Module 2 (IEL)

Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment (1972)

The right to a clean environment is a fundamental right under Article 21. In the international scenario,
the United Nations conference on the human environment or popularly known as the Stockholm
Convention was the first major UN meeting to deal with environmental issues and to declare that the
right to live in a healthy environment as a basic right.

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

In 1968-1969, the General Assembly, by Resolutions 2398 and 2581 decided to conduct the
conference. The Stockholm Convention was held in Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. The object behind
this convention was to “create a basis for comprehensive consideration within the United Nations of
the problems of the human environment,” and to “focus the attention of Governments and public
opinion in various countries on the importance of the problem.”

This convention led UNEP to coordinate global action for the protection and preservation of the
environment in December 1972.

Many issues were resolved before the actual conference by the countries to limit the number of issues
during the convention. This was primarily done by the conference secretariat. The conference
secretariat headed by Mr. Maurice F. Strong planned the conference meticulously.

The convention adopted the following:

1. A basic declaration containing a set of common principles to aid the people in protecting and
conserving the environment.

2. A detailed resolution for financial and institutional arrangements for environmental

protection.

3. An action plan containing 109 recommendations. This aims to identify and quantify the
environmental problems, warn about any crisis, and to adopt supporting measures, by
establishing an Earthwatch.

At the end of the convention 26 principles were adopted and declared by the participating states. This
is known as the Magna Carta of the human environment.

Significance

The declaration is divided into 2 parts. The first part contains seven truths about man and his
connection with the environment. It also contains general observations, such as that men are both
creators and molders of their environment. The protection of the environment is a pressing issue. It is
the desire of the citizens of all the nations and the responsibility of all the governments to protect and
preserve the environment. The second part contains 26 principles which form the basis of the
international policy for the protection and preservation of the environment.

Principles of the Stockholm declaration

The 26 principles or the Magna Carta on the human environment are dealt with in great detail. For
better understanding, the principles are grouped on their applicability and enforceability. They are as
follows:

Human-centric (Principles 1 and 15)

Principle 1: Rights and Responsibilities for protecting the environment – Humans have the right to
use and enjoy nature. The right to enjoy nature is not unfettered, it is coextensive with the duty to
protect it. Art. 21 of the constitution also safeguards the fundamental right of a healthy environment.
This principle also explicitly bars discriminatory laws.

Principle 15: Human settlement and Urbanization – Planned settlements and urbanization are
required. They reduce the adverse effects on the environment. The goal is to secure maximum
benefits for all through planning. All discriminatory plans are also barred.

Sustainable development (Principles 2, 3, 4, 5, 13 and 14)

Principle 2: Duty to protect natural resources – Natural resources are limited. We must use natural
resources carefully. Preservation of resources depends on effective planning and management.

Principle 3: Duty to preserve renewable resources – Although renewable resources are not
depletable, their preservation is necessary for their quality.

Principle 4: Wildlife Conservation – A combination of factors is responsible for endangering wildlife.

Humans have a special responsibility for protecting wildlife. The inclusion of conservation of wildlife
in economic planning leads to sustainable development.

Principle 5: Duty to preserve non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources are exhaustible.

They are valuable resources. Exercising care and caution is necessary to prevent them from
depletion

Principle 13: Rational Management of Resources – States should adopt rational methods to manage
the resources and to improve the environment. An integrated and coordinated approach is
preferable.

Principle 14: Rational Planning – Conflicts between development and conservation are reconciled
with rational planning. Development and conservation must go hand in hand.

Reflection on customary international law position (Principle 21)

States have the absolute authority to use natural resources according to their policies. However, their
policies shouldn’t violate the principles of international law and cause damage to other states outside
its jurisdiction.

Preventive actions (Principles 6,7,8 and 18)

Principle 6: Management of pollution – Pollution is harmful to the environment. Discharging toxins

and other substances in large quantities are harmful to the ecosystem. Both the citizens and the states
should play an active role in reducing the dumping of harmful substances.

