration's caution was that members
avoid literature infiltration, and listening to the ex-
pected missionary. This move suggested a closing-in of the
church ranks, an effort to tune-out other competing messages.
But when a similar action is taken by another religious body
against this church, the latter labels the action as uncouth
and cowardly. It should be remembered that the test of truth
is its ability to survive the market place of ideas. The
executive's countermeasures might have stemmed from three
factors: a sense of the members' inability to scrutinize

31
other people's publications and yet be loyal to their

church, a fear that members were not well and rightly fed,
and the fact the missionary was more qualified and per-
suasive than were the church's missionaries.
Differences in theological views often cause clashes
between pastors of different churches. The failure to co-
operate, the refusal to share in another church's service,
the public condemnation of another church's organizational
structure or the members and minister of that congregation,
may be a diatribe against Christianity. If clergymen and
church-oriented people fail to get along with each other
simply because they adhere to different faiths, how ef-
fective will be their witness to prospective members of
Christianity?
"The individual may become so engrossed with the in-
ternal structure and interpretation of.the norms," accord-
ing to Philip B. Applewhite, "that he loses touch with the
outside world" (1, p. 37). Very often one's reference
group dictates the way one hears a message. Because mem-
bers are suspicious of others and vice versa, they tend to
hear threats in the message and manifest a closeminded at-
titude and fear of associating with others. Their activi-
ties, whether they be religious or otherwise, are seen as
propagandistic. This has been partly responsible for the
psychological distance between and among the various
churches.
32
At times people fail to come close enough to hear,
and if they come close enough, they may fail to evaluate
the meaning behind what they hear. Sometimes members fail
to realize that what they are saying has symbolic meaning
for listeners. Words mean different things to different
people and the emotional state of the mind colors what is
being heard. Dale Carnegie remarks:
When dealing with people let us remember that we

are not dealing with creatures of logic. We are
dealing with creatures of emotions, creatures
bristling with prejudices and motivations by pride
and vanity. . . . And criticism is-a dangerous
spark—a spark that is likely to cause an explosion
in the powder keg of pride (2, p. 28).
Whenever a communicator arouses anger or resentment by
making statements which are regarded as offensive, the audi-
ence tends to develop unfavorable attitudes toward both the
communicator as well as the group, or the goals with which
he is identified.
Conflicting situations have been created by either direct
statements or statements which inferred that unless one be-
came a Seventh-day Adventist, he could not be "saved."
Little wisdom is displayed when spokesmen of the church leave
the impression that priority to the kingdom of God resides in
this church. What are the results of this type of polariza-

* ©
tion? First, within the church, there are feelings of superi-

ority , self-sufficiency, and complacency. Members of this
church may be saying like some of the New Englanders and their
early preachers said, according to Robert T. Oliver, that "God
33
had sifted a nation that he might send choice grain into

this wilderness" (9, p. 6). Special endowments bring cor-
responding responsibility.
The second result of such polarization takes on the form
of dogmatism. And dogmatism is an anti-social force. To
have strong convictions without being dogmatic might be a
Christian grace. To be closed minded in thinking and com-
municating makes the church intolerant of other viewpoints,
and erects a "wall" about itself. This predicament puts the
church at a tremendous disadvantage and freezes the inter-
religious climate.
A person's overt actions are usually based on how he
abstracts, how he perceives things. People become members
of the church according to the. assumptions they bring to the
situation. The perceived relevance and strength of their
points of judgments determine the attitude they will have
toward the proposition. As these persons change over from
a church to the Seventh-day Adventist church, or vice versa,
confusion and dispute are often generated. This transition
is viewed by the "losing" church as the action of a renegade.
Animosity builds up between the two church groups to the ex-
tent that literal opposition and controversy are practiced
in missionary work.
Interreligious problems crop up when members take to
"namecalling." This influences both their evaluation of
34
The•Seventh-day Adventist church goads its members on to
live up to. the name. "They expect it of us" is a common
expression. When each religious denomination lives up to
its name (and the name carries negative connotations for the
other church) , it often runs across the other denomination
To some people, the Seventh-day Adventist church equals .
"Judaism," while to other people the Baptists and Pente-
costals signify "excitement."
The Seventh-day Adventist church has been called a
legalist group partly because of its constant teaching of
what is generally known as "the moral law," and partly be-

* t
cause of its members' behavior, which seems to be motivated
by strict obedience to that law. In discussing church be-
liefs with people, a member of this church would unhesitat-
ingly and, perhaps, subconsciously, discuss the need to
"keep the law." An early mention of this "need" in a con-
versation may be both unnecessary and unwise, since this
topic irritates some persons of other religious groups.
The church teaches some doctrines that are held in common
with other groups, therefore, Haney points out that one 1
should "make the habit of distinguishing between labels and
things," and he continues, "don't permit the label t;o ob-
scure the Product" (5/ p. 195).
Adventists recognize that they are not the only in-
struments chosen by God for disseminating the Christian

35
of superiority or dogmatism, they will reject this im-

portant concept. The church must stand guard to exert
an influence among other Christians as will be congruent
with such a conviction, as well as to avert or reduce con-
flict with other religious bodies.
Should the members of the church be afraid to associate

with Christians of other denominations? If there are fears
.in doing this, one wonders whether the church is attractive
enough, and disciplined enough to allow its members to fel-
lowship with other religious groups and yet retain their
loyalty and obedience. Efforts to quarantine members from
the "bacillus" of religion will prove ineffective. The salt
must mix with the "menu" if it is to be useful and profitable.
If it loses itssaltness (either through indiscreet overuse
or indiscreet underuse), it will be good for nothing. Henry
A. Landsberger observes that the church needs
a laity that is committed to the church on the
basis of voluntary choice. . . . An active
laity, a responsive laity, a responsible laity,
one that is neither defensive in the face of
ideological opposition nor triumphal in posture
toward less dominant religious groups (7, p. 33).
The principles enunciated here may also apply to church
ministers.
< 0
Public Relations
Social to Save
Love and brotherly concern hold many organizations
together. In thinking of communicating messages to a
community, the communicator should consider-its social
structure, its people, and how the messages could be
listened to. Very important is the relationship between
the sender and the receiver. Walter Rauschenbusch remarks
that
the religion of Jesus had less to fear from
sitting down to eat with publicans and sinners
than for the immaculate isolation of the Pharisees.
It will take care of itself if mixed into three •
measures of meal, but if the leaven is kept stand-
ing by itself, it will sour hopelessly (12, p. 339).
If the church confines itself to theology and the Bible and
refuses to relate to the needs of individuals and groups,

its theology might soon become mythology and its Bible a
closed book.
Time is not wasted in the proclamation of the gospel if
the church is devoted to social aspects of the community.
Stuber points out that "we are going to be judged not by our
position or ecclesiastical status, but by the way we treat
our fellowmen on a day-by-day basis" (13,. p. 13).
Organized religion is under serious attack from many

quarters. It seems propitious, therefore, that religious
groups should cease attacking each other and unite forces-
behind Christian causes in social, educational, and com-
munity projects. The church has been concerned about the
welfare of people and has moved into the arena of service.
"Welfare/Dorcas Services," and "The Good Samaritan" are
good examples of the church in action. Activities of this
37
circles as well as among immediate recipients, but the

church needs to associate more with other groups in the
cause of society.
The church seeks to disseminate its message not only
among the economically deprived but throughput the other
strata of society. People must be able to apply their
religion in everyday life. Human nature cannot be satis-
factorily transformed by preparing people to live in heaven
while any supreme disregard for society's improvement is
evidenced on earth. Walter Rauschenbusch notes that
when the social relations are dominated by a
principle essentially hostile to the social con-
ceptions of Christ, antagonistic spirits of the
church and society grapple for the mastery. The
more such a hostile principle dominates secular
society, the more difficu.lt will be the task of
the church when it tries to bring the Christ-
spirit to victorious ascendancy (12, p. 309).
The Christian ethic rates bodily needs as the most
universally understood language of brotherly love. It is
part of the Incarnational character of Christianity. It is
perhaps the plainest form of service yet it carries an ade^-.
quate expression of the highest love. However, the church
providing help on a person to person basis is insufficient
to give it society acceptance. William Pleuthner says:
9
The measure of the vitality of any church is in

its integration in its own community . . . It
must adapt itself to the people about it, draw-
ing from them fresh energy and inspiration, and
giving to them the eternal values of life, in-
telligently and with careful consideration for
their own particular needs (11, p. 142).
38
There are many other levels of service beside that of •

providing for bodily needs. There are as many levels of
service as there are levels of need, such as education, com-
panionship, and aesthetics. The churchman as a Christian
has a responsibility of actively using his influence in
support of an adequate, efficient, humane, and non-polit-
ical administration of social welfare agencies.
When the broader social outlook widens the purpose of
the church member beyond the increase of his church, he lifts
his eyes and sees that there are others who are at work for
humanity besides his particular denomination.
"Common work for social welfare is the best common
ground for the various religious bodies and the best training
school for practical Christian unity" (12, p. 340), says
Rauschenbusch.
Whenever anyone cares for another, that one becomes
involved in the other's problems, he responds to his needs,
shares his difficulties, weaknesses and pains, and probably
even his guilt. The helper is very empathic. In order to
relieve a person's suffering, one needs to identify with
the person and try to understand what he feels.
One of the church's employees who served as both min-

ister and school teacher has said that he thinks the reason
why the church has failed in relating more effectively with
the public has been due to its seeming aloofness. This
39
happens when the church dc--:s not. iden. . ._;;sel£ . ' part
of the community in which it exists. He. "ies the chu.- -h as
having a subculture of its own, exclusive , the rest of the
world, and emphasizing "the other world" idc s.
As a religious organisation;, the church should seek

to educate and direct the social impulses be i within itself
and within society at large. It; should not • derrate or
cheapen its social significance. "The churc; " says Wil-
liam Pleuthner, "has a recognized the is tic (. >d-centered)
philosophy as its basic foundation," and alsc. "it has exist-
ing national auspices for its promotion and i tegration"
(11/ p. 145).
Because of these characteristics of the ocial work of

the church, it should view itself not merely a little
social group, a microcosm of society, but rath r as an in-
tegral part of society. In order that its memi =rs belong to
a church worthy of its name, they should be trained in the
art of living both on the social and individual levels.
Credibility of the Church

