TECHNICAL FEATURE

This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, December 2022. Copyright 2022 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied and/or distributed
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Practical Diffuser
Selection and Layout
Procedure
BY KEVIN LAWSON, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE

The selection and layout of diffusers to maximize occupant thermal comfort can be
complicated and time consuming. Given the sheer quantity of diffusers that must
be selected and laid out on every project, developing a streamlined and consistent
process can help firms remain profitable in a competitive environment. This article
describes a practical selection and layout procedure that provides occupant comfort,
minimizes construction cost and can be applied to most spaces quickly and effectively.
Constraints and Assumptions assuming all diffusers in a space will be the same model.
No single procedure could encapsulate the engineer- This will limit our coverage options, but consistency is
ing design required to adequately distribute air in any key when designing the aesthetics of a space.
space that an architect can envision. Edge cases and 4. The assumption will be made that windows don’t
limitations will always exist. As such, we will work with need “washing.” Historically, linear slot diffusers have
the following constraints and assumptions: been used to blow warm air onto windows in the win-
1. The investigation will be limited to spaces where ter—when the delta T across the window is highest—in
overhead air supply is possible. We won’t include, for an effort to keep the interior window surface tempera-
example, gymnasiums, which typically require a large ture to within 18°F (10°C) of the space temperature to
space between the court or field and the nearest over- satisfy the allowable radiant temperature asymmetry in
head obstruction. Table 5.3.4.2 of ASHRAE Standard 55-2017.1
2. The focus will be on spaces designed primarily for With the proliferation of the International Energy
human comfort. We won’t include, for example, surgery Code, washing is not as important because code mini-
suites, where the primary intent of the air distribution mum windows have high enough R-values that the
system is to create an envelope of cold clean air around internal surface temperature stays above the allow-
the staff and patient. able temperature in the coldest regions of each cli-
3. A consistent diffuser look will be maintained by mate zone. Table 1 shows the calculated window inside

Kevin Lawson, P.E., is the founder of Ripple Engineering Software.

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surface temperature for TABLE 1 Window inside surface temperature in each climate zone.
a select station in each WINDOW
2018 IECC 99% DESIGN INSIDE WINDOW
climate zone assuming CLIMATE
INOPERABLE FENESTRATION MINIMUM STATION TEMPERATURE SURFACE TEMPERATURE
COOLER THAN
ZONE INDOOR AIR
a 72°F (22°C) space tem- R-VALUE (Btu/h·ft 2·°F) (°F) (°F)
(°F)
perature, 0.17 h·ft2·°F/Btu Zone 1 2.0 Miami, Fla. 49.6 66.7 5.3
(0.03 K·m2/W) exte- Zone 2 2.0 Midland Intl, Texas 24.6 60.7 11.3
rior air film resistance Zone 3 2.2 Vance AFB, Okla. 15.6 59.3 12.7
and a 0.68 h·ft2·°F/Btu Kansas City Intl,
(0.12 K·m2/W) interior air Zone 4 2.6 Mo. 7.2 59.3 12.7

film resistance. Even if the Zone 5 2.6 North Omaha, Neb. -0.1 57.9 14.1
project is a renovation with Zone 6 2.8 Sioux Falls, S.D. -6.3 57.3 14.7
old single-pane windows, Zone 7 3.4 Minot AFB, N.D. -17.2 57.9 14.1
“washing” windows with Zone 8 3.4 Fairbanks, Alaska -37.6 54.7 17.3
warm air is also tricky with
a variable air volume (VAV)
system. You need the most throw when your VAV is at The Characteristic Length, L
a minimum; instead consider fin tube heating under The characteristic length is defined by the 2015 ASHRAE
windows. Handbook—HVAC Applications, Chapter 57 for perforated
5. Diffusers will be selected and laid out based on the and louvered ceiling diffusers as the “distance to wall
comfort criteria T50/L method, where T50 is the diffuser or midplane between outlets.”2 It is a single number for
throw length to a terminal velocity of 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) the entire space, so an effort must be made to keep all
and L is the characteristic length of the space. This diffusers in a space equidistant from walls and other
method is used to predict the level of comfort in a outlets. To accomplish this, let’s look at a few examples.
space by predicting its air distribution performance First, a square 20 ft × 20 ft (6 m × 6 m) space with one
index (ADPI). A high ADPI indicates that a space will diffuser as shown in Figure 1a. If the diffuser is placed
be well mixed and a high percentage of occupants will directly in the center of the space, the space has a char-
be comfortable. Each diffuser type will have an ideal acteristic length of 10 ft (3 m). If the characteristic length
range of T50/L, provided by the diffuser manufacturer needs to be decreased, the diffusers should be placed in
or by the 2015 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications, a 2 × 2 grid as shown in Figure 1b.
2
Chapter 57. Each space will have an actual T50/L, With a non-square 20 ft × 40 ft (6 m × 12 m) rectangular
based on the dimensions of the space and the T50 of the space as shown in Figure 2, a single diffuser will not give
selected diffuser. When selecting and placing diffusers, a consistent characteristic length. The characteristic
we will attempt to drive the actual T50/L as close as we length in the direction of the 40 ft (12 m) wall is 20 ft
can to the recommended T50/L. However, this article (6 m), while the characteristic length in the direction of
will show that forcing the ideal and actual T50/L to the 20 ft (6 m) wall is 10 ft (3 m). This deviation in the
match is unlikely. characteristic length has real-world implications.