Principle 7: Management of sea pollution – The states should reduce sea pollution by taking
necessary steps to prevent substances hazardous to human health, marine life, and the legitimate
uses of seas.
Principle 8: Social and Economic development – The improvement of social and economic conditions
is necessary for a better living and working environment. Improvements shouldn’t affect the
environment in any way.

Principle 18: Application of science – Science and technology are indispensable in today’s life. They
are used in almost every industry. Science and technology are also applicable to the conservation of
the environment. It is useful for identifying and controlling environmental risks. They are useful for
finding solutions for environmental issues.

Compensation to Victims (Principle 22)

The States should join to further the scope of international law for prescribing liability for those
harming the environment. States should also come together to compensate victims of environmental
pollution or damage.

Cooperation (Principles 24 and 25)

Principle 24: Cooperation with nations – Although each state has exclusive jurisdiction to legislate on
internal matters, international cooperation is necessary for the holistic improvement of the
environment. States must recognize that environmental problems affect all the states equally. By
multilateral and bilateral agreements states can control, prevent, and reduce environmental risks.

Principle 25: Coordination with nations – Coordination between states is crucial for alleviating the
existing conditions. The states can jointly coordinate actions and plans for improving existing
environmental conditions.

Other principles

Principle 11: Environmental Policy – The environmental policy of every nation should be progressive.
The policies of every state must enhance and complement each other. The policies shouldn’t restrict
or adversely affect developing countries. National and international organizations should strive for
better living conditions for all without affecting the environment.

Principle 19: Education in environmental matters – Education is one of the tools to spread awareness
about the pathetic state of the environment. The underprivileged, poor, illiterate should have access
to education. Education broadens the mind. Awareness about the existing conditions is necessary so
that people can jointly tackle environmental matters.

Principle 20: Expanding scientific research – Researching and developing methods nationally and
internationally is important to tackle environmental problems. There must exist a system where
information and research can flow easily across nations. Countries must also control their spending
on scientific research without burdening the economy.

Principle 9: Environmental Deficiencies – Natural disasters and underdevelopment lead to

deficiencies. Navigating through such deficiencies is difficult. Requesting technological and financial
assistance to supplement the local efforts leads to a quicker and effective remedy.

Principle 10: Stability of prices and incomes – Stability in the prices of essential commodities and
stability of income is essential for the environmental management of developing countries. Economic
factors are also part of the environmental process.

Principle 12: Education on environmental protection – Environmental protection is the need of the
hour. Every citizen should understand the importance of environmental protection. Adoption of a
suitable medium like social media, print media, etc is crucial to spread awareness about environmental
protection.

Principle 16: Population Control – In areas where the population is excessive and is likely to affect the
environment, the states can implement policies to control the growth of the population. These policies
shouldn’t violate basic human rights. In today’s world overpopulation is one of the major reasons for
the depletion of natural resources.

Principle 17: Setting up of national institutions – States should establish national bodies for the
control and management of environmental resources within the state.

Principle 23: Implementing a national agenda – The states may find that certain procedures and rules
may not align the value system of the country. In that case, the states need not follow such a
procedure. The states are also exempted if such procedures cause unwarranted social costs.

Principle 26: Ban on nuclear weapons – Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons. They
cause more damage to the environment than any other weapon. All the nations should come together
to ban nuclear weapons.

Effects of the convention

The Stockholm convention paved the way for other international conventions on the preservation of
the environment such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora
and Fauna, 1973. In the same line, the Parliament of India passed the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Forest
Conservation Act, 1980 to give effect to the Stockholm convention.

The Stockholm convention was the first convention to discuss environmental issues on a global scale.
The declaration proclaims truths relating to man and the environment such as man is the creator and
moulder of his surroundings.

The declaration also reiterates the importance of preservation of the environment. It urges citizens to
come together and protect the environment. The declaration recognizes humans as the greatest
threat to the environment. Humans are responsible for almost all of the environmental destruction.
Humans have altered the human environment also.

The declaration discusses in detail the role of underdeveloped nations in environmental problems and
urges them to reduce their negative impact on the environment. The industrial countries are not free
from problems, but their problems relate to industrialization and technological development.