The church exists to communicate. If it is to deliver
its message to people, it has no option but to evangelize.
If its voice is to be clearly heard above today's message
competition, it will be by design and not by accident.
Proper lines of communication must be employed if the church

will penetrate the barriers of prejudice and apathy. Proper
40
methods of communication will help the church become more
effective and persuasive in its communicative role.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to separate a
message from its source, and to treat the message as if it
were a disembodied, theoretical abstraction. The hearer
perceives and evaluates the message and its source as one.
Supposing that the community had negative connotations to-
ward the church, the teachings of the church would very
likely be rejected. In short, the message is looked at
through the prism of the source.
The way the church is perceived by the public will both
determine and reflect the attitudes toward the church. Ac-
cording to Howard B. Weeks, "Whatever the public thinks of
the church may be a rude caricature of what the church
really is, but whatever the public thinks the church to be,
that it is so far as the public is concerned" (16, p. 10).
The Adventist church has enjoyed a certain measure of
community reputation in that it has been praised by some for
its interest in people, as well as for devotion to a reli-
gious cause. But the church has been ignored also by many
persons on the ground of self-interest and aloofness. Some
individuals have labeled it "a secret society."
When the church communicates it seeks to share its mind
with people. Those people, however, must first accept it as
an institution that is interested in them. They must see

41
life's situation. If the church iv.erely gains public at-
tention, this will not necessarily help. Rather, such
attention may have a.boomerang effect in that it may alienate
instead of persuade.
That the church is a friendly, understanding, helping
community unit must be communicated to the people. Motives
of friendship and public service need to be present and made
clear and verified. • The church's concern for human beings,
its attitudes toward society, its practices of goodwill, help
to determine its real character.
As its integrity is shared with the populace, through
various communication media, the church will win public con-
fidence and provide the background necessary to deliver its
message in appealing, convincing terms. "If effective com-
munication is employed," says Howard B. Weeks, "the church
will not be subservient to public opinion. In fact, it will
raise public opinion above half-truths, rumors, misunder-
standings and speculation" (16, p. 10).
The quality of the church's past performance has sig-

nificantly affected the credibility of the church's message.
This lack of performance quality has been due in part to the
dichotomy between members' deportment and the church's teach-
ings , and partly because of the paucity of church-community
interactions. Through conscious effort and effective com-
munication, the church can build a sympathetic audience in
the community. The church can multiply the number of those
who hear when it speaks.
42
Message Pi-sernination
Internal aspects.—Worship situations consisting of
departmental programs and church services constitute the
church 1 s internal mechanisms of message dissemination. The
departments carrying separate responsibilities are: "Sabbath
School," "Lay Activities," "Welfare Society," and "Mis-
sionary Volunteer" (a youth dept.). Each department, with
its duly elected officers and plans, prepares and presents
its programs. All activities are intended to convey Ad-
ventist Christianity with the intent to lead people to sal-
vation and active church membership.
Church services' are held in high regard and apparently
generate more reverence than departmental programs. How-
ever, Ellen G. White says that "to the humble, believing soul,
the house of God on earth is the gate of heaven. . . .
When worshipers enter the place of meeting, they should do so
with decorum, passing quietly to their seats" (20, pp. 491,
492) .
Church leaders believe that every service should give
a lift to every worshiper; that no one ought to leave the
church cast down and discouraged; and that no one acting a
part in the service should do so merely for his personal
gratification. They also hold that no feature within the
service should be of a frivolous nature because in the
audience are persons who need to be lifted "on high" through

43
prayer and supplication. Some need to be enlightened and
challenged, by the sermon. Others will gather strength and
courage by being in the fellowship of truly religious
people.
The church communicates in worship. The content and *
process in worship must be arranged and rearranged to meet
the needs of people. Some persons worship from a sense of
duty (deontological motivation) or a desire to do what is
right. Others worship from a desire to do what is good
(teleological motivation) in order to procure certain ends.
The church leader faces the problem of understanding
worshipers' motivations and needs. The leader need not plan
an elaborate service although worship from an aesthetic
point of view is important. He needs to plan the service
with his particular audience in mind.
Leonard Swidler says that "the essence of the liturgical
movement of our time is not to make worship fancier, but to
make worship a truer reflection of our understanding God's
dealing with man both in history and in present events"
0.4 , p. 257) . Worship can be a powerful experience. The
creation of this power, however, is contingent upon what
occurs within the worship experience and to what ext.ent ideas
and feelings are clearly communicated.
External Aspects.—In its broad sense, the areas cov-

ered in the external evangelistic spectrum include personal
44
contacts, public meetings, literature distribution, ed-

ucational programs, and medical evangelism.
If the internal phase of message dissemination does
not bring the church into contact with non-members, the
external aspect does. While "personal" and "public"
evangelism are two distinct fields of missionary effort
and can be dealt with separately, they will be approached
in this study from a single perspective.
The church has had many "victories" in her evangelistic

campaigns. This success has reinforced the belief that she
has been divinely called to proclaim a special message of
an eschatological nature. Better preparations for com-
municating the beliefs of the church would both increase the
number of converts as well as their level of motivation.
Most of the members who become missionaries 'do so with-
out much training and direct instruction on methodology.
This lack of training and experience becomes a serious

handicap and interferes with their effectiveness.: Ellen
I
G. White points out that "Members should not let slip even
one opportunity of qualifying themselves intellectually*to
work for God" (17 , p. 62) . Often times "missionajry opera-
tions are embarrassed for want of the right classj of mind—-
.
workers who have devotion and piety that will cortectly

represent our faith" (17, p. 61).
45
Another problem relates to the nature of the organiza-

tion that supports the missionary efforts. The secret of
success lies to a large extent in the ability to organize
and to maintain harmony. Various situations will demand
various approaches, different procedural, or psychological
structures. The organization will need to be basically
flexible and harmonious in order to deal effectively with
the diverse challenges and situations that it confronts.
The cause of Christianity as well as the cause of the church,
would be best served by members working together. As noted
by Ellen G. White, "if Christians were to act in concert,
moving forward as one, under the direction of one Power
(Christ), for the accomplishment of one purpose, they would
move the world" (22, p. 221).
Ail available means of persuasion need to be considered
as the church attempts to propagate its teachings. Minister,
as well as member, will find it necessary to put forth ex-
traordinary efforts through extraordinary methods in order
to attract the attention of people. When the church plans
to communicate, it must consider its intention, attention,
relationship, medium, and mechanics.
Intention.—What is the purpose of the desire to com-

municate? What is the church trying to accomplish through
a particular rhetorical effort?
46
Attention.--How best can the desired attention be
secured? How interesting must be the presentation? How
relevant must be the information? What needs must be rec-
ognized, identified with, and met through the various rhe-
torical strategies.
Relationship.--What barriers exist in the transaction?
How can they best be reduced or removed? What is the
social and psychological distance or closeness between the
sender of the message and the receiver of the message?
Medium.—What communication media are available to the
persuaders? Which would best suit the particular purpose
within the particular situation? How can any selected
medium be most efficiently and effectively used?
Mechanics.—What mental preparations have been made in
the process of planning the persuasive effort? What lines
of argument are at hand? How will the data be marshalled? •
What strategies will be utilized? How flexible can the
presentation be to adjust to the situation? What compro-
mises can be made? These are some of the aspects and areas
to be considered as the church embarks upon communicative
evangelism.
Hair-splitting exegesis destroys the very spirit of

the gospel and produces controversy instead of persuasion.
This controversy has been encountered often enough
47
to suggest need for a different approach. To calmly con-
clude that the doctrines as taught by the church are
peculiar or strange, and that therefore it can expect
opposition, seems a clumsy way of admitting weakness in
procedure. Not that differences of beliefs do not exist,
however, there is little wisdom in courting opposition when
it is unnecessary to do BO.
Great care should be exercised in guarding against
unnecessary disagreement. Over-stressing of minor points
of difference in denominational beliefs could be deleted from
doctrinal presentations without sacrificing principles. While
Bible workers agree with truth and commend its practice, they
will profit by teaching accurately, progressively, force-
fully, but never dogmatically. They must teach with author-
ity but never vaunt the authority to teach.
A very significant means of spreading the church's be-
liefs is that of the literature ministry. Pamphlets, maga-
zines, and books are circulated. The publishing department
of the church does much business in selling its publications
each year, and more literature evangelists can make a live-
lihood in this if they concentrate on the job as some do.
This department of the local conference reported a working
force of forty credentialed or licensed literature evange-
lists (4, p. 13).
Literature distribution campaigns are conducted as a
means of preparing the field for public evangelism. Generally,

48
great care is taken in the choice of subject-matter dis-
cussed in the pamphlets.for public distribution. Some-
times, however, there are ideas expressed in these papers
which do not coincide with those of other religious beliefs
held by the church.
In the conducting of evangelistic efforts, it is not
unusual for the evangelist to distribute literature relat-
ing to a particular subject. The rationale for the litera-
ture ministry is (1) that in the final period of the gospel
age "more than one thousand will be converted in a day, most
of whom will trace their first convictions to the reading
of our publications" (18, p. 693), and (2) that a tract may
penetrate an area where the living messenger may not go and
that angels of God are near to impress the unspoken word
upon one's heart.
The circulation of literature has done much good in
that it has been instrumental in leading people to a knowl-
edge and acceptance of the Adventist message. Scores of
members attest to this fact, including the parents of the
writer. Because this method of evangelism is effectual*
much more should be done to make more copies available to
more people, and in better readable form.
There is the question of the cost of some items of
literature. Many persons (members and non-members) have
verbally expressed that church literature should be less
expensive than it now is. Along with the rationale that

49
it takes money to print the literature is the. statement

that "they have the truth in them."
The church is a religious, soul-saving organization,
and anything that smacks of extortion and exploitation must
be avoided. This statement does not attempt to be overly
critical of the organization, but simply to recommend ways
to make literature more accessible to the public.
Examine the distribution procedure of Ambassador Col-
lege . This college of 1400 resident students publishes
magazines and books by the millions for free distribution
to the public. It operates "without endowment, without
government aid, with no grants from foundations" (8, p. 1).
This body of people asks members of the public to request
publications at no financial cost, and without remitting any
contributions for these except they personally desire to do
so. From internal financial resources > this college pro-
vides written material for the public, and it operates on
the assumption that "you can1t pay for your own subscription.
The analogy should be clear. The church solicits from

the public, in the first place, and it sells most of its.
printed material, which is "truth-filled," in the second
place. In the third instance, the Adventist church has the
reputation of the highest per capita giving among denomina-
tions (6 , p. 2).
Since great inroads in the population can be made
through the literature ministry, and since soul-saving is
50
the objective of the church, every possible attempt must be
made to make its religious writings reach the public more
easily.
In similar fashion,as the church converges intensively
and extensively on the public soliciting funds at "Ingather-
ing" time, it should return to the community expressing thanks
and distributing free, meaningful literature, like Signs of
the Times magazines. "The great task of the church today,"
says William P l e u t h n e r i s by a deepening of fellowship to
raise the laity from a preoccupation with finance to the level
of religious witness" (11, p. 275).
Terminologies
A copious supply of denominational terms are found in
the language repertoire of the church. When used in purely
Adventist circles they may be understood and even taken for
granted. The continual use of these terms, however, can
petrify prejudice and also lead members to operate on false
premises. The concept ''they are God's elect, " for example,
can lead to "I-am-holier-than-thou" behavior.
Some of these terminologies may be understood and ac-
cepted by other Protestant bodies, but may not be known by
non-Protestants. Other terms used by the church are of-
fensive to all non-members and the employment of these terms
exudes an odor of self-righteousness and religious elite-
ness. They appear to place the church on a higher pedestal