The significance of humans and their contributions to the environment are also discussed in detail.
The declaration recognizes the capability of humans to make strides in social progress and the use of
science to make a better environment. Individuals have the responsibility to exercise care and
precaution. Ignorant and careless actions lead to the destruction and deterioration of the
environment. To take careful action, better awareness, and education about the protection of the
environment are required.

Governments are directed to control their internal actions by enacting and enforcing environmental
laws and to coordinate with other nations and international agencies to mitigate the damage caused
by pollution.
Problems and challenges

The declaration contains sound principles and beautiful proclamations, however, the wordings of the
declaration are unclear and ambiguous at certain points. Almost 48 years since adopting the
declaration the condition of the environment has worsened.

The presence of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) has increased by 26 percent since 1970. This results in greater
global warming which has detrimental effects all around the globe. More than 700,000 sq.km of the
Amazon rainforest were cleared for farming since the ’70s. The condition of other forested areas is
not much better.

Some estimates paint a darker picture, such as the number of fishes in the oceans has almost dropped
by 50 %. The quality of the oceans is also not that great. These numbers and reports reveal the gap
between planning and taking action. The way ahead is also not easy.

Taking action is the only way to tackle environmental depletion. The laws should adopt more stringent
actions. No amount of conventions will help in environmental development unless people start taking
action. We should realize the current situation and act cautiously.

Conclusion

The Stockholm declaration was the first truly global cooperation on environmental issues. The
convention witnessed the participation of 114 countries. The agenda was to create a better
international jurisprudence for environmental law. The declaration focused on setting environmental
goals, reducing pollution, and damages to the environment. The declaration also recognizes the
important role played by humans in changing the environment. The 26 principles in the declaration
serve as a guiding light to the nations.

The declaration is not free from criticism. It has failed to include newer forms of pollution. It has not
received the same kind of response from all the nations. The plan identifies underdeveloped nations
as the key contributor to pollution, 48 years later they continue to pollute the environment without
any significant change.

Despite its problems, the convention has created better awareness about the environment and the
need to protect it. People are now better equipped to tackle problems like global warming and climate
change.
EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit
was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from June 3 to June 14, 1992. In this conference, about 178
governments participated, including the heads of 118 States or Governments. The Commission on
Sustainable Development (CSD) was created in December 1992 to ensure effective followup of
UNCED, to monitor and report on implementation of the agreements at the local, national, regional
and international levels.

Bringing together nearly 200 government representatives and a large number of NGOs, the Earth
Summit gave rise to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, a key document
reaffirming an international commitment to the principles of sustainable development. Further to this
meeting, international institutions were set up to realize the commitments made by the nations in
attendance. Among these institutions, the United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development
since 1992 has promoted the principles and practices associated with sustainable development at the
international level.

Five Agreements Signed during the Conference

Five agreements were signed during the conference. These are listed as follows:

• The Framework Convention on Climate Change that introduced measures designed to reduce
the threat of global warming.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity which put forward proposals aimed at preserving The
Earth’s biological diversity through the protection of species and ecosystems.
• Agenda 21 – this was an action plan, aimed at introducing sustainable development, which it
is hoped would guide government policies throughout the world over the forthcoming
decades.
• The Rio Declaration includes 27 principles which was believed would guide action on
development and the environment.
• Finally, the Forest Principles emphasizing the right of states to exploit their own forest
resources while advocating general principles of sustainable forest management.

In addition, two legally binding Conventions aimed at preventing global climate change and the
eradication of the diversity of biological species were opened for signature at the Summit, giving high
profile to these efforts:

1) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

2) The Convention on Biological Diversity

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by

organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area in which
human have an impact on the environment. Agenda 21 addresses front-line global problems, which
are grouped together under 39 themes involving social and economic development, environmental
protection, resource management, participation of civil society in the decisionmaking process and the
means to implement sustainable development. Adopted by 179 nations, the program is a world class
reference document. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.