51
than other Christians when factually they are fellow

Christians striving toward perfection.
Although no evil has most likely been intended, the
use of certain expressions in communication detracts from the
message and makes listeners antagonistic. This has happened
many times in different places. One visitor to one of the
churches said a couple days subsequent, to her visit to
church service that she was not returning to the church.
When asked for a reason she remarked that the speaker made
allusions to non-Adventists as "outsiders" and "people who
are lost." . She was not of the Christian religion.
The church exists to win people, not to drive them; to
persuade people, not to antagonize them. It must "use whole-
some speech to which none take exception. This will shame
any opponent, when he finds.not a word to say to our dis-
credit" (Titus 2:8 N.E.B.). And the opponent may be attracted
to the point of listening favorably.
The following terminologies have been compiled accord-
ing to their strength of acceptance or rejection. Cate-
gory "A" consists of those terms which are used to describe
non-members and which are offensive to them. Category "B"
consists of those terms which are used to describe members
and the church. In some cases non-members take objection
to some of these because the exclusive usage by Adventists
savors of selfishness. Category "C" consists of those terms-
which are generally unfamiliar to non-members since they are
52
Adventist colloquialisms» Some of these may carry no
special connotation for non-member's.

A B
Strangers Sheep of His pasture Sojourners
Worldlings God's people Sister White
Unbelievers Abraham's seed Newborn babes
Heathen Servants of God Missionary Volunteers
Outsiders Citizens of heaven Pilgrim pathway
Unholy people Salt of the earth Watery grave
Outcast Light of the world Running the Christian
Ambassadors of Christ race
Stewards The Ordinances
Children of the King The preached word
Daughters of Zion The mercy seat
Sealed of God Spirit of Prophecy
People of Zion Advent Movement
Chosen people Advent message
God's elect Advent people
The called'-out people
A sanctified people
We the;people of God
We the: remnant
People;with the truth
for|these last days
. Sabbat^. keeping people
Covenant keeping people
Peculiar people
Beautiful flock
Spiritual Israel
Household of faith
Fold of God
Ark of safety
Remnant church
In communicating messages, the adoption of the "third-'

person-attitude" will help the speaker to follow the princi-
ple of objectivity. He should avoid strange denominational
terms which have little meaning or tend to generate ani-
mosity. If it becomes impossible to avoid the use of un-
familiar terms, then they should be explained. "M.V.'s,"
for example, means Missionary Volunteers but of course the
outsider wouldn't know that.
S3
, The church must be able to wrap up its message .in an
attractive package and compete for the attention of the
eyes and ears as well as the minds and hearts of the mul-
titudes . If the voice of the church cannot be understood,
then it will do little good. Stanley I. Stuber remarks
that
theological phrases must be rephrased in ordinary

speech. The ecclesiastical language of a genera-
tion ago.cannot be grasped by the younger genera-
tion of today. We must again sit at the feet of
the Master and learn to tell the gospel story in
simple yet vivid language (13, p. 34).
Recommendations
~ »
The church is a part of society and has a stake in the
social crisis of the times. It must, in practical terms,
help stay the disintegration and decay of society or be
carried down with it. The church will enjoy new status and
increased impact if it plays a more realistic role in so-
ciety . It needs a vital and continual interest in the total
of human life.
To help the church play a more effective role in so-
ciety , the following are recommended. The church should
have special programs and projects that relate to special
events in the nation, and to other current interests. Here

. * m
are some examples: special days as "Temperance," "World

Prayer Day," and ."Independence Day" should be observed.
These special days' observances will serve to identify the
church with the community.
54
Lecture series should be given on topics of church

and public interest such as physiology, sociology, religious
freedom, alcohol and.society, religion and health, Christian
education, television and morality, and youth-objectives and
motivations. Speakers with some expertness on the topic can
be featured. This will be regarded as a public service and
will have a ring of authoritativeness by virtue of special
studies that have been made or at least by the unassailable
qualifications of those speakers (X6, pp. 86, 87).
Special services or perhaps social receptions featuring

visiting missionaries, new pastors, or visiting church dig-
nitaries should be conducted. Invitations could be circulated
to persons actively interested in field work as represented
by the visitor.
Health clinics may provide charity medical service or
medical service at reduced cost. Educational programs on
healthful living can be conjointly conducted by some church
groups,.as have been sponsored by Seventh-day Adventist
churches in Sydney, Australia, Hyattsville, Maryland, and
Los Angeles, California r p. 90).
The church should organize or help to organize, a "United
Churchmen's Club." This club represents the union of men's
efforts of various churches. It attempts to bring men to-
gether in Christian fellowship and action, and helps laymen
to render more effective Christian service in their everyday
55
lives and .occupations. The club encourages churchmen to
strengthen the life and work of th'eir local churches.
Beyond these purposes, the United Churchmen1s Club
provides an effective means for sharing successful experi-
ments within the different communions. William A. Pleuthner
says that a club like this "fosters interdenominational com-
munity cooperation between both the clergy and the laity
throughout the nation" (11, pp. 49, 50).
Another area where the church can make a contribution
relates to the institution of a Ministerial Association. . One
phase of the Association can take the form of a seminar in-
volving discussions of an intra-church ministerial character
while the other phase can accommodate inter-church ministerial
interests.
Ministers and workers of one denomination should know
those of other religious groups as personal friends and
brothers of one great family. Friendship and love break,
through barriers. Pastors have many great concerns in com-
mon in that they are concerned with great Christian princi-
ples like brotherhood, peace, goodwill, and social justice.
As they collaborate for a common interest, they develop a
sense of oneness, and, as a result, personal animosities are
decreased.
In addition to the church's initiating contact with
ministers outside its working force, it should encourage its
workers to attend other religious conferences and conventions
56
and, as far.as possible, participate actively in the meetings,
"Love thy neighbor as thyself" may for churches be para-
phrased "love other religious groups as you love yours,"
Interaction will provide new friendships, new experiences,
new capabilities, and new horizons, As a means of providing
the opportunity for personal meditation, an "open door" plan
should be organized. A section of the church may be opened
daily to the public in oider to accommodate those individuals
who are interested. Some type of self-selective music sys-
tem could be designed so that a facilitating atmosphere could
be created.
As visitors enter the vestibule they may choose to con-
template oh scriptural themes, as "The Sermon on the Mount,"
or they may decide to listen to music like "A Mighty For-
tress." It may be .that they will want to intersperse read-
ings and hymns. This community service can be advertised
through various news media. On the outside of the church may
be placed a sign which reads "Church Open for Meditation," or
"Select Your Own Music." The Chula Vista Adventist church
in California has this type of program and became known:as
a friendly church, a church offering its sanctuary as a place
of community worship. The membership of that church has
doubled in two years (16, p. 86).
The utilization of the local radio is another avenue
for the church to communicate with the community. The world
is undergoing a communications revolution. There seems to

57
be a battle for men's minds perhaps more significant than
the struggle in Vietnam and the Middle-East. The church
regards the conflict for the domination of the human soul
as one which has eternal implications.
Time is running out so that what was not communicated
yesterday must be communicated today for there may be no
tomorrow. The church should "let every advertising agency
be employed that will call attention to the work" (21/ p..36)
If the church used the radio several purposes would be
served. First, it would win listeners to the Adventist
faith. Second, it is a means of instructing in Christian
living, and'third, programs can be presented which would
familiarize people with the life, language and worship of
the church. Through this message medium the church can be-
come a friend of the community.
While continuing to be in touch with the man in the
street, the church must make positive, direct efforts to
communicate its teachings to leaders, professional people,
the higher classes, and the influential. Ellen G. Wfcite " •
observes that
those who bear heavy responsibilities in public

life—physicians and teachers, lawyers and judges,
public officers and business men—should be given
a clear, distinct message. . . . And there are-
some who are especially fitted to work for the
higher classes (21, pp. 78, 81).
Some of these men are endowed with special powers of
organization which are needed in the execution of the work

58
of the church. The enlistment of such people will exert

a favorable influence on others of their caliber.
Until now the literature which is circulated by the

church caters for the spiritual needs of the average
populace. The organization should take a step forward
by providing special.literature that will meet the spiri-
tual needs of the more intelligent, sophisticated class of
society. Ellen G. White says that "the truth should be
presented in a manner that will make it attractive to the
intelligent mind" (19, p. 414).
Among the professionally trained ministers of the local

Conference, there are those who can perform this type of
literary service to the community. A. R. Tippett points
out that "the value of academic training lies not in mental
exercise or in mere interest, but in its ultimate validity
and applicability in a missionary ministry" (10, p. 148).
The church should make more conscious effort to train
its active missionary laity in the principles of communica--
tion pertinent to evangelism. Respect for other people
should be developed regardless of their religious affilia-
tion. Talking with people rather than talking down to them
must be the attitude of workers. Although differences of
opinion are held, there should be an acceptance of the other's
viewpoints as much as is possible.
Perception varies from person to person. The same object
may be perceived differently by two observers. The difference
59
of perceptions rests with the observer and not the observed.

Each person's perception of an object is a highly specialized
abstraction of that thing so that no one should claim ability
to see all things.
Instead of trying to win an argument, the missionary .

communicator should seek to win the goodwill of people. It
is better not be conqueror and maintain friendship than to
be the victor of a Pyrrhic battle.
Conclusion
This chapter has identified conflictual or competitive
situations which exist among different religious groups. It
has shown that a constellation of forces has been at work to
militate against the expected unity of Christian bodies.
Religious groups are composed of and administered by men.
Consequently, even a "spiritual" organization can be victimized
by human error and weaknesses.
The chapter revealed the concept that by being inte-
grated with society, the church will experience a high credi-
bility which will enhance its effectiveness in transmitting
its message. The recommendations are an attempt to reduce
or isolate friction.
The following chapter discusses the complexitie's in
culture and how misunderstandings among individuals of dif-
ferent cultures can result in communication loss. The chapter
also presents solutions to intercultural problems.
1. Applewhite, Philip B., Organizational Behavior, New

Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965.
2. Carnagie, Dale, How To Win Friends and Influence People,
New York, Pocket "Books, 1958.
3. Coffey, Cecil, The Wider Circle, Tennessee, Southern
Pub. Asso., 1963.
4. Gibson, Jesse 0., 10 7th Annual Statistical Report of
Seventh-day Adventists, Washington D.C., 1969.
5. Haney, William V., Communication: Patterns and Incidents,
Illinois, Richard D\ Irwin Inc., 1960.
6. Herndon7i Booton, The Seventh Day, New York, McGraw-Hill
Book Co, Inc., 1960.
7. Landsberger, Henry A., The Church and Social Change in
Latin America, London, Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 19 70.
8. Letter from Herbert W. Armstrong, Editor, Plain Truth
Magazine, November 27, 19 70.
9. Oliver, Robert T., The History of Public Speaking in
America, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965.
10. Olson, Gilbert W., Church Growth in Sierra Leone, Grand
Rapids, William B. Eerdsman Pub. Co., 1969.
11. Pleuthner, William Augustus, More Power For Your Church,
Mew York, Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952.
12. Rauschenbusch, Walter, Christianity and the Social Crisis,
New York, The MacMillan Co., 1914.
13. Stuber, Stanley I., Public Relations Manual for Churches,
New York, Doubleday and Co. Inc., 1951. '
14. Swidler, Leonard, Ecumenism; The Spirit of Worship,
U.S.A., Duquesne Univ. Press, 1967.
The Daily Lass-o, March 30, 19 71.
1,6. Weeks, Howard B. , Breakthrough, Washington D.C., Review
and Herald Pub. Asso., 1962.
61
17. White, Ellen G., Christian Service, Washington D.C. ,

Review and Herald Puo'. Asso. , l9"47.
18. _, Evangelism, Washington D.C., Review and

Herald Pub. Asso.", 19 46.
19. , Testimonies for the Church, Vol. I,

California, Pacific Press Pub. Asso., 1948.
20. , Testimonies for the Church, Vol. V,

California, Pacific Press ~Pub. Asso., 1948.
21. , Testimonies for the Church, Vol. VI,

22. . , Testimonies for the Church, Vol. IX,

CHAPTER IV
COMMUNICATING CHRISTIANITY IN A
MULTICULTURED SOCIETY
The differences of race and culture have, through the

centuries, divided mankind into many groups. Although
modern communication has put the rest of the world at our
doorstep, it has not united the various cultures and sub-
cultures. Some difficulty is experienced when one person
from one country tries to enter into the background of
another country.
What seems very obvious to a person from one country or
group may not be immediately accepted by an individual from
another area. Friction and misunderstanding can easily de-
velop . In seeking to understand people, great effort and
skill must be exercised. We need to put ourselves in the
other person's particular historical and cultural background
in order to understand his frame of reference and resulting
behavior.
In a sense, human characteristics are more "in-bred"
than "in-born." When we think of one's temperament, per-
sonality, interest^ and character, we almost simultaneously
begin to think of where he grew up, what people he was asso-
ciated with, and what his habit-patterns and norms happened to be.
63
Intercultural Communication and its Barriers

Whenever a message is communicated across cultural
boundaries it is encoded in one context and decoded in
another. VJhen a message is despatched across those, bound-
aries the possibility exists of receiving it in a manner
that was not intended. Various cultures possess various
modes of thinking, which, of course, would be reflected in
their respective communicative system. Because of the
tremendous importance of intercultural relationships in
modern society, it is necessary that we achieve a better
understanding of the ways different cultures communicate.
Intercultural communication processes are not only

contaminated by the particular situation and the task in-
volbed in the message transaction, but by the traditional
standards and traditional expectations of the cultures in-
volved. Alfred G. Smith says that "the difficulties in
intercultural communication vary with the differences in
social organization between the cultures and also with the
content of the message communicated" (8, p. 566).
Every culture has its individual manner of thought-and
its preferred interest areas which provide the subject mat-
ter for its thinking. The barriers that separate nations
* *
and ethnic groups do not so much stem from language dif-

ferences as from cultural differences. In short, the tra-
ditional thought patterns contained in cultural systems are
even more restrictive and "foreign" than vocabulary and
64
grammar. In order to communicate effectively one must

penetrate down into the substratum- of people's thoughts and
feelings.
The Nature of Culture

It is unwise for us to assume that we are fully cog-
nizant of what we communicate to someone else. Because of
the tremendous distortions existing in our world today, mean-
ings differ as men try to communicate with one another.
Edward T. Kail says that "one of the most effective ways to
learn about oneself is by taking seriously the cultures of
others. It forces you to pay attention to those details of
life which differentiate them from you" (i, p. 54).
Culture provides a design for living, a plan according
to which society adapts itself to physical, social, and
ideational environments. Cultures, then, are but different
answers to essentially the same human problems. What cul-
ture generally does for a particular group of people is that
it brings a distinct lessening of tensions and provides the
organization, balance, security, and satisfaction necessary
for its existence.
Paul Kleppner says that
any society or societal system consists of a
variety of analytically distinguishable, but
functionally interrelated, subcultures. The
operation of the system as system depends upon
the relationships which exist between each sub-
structure as well as upon those of substructures
(2 , p • 1) »
65
No two cultures are identical, while it is theoretically
possible for two cultures to carry the same content. In
each cultural situation the content is organized differently,
just as it is possible to have two buildings of the same
material but each having a different appearance.
In dealing with culture and interculture relationships,'
we need to note that there are both overt and covert cul-
tural manifestations. Overt culture envisages "all the
shared ideas or patterns that become externalized through
movement and muscular activity, while covert culture in-
cludes the .latent patterns of belief, thought, and evalua-
tion" (3, p. 63). The ideal as well as the real culture,
the theoretical standards as well as the actual behavior,
constitute the entirety of a life-style. Hence, the dif-
ficulty looms up in fully understanding what we as partic-
ipants are communicating to others and what others are com-
municating to us.
In organizing the cultural pattern, experience and laws
are needed. Experience is not formed in the abstract, as a
mode, separate and distinct from culture. Experience is
something man projects upon the outside world as he gains
it in its culturally determined form. There are laws
governing patterns: laws of order, selection, and congru-
ence. Man, as a cultural being,is bound by hidden rules and,
typically, he is not the master of his fate. Man is bound

66
as long as he remains ignorant of the nature of the hid-

den pathways that culture provides for him (3, pp. 143, 144).
Assumptions of Culture
All human cultures, in spite of their diversity, have,
basically, a great deal in common, "These common aspects,"
says Frank Moore, "are susceptible to scientific analysis"
(4, p. 42). Founded on scientific analysis, the following
seven basic assumptions have been formulated.
Culture is learned.--Culture is not instinctive or

innate or transmitted biologically, but is composed of habits
that .are learned tendencies to react, acquired by each indi-
vidual through his own life experience.
Culture is inculcated.--All animals are capable of

learning, but man alone seems able in any considerable
measure to pass on his acquired habits to his offspring.
Inculcation involves not only the imparting of techniques and
knowledge but also the disciplining of the child's animal
impulses to adjust him to social life.
Culture is social.--Habits of the cultural order are

not only inculcated and thus transmitted overtime; they are
also social, that is, shared by human beings living in or-
ganized aggragates or societies and kept relatively uniform
by social pressure. They are group habits. The habits which
67
the members of a social group share with one another con-

stitute the culture of that group."
Culture is ideational.--To a considerable extent, the

group habits of which culture consists are conceptualized
(verbalized) as ideal norms or patterns of behavior.
Culture is gratifying.--Culture always, and necessarily,

satisfies basic biological needs and secondary needs de~ •
rived therefrom. Its elements are tested habitual techniques
for gratifying human impulses in man's interaction with the
external world of nature and his fellow man. Culture con-
sists of hiBits- and habits persist only so long as they
bring satisfaction. Gratification reinforces habits, and
strengthens and.perpetuates them. Lack of gratification re-
sults in their disappearance or extinction.
Culture is adaptive. ---Culture changes, and the process

of change appears to be an adaptive one, comparable to
evolution in the organic realm but of a different order.
Culture tends, through periods of time, to become adjusted
to the geographic environment, as the anthropogeographers
have shown, although environmental influences are no longer
conceived as determinative of cultural development. *
Culture also adapts through borrowing and organization
to the social environment of neighboring people. Finally,
cultures tend to become adjusted to the biological and
psychological demands of the human organism.
68
Culture is integrative.--As a product of the adaptive
process, the elements of culture tend to form a consistent
integrated whole. Integration takes time—there is always
what is called a "cultural lag" (4, p. 47)—-and long before,
one process has been completed, many others have been
initiated.
Plural Culturalism
There is no one basic unit or elemental particle, no
single isolate for culture, for culture is not one thing, but
many. To have a previous acquaintance with one culture may
be of great help in understanding a similar culture. How-

* 1
ever, such acquaintance can become a source of preconceived
ideas and, as a result, can be misleading. "The uniqueness
of cultures," says Louis T. Luzbetak, "must be kept in mind.
Cultural similarities are not cultural identities, similar-
form does not imply identical meaning, function and usage"
(3, p. 69).
In intercultural communication experiences, communica-
tors sometimes "trip over cultural ropes" (8, p. 565) be-
cause of enculturation (cultural indoctrination which makes
one blind to other possible ways of behaving). This en-
culturation can be said to be a habit formation which aims
at making a person the master of his society's plan for
living. Then the culture of his particular group becomes to
him a sort of second nature.