Agenda 21 addresses today’s pressing problems and aims to prepare the world for the challenges of
the next century. It contains detailed proposals for action in social and economic areas (such as
combating poverty, changing patterns of production and consumption and addressing demographic
dynamics), and for conserving and managing the natural resources that are the basis for life —
protecting the atmosphere, oceans and biodiversity; preventing deforestation; and promoting
sustainable agriculture, for example.

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development supports Agenda 21 by defining the rights
and responsibilities of States regarding these issues. Among its principles:

1) That human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are
entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature;
2) That scientific uncertainty should not delay measures to prevent environmental degradation
where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage;
3) That States have a sovereign right to exploit their own resources but not to cause damage to
the environment of other States;
4) That eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in worldwide standards of living are
“indispensable” for sustainable development;
5) That the full participation of women is essential for achieving sustainable development;
6) That the developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the
international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place
on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command;
7) The Statement of Forest Principles, the non–legally binding statement of principles for the
sustainable management of forests, was the first global consensus reached on forests;
8) That all countries, notably developed countries, should make an effort to “green the world”
through reforestation and forest conservation;
9) That States have a right to develop forests according to their socioeconomic needs, in keeping
with national sustainable development policies; and
10) Specific financial resources should be provided to develop programmes that encourage
economic and social substitution policies.

There are 40 chapters in Agenda 21, divided into four sections. They are as follows:

• Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions

• Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
• Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
• Section IV: Means of Implementation

In particular, Chapter 25 of Agenda 21 talks about the Children and Youth in Sustainable Development.
Chapter 36 deals with Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training. The full implementation
of Agenda 21, the Programme for Further Implementation of Agenda 21 and the Commitments to the
Rio principles, were strongly reaffirmed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
held in Johannesburg, South Africa from 26 August to 4 September 2002. (25 Aug - 4 Sept 2002).
RIO+20

Commonly known as the Rio+20 Conference, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (UNCSD) took place in Rio de Janeiro between the 20-22 June 2012, twenty years after
the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development), which was also hosted in
Rio in 1992. More than 150 heads-of-state and ministers participated in the Rio+20 Conference on 20
June 2012.

Rio+20 Objectives

The main three objectives of the Rio+20 Conference were:

• To secure renewed political commitment for sustainable development,

• To assess the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the implementation of the outcomes
of the major summits on sustainable development, and
• To address new and emerging challenges.

The conference focused mainly on two themes:

• Green economy in the context of SD and poverty eradication; The concept of green economy
focuses primarily on the intersection between environment and economy.
• The institutional framework for SD. Sustainable development was recognized as an
overreaching goal for institutions at the national, regional and international levels. The need
to enhance the integration of Sustainable Development in the activities of all relevant United
Nations Agencies, Programme and funds, and the International financial institutions, within
their mandates was highlighted.

Rio Declaration

There was a conference that took place in Rio de Janeiro in the year 1992. The conference went from
3rd June to 14th June and the conference laid down few principles upon which Agenda 21, Rio +5, Rio
+10, Culture 21, Rio +20, Sustainable Development Summit and Agenda 2030 is based on and those
principles are as follows:

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

1. It reaffirmed the Stockholm Convention of 1972 and vowed to build upon it.

2. More than 175 countries were signatories to the Rio Declaration.

3. The stated goal was to establish new and equitable international partnerships to reach global
agreements on the issues of development and environment.

4. Humans were seen as central to any new initiative. They deserve a productive life in harmony
with nature. (Principle 1)

5. It affirmed the sovereignty of states to act on issues of environment and urged them to take
steps to reduce harmful practices. (Principle 2)

6. The goal is to make sure that there are enough resources left for the future generations for
leading a peaceful life. (Principle 3)
 7. The Declaration as part of the Rio Summit called for placing environmental protection at the
centre of sustainable development. (Principle 4)

8. Global Poverty has to be addressed and regional disparities should be accounted for while
drawing up policies. (Principle 5)

9. Special Priority should be accorded to developing and most vulnerable countries. The
developed countries should take a lead in creating global partnerships and providing support
to other nations. (Principle 6 & 7)

10. Scientific and technical knowledge should be utilised in the production and consumption
process to minimise the damage to the environment. (Principle 8 & 9)

11. The states should ensure that all relevant information regarding environmental protection is
passed on to the citizens at appropriate times. They should also come up with legislations and
regulations keeping in mind the local developmental context. The Rio Declaration also asks
states to restrain from unfair trade restrictions and arbitrary policies that might harm other
countries (Principle 10, 11, 12).