69
Communicators across cultural lines encounter cultural
jolts, such as the "strange" eating or hygiene habits of a
people or their "unpleasant" forms of etiquette. A proper-
adjustment to these jolts is expedient for the communicators.
On the other hand, if these cultural surprises are improperly
handled, they can deteriorate to cultural shocks for the com-
municators . Whenever a communicator is "tossed about fran-
tically and hopelessly until he succumbs to cultural frus-
trations (jolts), and suffocates" (3, p. 84), cultural shock
occurs.
Two patterns of behavior usually characterize one who
is culturally shocked. He would take flight in either (1)
clinging blindly and'immovably to his original ways, or (2)
blindly and indiscriminately renouncing his former ways and
values in favor of the ways and values that are attributable
to the cultural shock to which he is yielding. In either
case he suffers a "breakdown" resulting from improper ad-
justment to cultural frustration. Any reaction that is
blind and unreasoned, and any reaction that is but a sub-
conscious escape from culturally disagreeable environment
leads to cultural shock. Comparable to cultural shock for
the intercultural communicator is "shell shock" for the
soldier, and "stage fright" for the stage actor.
The locus of culture, however, is in the mind and is
not in the external world. Nevertheless, culture reflects
how "reality" is perceived and understood. Culture is

70
dynamic and changing because the bearers of culture, "the
architects.of the cultural blue print," are alive and making
constant changes in the accepted norms.
In addition to culture being a changing mirror o£
"reality," it is a societal possession, thus making it supra-
individual . Individuals of society cease to exist but so-
ciety continues. While a person is not a society, he is
more than an individual. He is a member of an interacting
group, and as such, he is affected by group influences.
Messages across cultural boundaries will'need, to be despatched
in terms of the cultural patterns, norms, standards and reg-
ularized guidelines for behavior.
Mass communicators would to well to keep in mind that
cultures are frequently divided into subcultures, each with
its peculiar content, structure and inner logic. In forget.-
ting that it is quite possible to reach a limited subgroup
without in the least influencing the rest of a society, the
mass communicator will be making a grave mistake. A mes-
sage intended for an entire society because of its nature
or style may reach the educated class while, simultaneously,
the masses may be overlooked. Again, city people may be
reached while the fa.rmers may be forgotten. Unless com-
munication is geared to the life-way, underlying assump-
tions, values and goals of either a culture or subculture,
it will fail to inform, convince, and persuade the group.

71
The following examples will serve to illustrate the

diversity that exists within various cultures.
Japan.--Very rarely do the Japanese have to wonder what

to do when faced with the question of being loyal to the
family or to the Emperor. "Japan never lacked for a flow
of eager volunteers for Kamikasi duty, even though dying
for the Emperor meant leaving a family destitute back home"
(7, p. 81), Obedience, conformity, and the fulfilling of
obligations are codes of preference, not individuality or
the pursuit of happiness.
Burmese interpersonal behavior;—To instill the mean-

ing of authority, the attitudes toward the exercise of
authority, and the role of individuals in personal con-
flictual situations, the following are some of the guiding
principles:
Clear-cut conflict is to be avoided. Authority
is not to be directly challenged, unless one is ready
for battle and the eventful outcome of either total
victory or .total defeat.
When there is trouble, an outstanding grievance,'
or a sudden attack, catching the antagonist unawares
is the way to proceed. . . . %
To get or use power requires coalition formation,
and allies are sought against figures of power, for
numbers outweigh authority.
To get a decision implemented or a request ful-
filled with which an individual is reluctant to comply,
force must be used. Any challenge to authority re-
quires coercion (5, p. 273).
Buddhism.--"The goal of every individual life is to lose

its uniqueness through entrance into Nirvana—the blessed
72
state in which independent existence is no longer a neces-
sity" (7, p. 148). Countries like the United States of
America, place cultural emphasis on the individuality of
every person.
Latin America, North America and other'countries,—
The time-communication. If a Latin American made an appoint-
ment with a North American there could be quite a difference
in arrival due to a difference in culture. The former would
arrive forty-five minutes after the given time and find
nothing wrong with that, while waiting beyond five minutes
of the appointed time would exasperate the latter. Alfred
G. Smith says,
In the American (U.S.A.) culture discussion is a

means to an end: the deal. You try to make your
point quickly, efficiently, neatly. . . . For the
Latin American, the discussion is a part of the
spice of life. Just as he tends not be overly
concerned about reserving you your specific seg-
ment of time, he tends not as rigidly to separate
business from non-business (8, p. 568).
Time schedules are closely followed by Americans. They
indicate priorities. Not meeting these deadlines carries
penalties such as unreliability and lack of integrity. "But.
to mention a deadline to the Arab may be "like waving a red
flag in front of a bull."
The space-communication. Sometimes Americans talk
about foreigners being "pushy." All this may mean is that
foreigners are not handling space relations "properly." In
the United States, the standing distance for an adult male

73
is about two feet. For the Latin American this distance

impresses him with "coldness." Edward T. Hall, in The
Silent Language says that
the flow and shift of distance between people as
they interact with each other is part and parcel of
the communication process. . . . one person trying
to increase the distance in order to be at ease,
while the other tries to decrease it for the same
reason, neither one being aware of what was going
on (if p. 205).
The place-for-e very thing-communication. In America '•
"business can be discussed almost anywhere, except perhaps
the church. One can even talk business on the church steps
going to and from the service" (8, p. 570). In India, one
might jeopardize his chances of effecting a satisfactory
business relationship if he talks business while visiting a
person's home. •
It is a traditional law that political subjects should
not be discussed by a politician when speaking on university
grounds. Mr. Nixon (then Vice-Pres.), had made plans, in
American traditional culture, to improve relations with the
University of San Marcos through face-to-face discussion.
His interpreter was dressed in full military uniform at1a
time when some Latin Americans had recently overthrown.mili-
tary dictators. But this procedure was unacceptable to the
University of San Marcos, Peru (8, p. 571). Failing to
meet cultural demands creates cross-cultural misunderstand-
ings. Without a removal of cultural frictions, further
74
problems can arise thus leading to potentially violent
confrontations between countries. .
Messages may be accepted (in whole or in part), dis-
torted , or rejected. Each response of the person or group
is largely based on the frame of reference, and every re-
sponse is calculated to maintain or regain homeostasis.
Adjustment for balance is based on the selection of certain
ways of thought, .attitudes, and actions. This selection is
not haphazard and is usually in harmony with the "soul" of
the culture. Further modifications of those selections are
sometimes made in accord with the particular gestalt con-
figuration,., as perceived by the individual.
The dominant premises, values, and goals which permeate
the various aspects of a culture give that culture "oneness."
In order to communicate effectively with people of different
cultures, Luzbetak gives a useful list of clues to the under-,
lying set of themes in almost any given culture. Inquiring
into the following will be valuable:
1. The self-image of the society and whom it con- . .

siders to be a good person.
2. The violent resistance to innovation.
3. The native educational context and motivation,'•
the lessons and warnings given to small chil-
dren, the instructions given to youths during
initiation rites.
4. Arguments between tribesmen, husband and wife,
etc.
5. The scoldings, reprimands, praises, given es-
pecially to youth.
6. The factors that contribute to feelings of
security.
7. The factors that contribute to a preferred
status.
8. The content and motivation contained in the
arguments of native agitation.
75
9. The reasons for dissatisfaction and criticism.

10. The object of violent hate and condemnation.
11. The assumptions, motivations, general line of
reasoning observed in meetings and court ses-
sions .
12. The behavior which the more severe sanctions
aim to control.
13. The type of sanctions feared most.
14. The more serious worries.
15. The severest insults and the most'painful type
of ridicule.
16. The chief aspirations.
17. Occasions of war.
18. Motives of suicide (3, p. 160).
In his communicative role, the messenger needs to modify
his approach to'the local set of themes. Subsequent to as-
certaining authentic information of actual cases in the above
stated clues and others, he may want to draw up a list of
such themes and tentatively assume that they represent what
he has been referring to as the people's "strange mentality."
To a large extent the communicator's speech and inter-
action with people of a culture, other than his own, should
come as close as possible to their local configurational
system. Let us use the Middle Wahgi (New Guinea) mentality
as an illustration of the theme-theory.
Some underlying themes. .. *
Assumption 1: The ultimate norm for "good" or
"bad," "right" or "wrong," is the clan.

Corollary A: "Outsiders" have no rights.
Corollary B: The clan is always right*
Corollary C: Personal rights and advantages
are subservient to the clan.
76
Assumption II: Security is. found in the clan

alone.
Corollary A: Good prosperity and prestige
is all important.
Corollary B: Every clan member is vitally
important to the clan.
Assumption III: Successful living consists in close
cooperation among all clan members, as well as the departed
and those yet unborn.
Corollary A: Cooperation among the living is
emphasized.
Corollary B: The living members are utterly
dependent upon the departed.
Corollary C: The departed clan members are
dependent upon the living for
their happiness in the ancestors'*
land, the other world.
Assumption IV: Man's most important material pos-
session is the pig. Without the pig native life would be
impossible. . .
It will be perhaps superfluous to say even once that any
"foreign" communicator attempting to communicate in his home-
style to a community as cited above courts failure. A mis-
sionary whose religious persuasion both prevents him from
dealing with pigs and permits him speaking against them does
77
to the minds of those Middle Wahgi people, special effort

will have to be made to tailor his message to fit them.
Any ignorance on the part of the messenger in this respect
will be an unpardonable sin with them.
Culture Change
As was stated before, the locus of culture is in the
mind, in the ideas one has. It would then be necessary to
propagate new ideas 'if there is a desire to effect a change
of culture. The one who is expected to change his culture,
must change his assumptions. His mental constructs, the
strength of his cognitions, and the perceived relevance of
his points of judgment, must be changed. If the influence
of his cultural context is overpowering, then his desire for
receiving "outside" communication will be frustrated. Any
messages that must be transmitted to him must be sent through
the channel to which he is tuned.
All messages create a response. Some responses are

visible while others are not. Feedback enables the communi-
cator to know whether the response from the message receiver
is favorable or otherwise. Some responses may not give an
accurate picture of the person's intention since people op-
erate on both the implicit and explicit levels of meaning.
But the messenger, if he has no way of differentiating them,
will have to go ahead and treat them as a whole, as a mes-
sage package.
78
If the messenger discovers that his message is not

accepted or if the communication is short circuited (or
crossed), he will need, through the monitoring process
(cybernetics), to adapt his message. The nature of the re-
ply will give him a clue to making the appropriate method-
ological adjustment to bring about a change in response.
In seeking to introduce change through cultural or
intercultura.1 communication, the communicator needs to
recognize that change is usually resisted by people who de-
sire to persist in their "old" ways. Cultural change may
be dealt with from different angles: (a) extent of change,
(b) rate of change, (c) object of change, and (d) manner of
change. The communicator must recognize the type of change
these people are ready to make and be able to persuade them
if he so desires.
Extent of change.—(persistence and change)

General persistence. In this instance, the people of a
particular culture make efforts either to limit change or
resist change in a wide area of cultural life.
r
i-
Sectional persistence. This type of change affects only

certain "hard parts" of the way of life. A group may be in
favor of technological change, but this takes place only in
certain areas of cultural group.
Token or partial resistance. This form of resistance
is a special form of sectional persistence. For example, a
wake is now held in a funeral home rather than in the parlor
79
of the relatives. The latter was formerly the custom.

The use of horses is•now generally' restricted to military
funerals.
Survivals. Innovations of this type are culture traits,
or complexes that have, with the passage of time, changed their
function and have become mere convention or formality. An
example of this form of "survival" is the continued use of
buttons on coat sleeves although they no longer have func-
tionality.
Rate of Change.
Revolution. Revolution is a form of change which is
suddenly precipitated with more or less violence, affecting
a considerable portion of a culture. This change is often
generated by the lack of monumental change over a long period
of time.
Style. This type of change, in contrast to revolution-
ary change, is rather short-lived and consists of insignifi-
cant modifications in a single cultural element. The annual
but relatively minor auto changes which occur in our society
illustrate this type of change.
Long-term trend and cultural trend. In the case of the
former trend, an insignificant modification takes pl'ace in a
single cultural element but over a long time. In the case
of the latter trend, the process exists where minor altera-
tions slowly change the character and form of any way of life,
80
but where the continuity of the event is apparent. This
may be contrasted with historic accidents—the more abrupt
innovations.
Object of change.-—Culture changes may occur in content,
structure, or configuration. It may affect.the form, mean-
ing, use or function of the trait, complex, institution, or
of even a wider range of customary behavior.
Manner of change.
Substitution. Traditional elements are dislodged by
new ones—the gas light has been dislodged by electricity.
Substitution may be complete or partial.
Loss. The dislodging of a traditional pattern is ef-
fected without simultaneously providing a substitute.
Incrementation. This takes place by introducing addi-
tional elements into the culture without a corresponding
displacement.
Fusion. This is the amalgamation of an innovation with
an analogous traditional pattern'—the Neo-Melanesian or
"Pidgin-English," a true language that has resulted froxp a
communication between the native and the white man in
Melanesia (3, pp. 198-202).
Culture-change Processes.—Culture does not consist of
individual actions but of socially approved standards and
norms. Deviations from socially shared patterns may come

81
through individuals but the deviations must be given social

approval before they emerge into norms.
Aspects of change.—There are three aspects of change.

They are: primary, secondary or integrative, and terminal.
The primary aspect consists of two types: origination and
diffusion. .In origination, changes arise through processes
from within a society, while in the case of diffusion,
changes stem from processes outside the society.
Diffusion is of many kinds: (1) the stimulus which
occurs when an idea is borrowed, (2) the gradual or rapid,
(3) the objective or technical, in which instance the object
itself may diffuse, or the technique of producing the object
may be adopted, and (4) the strategic or non-strategic, which
depends on whether or not there is the need for.extensive
preparations.
Furthermore, diffusion may assume active or passive
forms. This type of diffusion depends on whether the bor-
rowing society must participate in or merely enjoy the
novelty-. Example: Trinidad steel-orchestra music in the
United States is a passive diffusion, while Americans—
eating Trinidad cassava—constitutes an active diffusion.
Diffusion, like origination, may take place in regard
to form, meaning, and usage or function. In addition, its
object may be a simple trait, a complex system, an insti-
tution, or even a combination of institutions.
82
Mechanical disruptions in communication equipment can

be a source of transmission problems. The system itself
may fail to function properly, thus bringing hardship on
either the sender or the receiver of the message. Dif-
ficulties can be experienced because of an electrical fail-
ure in the power supply or in the reception system.
But these are not the integral problems which really
cause communications setbacks either on the cultural, so-
cietal, or intercultural level. The core of the problem
lies within the style, attitudes, and presumptions of the
communicator on the one hand, and the attitudes, values, and
group-concepts of the communicatee on the other. The mis-
understandings in communication are more psychological and
attitudinal than physical and mechanical.
Teaching Christianity Without Imposing Culture

Irrespective of his particularized task, the mission-
ary can be considered a professional "builder of a better
world." Like other builders, he constantly needs "his
tools—his plumbline and his level—lest the building which
he is constructing get out of line or even collapse" (3,
p. 4). The plumbline may be likened unto his particular
understanding of truth in the various forms—theological,
scientific, and philosophical.
The communicator who functions as a Christian mission-
ary does so within cultures other than his own. "He does
83
not deal with culture in the abstract," Luzbetak notes, "but
with individuals (psychological aspects) who live in a given
society (sociological aspects) and share a common way of
life (culturological aspects)" (3, p. 5). As he operates
within cultures which are foreign to him, he needs to be on
guard not to contaminate his message with his own culture
which is foreign to the local society. A missionary typi-
cally seeks to modify some behavioral aspects of the par-,
ticular cultural group with whom he is working. This alter-
ation, however, should reflect the purity smeared with the
ways of his own ethnic and domestic culture of his message
and not the 'unique features of his own ethnic and cultural
background.
For example, if an American missionary is working in
India, he should produce "India" Christians instead of
Americanized Indian Christians. A missionary from Trinidad '
would be over-reaching his boundaries if he attempted to
make Portuguese converts into "Trinidad" Christians. 'Any
given society has a right to its own national distinctiveness
and its own unique culture, no matter how strange they may
appear to be to others.
Missions and missionary communicators must, therefore,
be conversant with how the mind and ways of a people change.
They should know how such change might be predicted, directed,
and maintained, as well as how changes could be introduced
with a minimum of cultural disorganization.

84
Cultural Implications of Conversion

The turning of one's back on the "old" ways and the
espousing of "new" ways is one approach to the defining of
Christian conversion. This change presumes more than the
acceptance of externals and theoretical creeds. It in-
volves a wholehearted embracing of new ways, new premises,
values and goals. It affects the convert's social and
domestic life. In fact it touches on every sphere of his
daily activity. The transition, therefore, becomes a living
part of his cultural organism.
Since culture change is a complex.process, the com-
municator should implement the principles of "cultural rele-
vancy." He has to change as well as preserve traditional
ways. He will have to be an expert with respect to culture
in general, and a specialist in regard to the habits and
values of prospective Christian groups•in specific.
In order to be effective, a missionary needs more than
personal piety. A knowledge of what to accommodate is vital,
All the why's, latent and manifest, objective as well as the
f
|v
supposed and attributed, must be investigated. Basic to

effective social action are the following steps by Luzbetak
(3, pp. 13, 14): First, a missionary should have a proper
understanding of the socio-cultural context of a particular
country. This means both knowing what the particular so-
ciety or group does and why it does it. Sometimes the why
is more difficult to arrive at than the what. Sometimes
85
the attributed functions are not really objective. The

reason given sometimes for wearing' a charm is that it saves
the wearer from drowning. Objectively, the charm will not
keep the wearer afloat. In spite of this, the charms serve
an objective purpose in the given culture in that it inspires
self-confidence and functions as a source of security.
Second, a missionary, in order to be effective, should
adjust his approach to local ways and values. Social action
must be relevant to what the local people believe in, what
they value and do. Their needs, their values, and assump-
tions, and not the missionary's, should, within all possi-
bility, determine his interpersonal and professional approach
toward the socio-economic betterment of the people. The
•
adjustment requires recognition, appreciation, and sometimes

adoption of some of their "shocking" attitudes and practices.
Self-sacrifice will be often required of the missionary. It '
will take some tolerance to accept the "grotesque" local art
and music (like the "shango dance" and "Indian hosein" in
Trinidad) as do the local people. Even the "filth" and
"smell" of "Shanty Town" will require the missionary's ap-
preciation.
True native leadership and local cooperation should be
sought by the missionary. The "natives'" acquaintance with
the socio-cultural situation in which he finds himself
should be solicited. This step should be taken whenever pos-
sible and whenever prudence will allow.
86
Facilitating conversion within a cultural context,

then, calls for understanding, accommodation, and self-
denial of the missionary communicator.
Christianity Through the Cultural Context

The missionary is seeking to teach Christianity within '
a given culture instead of attempting to force change. There
must be a desire on the part of the people for change. There
must also be meaningful communication if conduciveness to
change takes place. Meaningful communication here x*elates t.o
the transmission of messages on the proper "wave-length" of
the people.
Very generally, messages sent from an "outside" culture
are structured in terms of that culture. In intercultural
communication,the receiving society may try to interpret
those messages in terms of the.sending society. This, how- ,
ever, is hardly the case in regard to the missionary's mes-
sage. It is usually interpreted and misinterpreted within
the cultural experience of the receiving society. There is
a substantially greater chance of the message remaining^un-
altered and being properly understood if the communicatioii
takes the receptor's cultural background into account.
Conviction, persuasion, and effective argumentation are
needed by the missionary but not the cultural premises,
values, and motives of the missionary. In wishing to com-
municate the Gospel, he must proceed from the known to the
87
unknown, from the felt to the still unfelt, from the wanted
to the unwanted. The use of culturally pertinent "start-
ing points" of. reasoning, feeling, and motivation are needed
in bringing about conviction and persuasion.
Throughout all the action and interaction of the mis- •
sionary communicator, the focus must be on the group's or
tribe's cultural propensity to accept Christian doctrine.
The basis of missionary empathy is the understanding of the
culture as an adaptive system. The culture of any people,
however "pagan" it may be, is an attempt'by that people to
cope with the peculiar problems they confront.
The missionary who views culture with proper under-

standing will cease to see the particular people and their
customs as strange and ridiculous. He will be less inclined
to become discouraged in the presence of opposition, lack
of cooperation, and scant courtesy. However unscientific
and untheological the non-Christian adaptive system happens
to be, it is the way of life with which that society has had
experience and can therefore really trust.
Suspicion, resistance, rejects, and self-preservation
may be generated by natural and normal drives and desires
instead of ill-will. Although the Gospel is designed for
all nations, it may be natural for a society to suspect and
resist the missionary's message than to gladly accept it.
Regardless of the type of information the missionary
is attempting to communicate, the local culture and not
88
"foreign" culture must be the point of concentration. The '

following guidelines may illustrate this concept more clearly.
First, the message should be presented as a suggestion that
can perfect and complete the traditional adaptive system,
and not as an isolated, arbitrary set of laws, or a dangling.,
competing system.
Second, Christianity should be explained as a method of
assisting mankind in adapting itself to the problems of life
in a meaningful'and successful way. In this sense, doctrine
!
should interm^sh with, and not be separated from the fuller

development of life itself.
Third, missionaries should study the traditional adapt-
ive system of a particular culture in order to locate the
people's felt needs. They will accept only that part of the
overall Christian message that relates to their own needs
and fits within their own cultural framework.
An example of this problem has been .encountered by this
writer in Trinidad and, no doubt, the situation has occurred
in many.other places as well. Many among the East Indians
of Trinidad feel no sense of guilt in terms of sin from the
Christian standpoint. To initiate a Bible lecture series
on the "Redemptive Aspect of Christ" would be very discon-
certing and meaningless to Muslims. But the very Person of
Christ may have values they can quite easily identify with.
This is especially true of his humanitarian qualities. These
89
people do not see they need the Christian's Christ as a