12. The concept of loss and damage should be applied to pollution and adequate compensation
provided. They should also ensure that countries don’t transfer hazardous materials to other
countries (Principles 13,14).

13. The Rio Declaration also called for more active participation of women and youth in driving
change towards sustainable development (Principle 20 &21).

14. It also calls on states to integrate knowledge systems of indigenous communities for
environment protection (Principle 22).

The Paris Agreement

For the first time, all nations came together for a common climatic cause. On 21st December 2015, in
Paris, nearly every nation has adopted a landmark accord with climate change and its negative impact.
The aim is to limit the emission of greenhouse gases and keep the global temperature rise this century
less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial level and make an attempt to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

History

In 1992, many countries concluded an International treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change, to increase cooperation on climate change by limiting global temperature rise.

In 1995, countries launched negotiations to increase global response on climate change, and two years
later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. It binds all the developed countries’ parties to meet emission-
reducing targets. The first commitment of the Protocol was from 2008 to 2012, and the second started
in 2013 and will end in 2020.
The Paris Agreement adopted on 12 December 2015 marks the latest step in the regime of climate
change. This agreement displayed a new chart to combat climate change.

Aims mentioned

A 32-page document wrote down the framework for global climate change, followings are the major
provisions of this document:

• Reducing the emission of greenhouse gases to limit global temperature rise

The Paris Agreement directed the countries to reduce global greenhouse gases emission and
become carbon neutral by the second half of this century. It was asked from around 185
countries that are responsible for more than 90 percent of global emission to submit their
carbon reduction targets before the Paris conference, known as Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions (INDCs).

Once the countries formally agreed, they became Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs). The agreement did not specify how the countries should reduce the emissions, that is
why the national plans differ significantly in ambition, primarily reflecting each country’s
capabilities and their contributions over time.

For example, China, the biggest carbon emitter, targeted to reduce emissions per unit of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) by 60 to 65 percent by 2030. India sets its eyes on cutting emissions
by 30 to 33 percent and meets 40 percent of its electricity requirement by generating it with
the help of non- fossil fuel sources by 2030. The United States, second biggest carbon emitter,
committed to cut overall greenhouse gases emission by 26 to 28 percent by 2025.

• Provide a framework for transparency, accountability, and achievement of more ambitious

goals
The agreement suggested many mandatory measures to track the progress of the countries
towards their emission reduction targets. These rules were applied to all countries equally,
and a support system was provided for the countries that were unable to meet the targets.

Other requirements include, countries must report their greenhouse gas reduction progress
to the outside experts to evaluate their success. Countries should also revisit their pledges
after every five years and make new targets. Meanwhile, developed countries should provide
financial assistance to the developing countries for the expense incurring in reducing
emissions.

These transparency and accountability provisions were similar to that of many other
International agreements but included no financial penalties because the agreement aimed
to progress each nation according to their capabilities and without the global peer
interference.

• Support of developing nations in combating the climate change

Many developing countries and small islands, who have contributed least to climate change,
suffered most from its consequences. The Paris agreement builds a financial committee on
lines of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord, which will provide financial assistance to the developing
 nations to $100 billion a year by 2020. The agreement established higher expectations from
the developed nations to increase the fund goal by 2025.

While developed countries are not legally bound to contribute any specific amount for the
finance committee, but were encouraged to do the same and give reports of how much funds
and assistance they provided.

Importance

It is improbable to expect that there could be consensus among all the nations on the same issue.
However, with the Paris Agreement, leaders around the world realized the harmful effects of climate
change and global action that is needed to stop it. It also made provision to make emission-reducing
targets for all countries and improve actions with time. Here are some reasons why this agreement is
so important:

• Global warming caused by human-generated emissions

Carbon-dioxide, Nitrous oxide, and Methane are gases that are responsible for global
warming. These gases collect in the atmosphere and prevent heat from radiating from the
earth’s surface into space. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), the concentration of these gases and deforestation are mainly responsible for the rise
in global temperature and carbon emissions.