Savior, but they would be interested in Him as a good man.
What is the missionary's task then? He should deliberately
and intelligently start from the aspect favorable to them
and move on to the culturally more difficult and less ap-
pealing aspects of Christology.
Communication through the cultural context must be '
expanded to include the subcultural segment. Roman Catholi-
cism and Protestantism of Trinidad constitute religious sub-
societies. The point may be further complicated when
Trinidad Adventism is declared a subculture of the Protestant
subsociety. Each of these is a subculture of the subcul-
tural forms of Trinidadianism.
In explaining Adventist views to Catholics or to other
Protestants, or even when attempting to bring about a highly
desirable unity among Christians, the missionary communicator
faces a serious challenge. He must recognize that in such
an activity, one is obliged to cross subcultural boundaries
even if that one does not leave the Trinidad shores.
People are separated not only in religious faith but
%
also in religious culture. Consider a typical case. In

Trinidad some Indian people would kneel in their yards and
turn in the direction of the sun as they pray. There is a
difference of religious faith and also a difference of re-
ligious culture. Again, when Mohammedans go to their mosque
to worship, they take off their shoes at the entrance of the
90
service building. This is another case of not only dif-
ferent faith but of a different culture. And all is per-
formed on the same island.
In order to understand these and other people, and to
be effective in communicating with them, the same anthropol-
ogical principles and techniques should be used as are
applied to people of a foreign country. Each genuine group
speaks its own cultural language.
The communicator who fills the capacity of a mission-
ary must use his mind and the mind of the local people as he
strives toward cultural integration. Here are some criteria
for judging the thoroughness of cultural integration and for
indicating to what extent the missionary has become a part
of the native life-style (3, pp. 181, 183, 188).
First, the number of linkages that exist between the
missionary's message and the people's life experiences is
an important factor. Severed functions must never be ig-
nored, otherwise the corresponding needs will be filled in
some other, un-Christian (usually traditional) way.
Second, there is the matter of the degree of consis-
tency that emerges. A major missionary task is to "engi-
neer" or direct this unavoidable "nativizing" or "pagan-
izing" tendency so that during the process no necessary
element of Christianity is lost or distorted. Accommoda-
tion here, however, is a two-way procedure: on one hand,
mission and missionary adjusting to the local life, and,

91
on the other, the "new" Christians adjusting to the ways

of the church.
The extent of reciprocity is the third important factor.
The extent of reciprocity between essential Christian ways
and the native patterns will indicate how thoroughly or how
superficially Christianity has been integrated into the
local culture. The greater the reciprocity, the more in-
tegrated is the culture. Reciprocity should be encouraged
by the policies and techniques adopted.
Integration of the ideas from one culture into the ex-
perience of another will not always follow a comparatively
smooth path. Cultural disorganization sometimes occurs thus
rendering both the work of the missionary and native accept-
ance of it critical. Frustration may be experienced. The
local group may demonstrate a type of reaction formulated
through nativism—the effort to restore group integrity,
self-respect, and solidarity.
The missionary faces the responsibility of helping to

restore cultural organization. The disorganization may be
caused by contact with a vastly different life-style, urban-
ization, and industrialization or migration. This is a
tremendous task which the missionary cannot handle alone,
but he must aid in finding a solution to the problem. He
needs to seek help from sources such as government, philan-
thropic foundations, the mission staff, anthropologists,- — -
92
and other helpers. Any appropriate source of help should

be sought whenever and wherever possible.
Social as well as personality conflicts may emerge from
uneven social change and cultural lags. Lapses into tradi-
tional ways, which are contrary to the missionary's tech-
ings, may occur. The convert may be torn between two loyal-
ties in an "approach-approach" configuration. On one hand,
he must be loyal to the new Christian principles, and, on the
other, to his tribe or kin or country.
The convert may be torn by a conflict not easily appre-
ciated by one outside the experience in particular and the
culture in general. The missionary may have difficulty
understanding a particular personal problem of a convert be-
cause the problem is culture-related instead of being a
universal one. The missionary, in a counseling experience,
could have to be cautious about providing too quick or too
easy a solution.
Recommendations
The missionary serving in intercultural communication
capacities is vulnerable through cultural shock. Because, of
this, the new missionary should be given an orientation into
the psychology of the particular mission territory prior to
his commencing any work among a people whose basic assump-
tions, values, and goals may differ from his.
93
The mentality of the local people should be frequently

discussed with missionaries, government officials,and other
foreign workers who have spent a considerable amount of time
in the particular area, To aid him in properly assessing the
mentality of the particular people, the missionary should
gear his approach to the local set of themes. A list of
these themes appears earlier in this chapter.
In areas where people operate as groups, missionaries
should present Christian beliefs and practices in terms of
group-concepts and group-values since the various assump-
tions and themes of these people are group-centered. The
following wi'll serve as examples.
Instead of referring to the "church," the missionary
should say "Christ's clan." In place of "church members,"
or "Christians," use "members of Christ's clan."
The natural clan includes not only the living but those
in the other world. The missionary can talk about "Christ's
militant clan" (the present stage of the church); "Christ's
suffering clan members" (church members now dead); and "the
triumphant clan members" (the ultimate meeting of the past,
present, and future church members) .
The "saints" are the "clan heroes" some of whom died
(martyrs) while others were outstanding through their singu-
lar attachment to their clan-ideals. Faith could be expres-
sed as a clan obligation. An obligation of being interested
not only in self, but in actual members, and in those still
unborn should be stressed (3, p. 167).
94
In order to build comnvanicative relationships between

two opposing cultures, certain approaches should be used.
First, the rhetoricians should locate areas of agreement which
can be used as a background for the acceptance of differences
that are causing friction and tension.
Second, the participants in the missionary effort
should become sensitive to differences, accept the existence
of uniqueness, arid recognize the existing similarities.
People think differently and their thought patterns are re-
flected in their behavior. Intercultural communicators need
an awareness of other cultures not only in terms of what they
think but also "how they formulate their ideas" (7, p. 86).
Jawaharlal Nehru remarked that "if we wish to convince
them, [people of other countries] we have to use their lan-
guage as far as we can, not language in the narrow sense of
the word, but the language of the mind" (6, p. v).
Third, the communicators should instigate a controlled
exploration of the types of presentation that will increase
understanding. In this connection, Robert T. Oliver point's'
out that "if we would communicate across cultural barriers,
we must learn what to say and how to say it in terms of the
expectations and predispositions of those we want to listen"
(7, p. 154).
Fourth, indigenous leadership should be utilized where
it is possible and wise. The missionary should encourage
95
are.a number of special advantages. First, native leader-

ship is culturally conditioned for the environment in which
he operates. Local converts understand the people, speak
the local tongue and share the local way of life. Second,
the problem of effective communication disappears, as well •
as the problem of using premises and motivations that have
force and meaning to local people. Third, the problem of
having to make adjustment for the people's life-style, such
as food, dress, entertainment, and social relationship ceases
to exist.
Finally, the church should provide (a) evangelistic

workers for the ethnic-groups represented by the foreign
languages extant in the country, and (b) literature in the
languages of those ethnic groups.
Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter has been to show that (1)
there are many cultures and subcultures within any given
society, (2) culture is learned, therefore, it is teachable,
transferable, and changeable, and (3) in bringing about de-
*r
sired changes in morality and religion, it is necessary to

affect changes in other aspects of culture. Some cultural
habits reside in the core attitudes, and are virtually im-
possible to change.
The second part of this chapter demonstrated that while
missionarv communications are cultural chancre aaents. th^i r
96
paramount duty as such is to adapt their messages to the

cultural system of the people and not to impose their
culture instead of the purity of their messages.
The final portion of the chapter offered suggestions
which could be used by missionaries and others involved
in cross-cultural communication.
1. Hall, Edward T., The Silent Language, New York,

Doubleday and Co. Inc., 1959.
2. Kleppner, Paul, The Cross of Culture; A Social
Analysis of Midwestern Politics, New York, The
Free Press, 1970.
3. Luzbetak, Louis T., The Church and Cultures, Illinois,
Divine Word Publications, 1970. • •
4. Moore, Frank W., Readings in Cross Culture Methodology,
New Haven,. Hraf Press, 1966.
5. Nash, Manning, The Golden Road to Modernity, New York,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965.
6. Nehru, Jahwaharlal: Visit to America, pp. 58, 59, cited
in Robert T. Oliver, Culture and Communication, Illinois,
1962) , p. v.
7. Oliver, Robert T., Culture and Communication, Illinois,
Charles C. Thomas (Pub.), 1962.
8. Smith, Alfred G., Communication and Culture, New York,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966.
Q7
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
For over three quarters of a century the Seventh-day

Adventist church has been in Trinidad. From the day the
first Adventist minister put foot on Trinidad soil to the
day when the church has over 233 workers within the ter-
ritory, the church has been striving towards the realiza-
tion of its goals. The church has been rising and falling
in terms of successes and failures, both in terms of planned
projects and making converts.
The experiences which the church has been having from
the religio-sociological point of view are common to all
human organizations. To a greater or lesser degree, this
church has stayed alive because of the built-in confidence
and security it possesses in the minds of some dedicated
workers.
This study has sought to locate and identify the factors
%
relating to the church's effectiveness in the prosecution-of

its missionary task. The purpose of this final chapter is
(1) to briefly summarize the information contained in this
thesis, and (2) to make suggestions for future research. The
second portion of the summary makes suggestions for future
research.
9R
99
Summary of this Thesis

This thesis has been divided into two sections. The
first section, covered by Chapters II and III, attempted to
project the image of the church in the context of a many-
cultured nation.
That the church faces problems has been shown in Chapter
II. The first locus of problems is within the church itself.
Within the organizational framework there is considerable,
information loss due to the existence of gatekeepers. The
presence of this form of communication-filtering has inter-
rupted free thought and, in some instances, prevented the
making of more intelligent decisions on both the executive
committee level and the individual member-worker level.
The sub-division dealing with the climate within the
church demonstrated that although there are sighs of member-
satisfaction and high group morale, there are behavioral
patterns of discontent and hostility.
Attention has been given to the question of would-be
converts and post-baptismal converts. Observation was made
of the fact that new converts soon become "members anony-
mous," and this circumstance partly accounts for their
apostatizing.
The last part of the chapter was concerned with the
setting of goals and the hazards which are attached to that
process. While goals are useful and relevant to the operation
100
of any social unit, displacement and over emphasis of

goals affect the real goals as well as the quality of the
product.
Chapter III was broken down into two portions. In
the first portion, sharp focus was given to (1) the church •
in conflict with other religious groups, (2) the need for .
the avoidance of deliberate and unwise activity which re-
sulted, quite-often, in unnecessary group friction, and
(3) the presence of high ego involvement has brought on
polarization.
The second portion of the chapter examined the rele-
*»
vance of the "social to save" approach. Inasmuch as men
must first learn to live and practice living harmoniously
on earth before they can live in a celestial society, this
portion of the chapter stressed the church's need to teach
the practical aspects of everyday Christian living. This
last area of the chapter hypothesized that if the church in
its public relations exercised more selectivity in evange-
listic methodology and terminology, it would elevate its
credibility and augment its membership more rapidly. - "*
Chapter IV concentrated on (1) the principles of inter-
cultural communication, and (2) the "accommodation method"
to be followed by the missionary communicator in teaching
Christianity instead of imposing his culture on the poten-
tial converts.
101
The chapter contended that unfamiliar!ty with a
particular culture, more often than not, results in com-
munication breakdowns. It was also shown that cultural
lag and uneven social change may produce social and per-
sonality conflicts.
Finally, the chapter discussed the importance of
precise and well-designed messages in maximizing the impact
of a communicative effort.
Areas for Future Research
In our western society each individual is encouraged
to make decisions on his own. This is especially true among
Protestant bodies. This cultural trait is reinforced through
the breakdown of family ties and greater mobility. For this
type of social structure the emphasis on individual con-
versions would be recommendable.
But taking full cognizance of the,fact that some ethnic
groups within the western world retain distinctive cultures,
an area for future study of "People Movements" is essential.
Kenneth Scott Latourette notes that
more and more we must dream in terms of winning "*.

groups, not merely individuals. Too often with
our Protestant. . .individualism we have torn
men and women, one by one, out of the family,
village or clan, with the result that they have
been permanently de-racinated and maladjusted
(1, p. 18).
Men respond to the Gospel invitation in various ways.
These responses are dependent upon the people's social back-
ground and customary manner of making decisions. The East

102
Indians in Trinidad, for example, usually make decisions
in groups. There is solidarity and interdependence. De-
cisions are usually made after consultation with others, and
there is less social alienation and more reinforcement through
social cohesion to stand up under persecution.
Two examples from this writer's experience in Trinidad
will illustrate this point. The Mykoo family, consisting of
nine individuals, heard and accepted the Adventist teachings.
They may have had problems of adjusting to a new life-way,
but they were able to withstand a considerable amount of ex-
ternal social opposition.
David Charan, also an Indian and an intelligent man,
accepted the Adventist teachings but was taunted, despised,
and considered inferior by his relatives. Not only did he
leave the traditional religion to join another, but he also
adopted a new'set of cultural habits reflected in different
eating, drinking, and worshiping habits.
The experience of missionaries in attempting to com-
municate theological and social sytems from one culture to
another may provide us with the insights necessary to pro-
mote understanding and progress between and within nations.
Cultural antropologists have called our attention to the
dangers of ethnocentrism both at home and abroad. An under-
standing of message diffusion within a culture or sub-culture
could eliminate a number of friction-points that are more or

103
less the product of the failure to recognize the uniqueness

and importance of cultural norms.
In short, the missionary experience of a number of
religious groups should be carefully and systematically
examined. The principles of intercultural communication
that would emerge "could serve to increase our skill and
ability to deal with various types of intercultural situa-
tions—political, social, and economic, as well as religious,
1. Olson, Gilbert W., Church Growth in Sierra Leone,

Michigan, William" B. Eerdsman Pub. Co., 1969.
104
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Applewhite, Philip B., Organizational Behavior, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965.
Bryson, Lyman, The Communication of Ideas, New York, Cooper
Square Publishers, Inc., 1964.
Carnegie, Dale, How To Win Friends and Influence People,
New York: Pocket Books, 1958.
Coffey, Cecil, The Wider Circle, Tennessee, Southern Pub-
lishing Association, 1963.
Etzioni, Airiitai, Modern Organizations, New Jersey, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1964.
Hall, Edward T., The Silent Language, New York, Doubleday
and Company, Inc., 1959.
Haney, William V. , Communication: Patterns and Incidents,
Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Inc., 1960.
Herndon, Booton, The Seventh Day, New York, McGraw-Hill
Co. Inc., 1960.
Kleppner, Paul, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis
of Midwestern Politics, New York, The Free Press, 19 70.
Landsberger, Henry A., The Church and Social Change in
Latin America, London,, Univ." of Notre Dame Prqss, 19 70.
Luzbetak, Louis J., The Church and Cultures, Illinois,
Divine Word Publications, 19 70.
Matthews, Shailer, The Church and the Changing Social Order,
New York, The Macmillan Company, 1909.
Moore, Frank W., Readings in Cross Culture Methodology, New
Haven, Hraf Press, 1966.
Nash, Manning, The Golden Road to Modernity, New York,
—r John Wiley and Sons , Inc. , 1965 .
106
Neufeld, Don F., Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia, Vol. X

of Commentary Reference Series, edited by Julia Neuffer,
Raymond F. Co tt. re 11," Donald"~EManse 11 and George A.
Selivanoff (10 volumes), Washington D.C., 1966.
Nieuwenhuijze, C. A. .0. Van, Cross Cultural Studies,
Netherlands, Mouton and Company, 196 3.
Northrop, F. S. C., and Helen H. Livingston, Cross-Cultural
Understanding, New York, Harper and Row (Publications)",
1964.
Oliver, Robert T., Culture and Communication, Illinois,
Charles C. Thomas (Pub".) , 196 2.
, The History of Public Speaking in America,
Boston, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965.
Olson, Gilbert W., Church Growth in Sierra Leone, Michigan,
William B. Eerdsman Pub. Co., 1969.
Pleuthner, William Augustus, More Power for Your Church,
New York, Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952.
Rauschenbusch, Walter, Christianity and the Social Crisis,
New York, The MacMillan Company, 1914.
Smith, Alfred G., Communication and Culture, New York,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966.
Stuber, Stanley I., Public Relations Manual for Churches,
New York, Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1951. •
Swidler, Leonard, Ecumenism: The Spirit of Worship, U.S.A.,
Duquesne University Press, 1967.
Weeks, Howard B., Breakthrough, Washington D.C., Review and
Herald Pub. Asso., 1962.
White, Ellen G., Christian Service, Washington D.C., Review
Herald Pub. Asso., 1947.
, Evangelism, Washington D.C., Review and
Herald Pub. Asso., 19 46.
, Testimonies for the Church, Vol. I,
California, Pacific Press Pub. Asso., 1948,
, Testimonies for the Church, Vol. V e
10 7
White, Ellen G,, Testimonies for the Church, Vol. VI,

California, Pacific Press Pub. Ass~o. , 1948.
, Testimonies for the Church, Vol. IX,

Articles
Armstrong, Herbert W. (ed.), The Plain Truth: A Magazine

of Understanding, (November 27, 19 70), p. 1."
Sayles, Leonard, "Why Isn't It Easier?" reprint from.

Supervisory Management, American Management Association,
(June, 1969), p. 9.
Reports
Gibson, Jesse 0., 107th Annual Statistical Report of Seventh-

day Adventists, Washington D.C., 1969.
Grimshaw, Joseph, Secretary's Report, 28th Biennial Session

of the South Caribbean Conference, Trinidad, 1969.
Unpublished Materials
Beck, Don Edward, "Communication Through Confrontation: A

Case Study in Intergroup Conflict Reduction," an un-
published paper presented at the International Com-
munication Association, Phoenix, April, 19 71.
Newspapers
The Daily Lass-o, March 30, 1971.

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THE ADVENTIST MOVEMENT IN TRINIDAD: A CASE-STUDY

Df.snl of the Graduate School

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

For the Degree of

Augustine B. Noel, B.A.

II. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

III. EVANGELISTIC METHODOLOGY 28

Intercultural Communication and its

In the annals of history men have been projecting them-'

Innovation is the life-blood of organizations. New

If this observation was true years ago, its veracity is

Trinidad and Tobago constitute an independent state

(since August 31,. 1962) within the British Commonwealth.

This territory accommodates the local headquarters of

In 189 3 Charles D. Adamson went to Trinidad from Antigua '

Intercultural Problems in Trinidad

The Adventist church in Trinidad baptized over 1,359

Statement of the Problem

Purposes of the Study

1. Gibson, Jesse 0., 107th Annual Statistical Report of

The functions and motions of the church will be dealt

The local church works in close cooperation with its

There is a combination of presbyterian and congregational

also, because of a time element. In a special sense, these

conference officers are "gatekeepers." It cannot be denied

that someone must be responsible for passing on the relevant

data, but the time, amount, and type of information released

put message recipients at a disadvantage.

Men in those positions of trust are usually men of some'

ability and'integrity. Does this, however, preclude the

possibility of their expressing things through their percep-

tive field? There have been instances when executives have

given information that was inadequate. It is necessary to

gate of discussion and investigation according to: (1) their

faithfulness and stability in their reproduction, (2) the

amount of interest or lack of it they manifest by even un-

wittingly changing the emphasis of the information, and (3)

the amount of systematic distortion (through deliberate bias)

or random distortion (through careless or ignorant bias)

Pastor X received correspondence from one of the ex-

ecutors who took enough time to state to the pastor that he

would receive certain financial allowances because of a

certain type of arrangement. But this executor did not pass

on any information which would enlighten the minister on what

assistance he should expect. There is a policy which

governs that type of employment agreement. The official

did not think it necessary to impart adequate information,

terms of expressions, (b) a cursory reading or limited

impressive missionary experiences, and periods of prayer.

a leader for church violation. However, such disciplinary

Although a beautiful and accurate picture is painted

Some departments within the church tend to cater to

to non-members when those within the church cannot

are visited constantly and invited regularly to services.

The divulging of members' confidences to others

also members of the "Lay Activities" department. These

goals. In the last biennial session of the church (1969),

Action to achieve the primary goal may carry acceptance,

extension" campaigns, or some fund-raising project, have