• Climate system affected by Global warming

• Global warming alters the global weather patterns both on land and at sea. Those change
patterns introduced droughts, heatwaves, floods, and storms. They are also responsible for
melting the ice caps and glaciers. Many regions equate with longer growing seasons and
higher production, while areas already suffering from water scarcity are expected to become
drier soon.

• Human health was endangered

• Extreme heat is directly responsible for cardiovascular deaths and respiratory
diseases.
• Changing weather patterns impact sources of freshwater. While drought creates
water scarcity and floods contaminates drinking water supplies, increasing the risk of
water-borne diseases.
• Rising sea levels destroyed many houses, infrastructures, and entire ways of life-
forcing people to migrate. The low lying developing nations were affected the most
with the increase in the sea level as they lack resources to adapt to changes.

Major aspects

The Paris Agreement addressed basic methods to combat climate change. Some of the significant
aspects are as follows:

• The Long- term temperature goal

 The Paris Agreement aimed to limit the emission of greenhouse gases and keep the global
temperature rise this century less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial level and make
an attempt to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

• Mitigation
In order to achieve this goal, the agreement seeks commitments from all the parties in the
form of Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which has the country’s greenhouse gas
reduction targets. Parties should reform their targets and communicate their progress every
five years for clarity, improvement, and transparency. Developed countries should have broad
reduction targets, whereas developing countries should enhance their mitigation targets.

• Finance, technology, and capacity

The Paris Agreement restates the obligations of the developed countries to finance and
support developing country parties in achieving their reduction goals. Technology framework
was established under this agreement, and climate change education, training, and public
awareness, participation, and access to information were also enhanced.

• Voluntary Cooperation and Adaptation

The Paris Agreement recognized the potential of the countries to work together to achieve
higher goals. Cooperation among the countries provides sustainable development and
achieving the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets effectively and efficiently. It also
aims to strengthen adaptation efforts which include their needs, plans, and actions through
international cooperation.

• Global Stocktake
It will take place in 2023 and every five years, after that to assess collective progress in the
achievements of their reduction targets in a comprehensive and eased manner. It will be
evaluated by the best available science and long term targets. The results will help the
countries to check their progress and enhance their actions.

Signatories

As of February 2020, 188 states and the EU, responsible for more than 85 percent of the greenhouse
gas emission have signed the agreement. The eight countries which have not ratified the agreement
yet are- Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Angola, Eritrea, Libya, South Sudan, and Yemen.

Effectiveness

The effectiveness of the Paris Agreement largely depends upon NDCs. The reports of IPCC, 2018 on
global warming showed that meeting the target 1.5-degrees celsius would require deep emission
reductions and unprecedented changes in society. It was also stated that carbon emission must be
reduced by 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030 and further to net-zero by 2050. That means
immediate alternatives must be made in critical sectors such as energy, agriculture, construction, and
all other sectors that are responsible for global temperature rise.

For this to achieve, cooperation is the key, but leading emitters such as the USA, Australia, Saudi
Arabia, and Russia are not supporting. The director of the US National Economic Council stated that
the reports are very vague and the authors overestimated the environmental disasters. In an
interview, President Trump said that climate change is not human-made, the change will continue to
take place, and the authors have a significant political agenda behind it. Lack of global cooperation is
acting as a hurdle in the successful implementation of the Paris Agreement.

Conclusion

While nearly all the countries have ratified the Paris Agreement to cut down the greenhouse gas
emissions but fall short in achieving the targets. Nearly two-thirds of the parties are insufficient to
meet emission-reducing targets.

It is important to remember that the Paris Agreement is not the end. It is drafted to boost the efforts
of the countries over time, meaning that the current commitments are the start to combat climate
change. The ambition of reducing the emission by 2025 or 2030 needed to be achieved first, and this
accord has provided a tool to ensure success. We must also reduce our global warming contributions
at individual and local levels to ensure a safer and cleaner world for our future generations.

The United Nations Millennium Declaration

In September 2000, at the Millennium Summit, world leaders gathered at the United Nations
headquarters in New York City to adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration (MD). This
landmark document outlined a set of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at
addressing poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against
women. Among the goals, Goal 7 specifically focused on ensuring environmental sustainability.

Goal 7: Ensuring Environmental Sustainability

Goal 7 of the MDGs set forth a comprehensive vision for environmental protection, recognizing the
inextricable link between human well-being and the health of the planet. It aimed to:

• Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and
reverse the loss of environmental resources. This emphasized the need to incorporate
environmental considerations into economic and social development strategies, ensuring that
environmental degradation is not a consequence of progress.

• Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation. This targeted the improvement of water quality and access to sanitation
services, particularly in underserved communities, to enhance public health and well-being.

• Halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010. This aimed to conserve the rich diversity of plant and
animal life, recognizing its importance for ecological balance and ecosystem services.

Key Achievements under Goal 7

Significant progress was made towards achieving Goal 7 during the MDG implementation period
(2000-2015):

• Access to Safe Drinking Water: The proportion of people without access to improved drinking
water sources decreased from 1.1 billion in 1990 to 663 million in 2015.
 • Improved Sanitation: The proportion of people without access to improved sanitation
facilities decreased from 2.4 billion in 1990 to 1.9 billion in 2015.

• Biodiversity Protection: Several international agreements, such as the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD), were adopted and implemented to conserve biodiversity. Protected
areas expanded, and efforts were made to combat deforestation and unsustainable resource
use.

Challenges in Achieving Goal 7

While considerable progress was made, challenges remained in fully achieving Goal 7 by 2015:

• Persistent Environmental Problems: Air and water pollution, climate change, and
unsustainable land use practices continued to pose significant threats to the environment and
human health.

• Uneven Progress: The benefits of environmental progress were not evenly distributed, with
developing countries often facing greater challenges in achieving environmental goals.

• Inadequate Funding and Resources: The allocation of resources for environmental protection
remained insufficient to address the scale and complexity of environmental challenges.

The Legacy of Goal 7

Despite the challenges, Goal 7 played a crucial role in raising global awareness of environmental issues
and mobilizing international efforts to address them. It laid the foundation for the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), adopted in 2015, which further emphasized the importance of
environmental protection in achieving sustainable development.

The United Nations Millennium Declaration and International Environmental Law

The Millennium Declaration's commitment to environmental sustainability aligned with the principles
enshrined in international environmental law. Several international treaties and agreements, such as
the Stockholm Declaration (1972), the Rio Declaration (1992), and Agenda 21 (1992), had already
established the importance of protecting the environment for sustainable development.

The Millennium Declaration further reinforced these principles and provided a framework for
international cooperation on environmental issues. It also highlighted the need for environmental
considerations to be integrated into broader development policies and programs.

Conclusion

The United Nations Millennium Declaration, with its focus on Goal 7, marked a significant step forward
in global environmental governance. By recognizing the interconnectedness of environmental
sustainability and human well-being, the MDGs set a clear agenda for international cooperation and
national action to address environmental challenges. While challenges remain, the Millennium
Declaration's legacy continues to inspire efforts to protect the planet and ensure a sustainable future
for all.

Sustainable Development Goals

Sustainable development goals were adopted in 2015 by all member nations of the United Nations as
a universal action to end poverty and pollution, thereby protecting the planet and providing peace
and prosperity to everybody by the advent of 2030. They represent the post 2015 development
agenda and are a set of 17 goals consisting of 169 targets globally set to be the blueprint towards a
better and more sustainable future for all.

The three primary objectives of sustainable development goals are:

• Economic growth.

• Environmental protection.

• Social inclusion.

The sustainable development goals have succeeded over millennial development goals in content and
applicability. The previous goals were being criticized for being too narrow in description and
superficial in implementation. The millennial development goals focused more on world development
through relations between countries and their support towards development of other countries. The
newly drafted sustainable development goals were far wider in context and provided a much more
inclusive perspective and framework towards development without depending on the relation
between the countries. They were more globally applicable and were created by the largest United
Nations program thereby providing a firm foundation.

The sustainable development goals are:

1. No Poverty: By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere.

2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition by 2030.

3. Good Health and Well-being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
by 2030.

4. Quality Education: Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary
and secondary education by 2030.

5. Gender Equality: To achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

6. Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all by 2030.

7. Affordable and Clean Energy: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
energy for all by 2030.

8. Decent Work and Economic Growth: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic
growth.

9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation by 2030.

10. Reduced Inequality: Reduce inequality within and among countries by 2030.

11. Sustainable Cities and Communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable.

12. Responsible Consumption and Production: Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns.

13. Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
 14. Life below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development.

15. Life on Land: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, combat
desertification and halt biodiversity loss.

16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development; provide access to justice for all.

17. Partnerships to achieve goals: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development.

Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development (2002)

What exactly is Johannesburg Summit?

• The Rio Earth Summit's 10-year anniversary follow-up event was the Johannesburg Summit in
2002, also known as the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD).

• Johannesburg, South Africa, hosted the Summit from August 26 to September 4, 2002.

• The summit's main objectives were to renew global support for sustainable development at
the highest political level and to quicken the pace of Agenda 21 implementation.

• The main accord to come out of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 was Agenda 21.
 • In order to meet everyone's fundamental requirements, raise living standards overall, and
better manage and safeguard ecosystems for long-term sustainability, it advocates for the
integration of environment and development.

What is Agenda 21?

• The United Nations' Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan for sustainable development.

• It is a result of the 1992 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Earth Summit, a United Nations conference on
environment and development.

• It is an action plan that may be carried out at the local, national, and international levels by
the UN, other multilateral organizations, and various sovereign governments.

• Every local government should create its own local Agenda 21 is one of the project's main
goals.

• The initial goal of Agenda 21 was to achieve global sustainable development by the year 2000;
the "21" in the name refers to the intended year of the 21st century.

Johannesburg Summit - Declaration & Agreement

• The Johannesburg Declaration was the Earth summit's principal accomplishment, although
there were also a number of smaller global accords.

• It provided an action plan for the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

• The deal was made to replenish depleted fisheries globally for 2015. Negotiators at the World
Summit came to an agreement on it.

• The Earth Summit was structured primarily around approximately 300 Type II Partnerships, as
opposed to Type I Partnerships, which are the more traditional result of international treaties,
rather than new agreements between governments.

• The Millennium Development Goals were intended to be accomplished primarily through

these.

• These are maintained in a Partnerships for Sustainable Development database.

Johannesburg Summit - Provisions

• Public Private Partnership (PPP): The Plan of Implementation promoted public-private

partnerships based on legal frameworks established by governments in the area of water.

• Energy Supply: It was emphasized that the global energy supply needed to be diversified and
that renewable energy sources needed to be included.

• Health: The promises made in the battle against HIV/AIDS were reiterated, and emphasis was
placed on the right of States to interpret the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights in order to promote universal access to medicines.
 • Agriculture: The WTO Agreement on Agriculture was the subject of extensive negotiations,
which included market access and the elimination of export subsidies.

• Biodiversity: The Plan of Implementation called for the creation of a worldwide regime to
ensure a just and equitable distribution of the advantages associated with the utilization of
genetic resources with respect to biodiversity.

• Greenhouse Gasses: For those states that had ratified the Kyoto Protocol to reduce
greenhouse gases, stipulations were added in the text. Those who hadn't already ratified it
were asked to do so right away.

• Poverty: Additionally, the provisions call for the establishment of a global fund of solidarity
for the eradication of poverty as well as the start of ten-year programs to support local,
regional, and national efforts that speed up the shift to sustainable production and
consumption patterns.

Conclusion

The World Summit on Sustainable Development brought together tens of thousands of participants,
including heads of state and government, national delegates, and leaders from non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), businesses, and other significant groups to focus attention on and direct action
toward meeting difficult challenges, such as improving the lives of people and conserving our natural
resources in a world that is expanding in population while facing ever-increasing demands.