FIGURE 1A (LEFT) AND 1B (RIGHT) left: L = 10 ft; right: L = 5 ft. FIGURE 2 L = 10 ft and 20 ft.

40 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.
10 ft – 0 in.
10 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in.

5 ft – 0 in.
10 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.
5 ft – 0 in.

A B

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FIGURE 3 L = 10 ft. FIGURE 4 L = 5 ft.

40 ft – 0 in. 40 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in. 10 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in. 5 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.

5 ft – 0 in.
the grid count in the width (shorter) characteristic length of the space
FIGURE 5 4 × 5 diffuser pattern.
dimension, which can be increased slightly deviate. The characteristic
25 ft – 0 in.
in order to reduce the characteristic space will be 10 ft (3 m) vs. 12 ft, 6 in.
length. (4 m) in the case of the 1 × 1 grid, and
In this 20 ft × 40 ft (6 m × 12 m) 6 ft, 3 in. (2 m) vs. 10 ft (3 m) in the
20 ft – 0 in.

space (Figure 4), the number of dif- case of a 1 × 2 grid (Figure 6).
fusers increased from two diffusers In addition to the space shape caus-
5 ft – 0 in.

to eight diffusers. This is a sig- ing inconsistencies in the character-

nificant construction cost increase istic length, ceiling grids rarely line
because in addition to the diffuser up perfectly with the space. It is also
2 ft – 6 in. cost, additional flex duct, runouts, not uncommon for the ideal diffuser
dampers and taps are required. location to be taken by a higher prior-
Depending on the throw of the While spaces come in various ity ceiling element, such as a light.
selected diffuser, air may crash aspect ratios, diffusers can only be This causes the diffuser to shift even
against the 40 ft (12 m) wall and placed in discrete grids, i.e., 1 × 2, further, causing additional deviations
leave occupants along the 20 ft (6 m) 2 × 4. Therefore, we must accept that to the characteristic length.
wall with stagnant air. If a 1 × 2 grid characteristic lengths may deviate. Because the characteristic lengths
of diffusers is used (as shown in For instance, consider a 20 ft × 25 ft will vary slightly from diffuser to
Figure 3), the characteristic length (6 m × 8 m) space (SR = 1.25), which diffuser regardless, the constraint
becomes a consistent 10 ft (3 m). If would require 20 diffusers in a 4 × of keeping a perfectly consistent
the characteristic length needs to be 5 grid (diffuser aspect ratio, ATR = characteristic length can be relaxed
decreased, the grid must increase 1.25) to achieve a consistent charac- and the ATW × (ATW × SR) layout grid
to 2 × 4, as depicted in Figure 4. A teristic length of 2 ft, 6 in. (0.8 m). can be improved by incrementally
mathematical definition of this Figure 5 demonstrates how impracti- adding diffuser counts in the lon-
pattern would be to create a grid cal this is. In addition to the cost of ger dimension using the following
of ATW × (ATW × SR), where SR is the the diffusers, the design does not pseudocode algorithm:
aspect ratio of the space and ATW is allow space for other ceiling devices
FIGURE 6 1 × 1 and 1 × 2 diffuser pattern. such as lights, SR = SL / SW
sprinkler heads ATW = 1
25 ft – 0 in. 25 ft – 0 in. or occupancy ATL = ATW × [SR]
12 ft – 6 in. 12 ft – 6 in. 6 ft – 3 in. sensors. ATR = ATL / ATW
A 1 × 1 or 1 × 2 Loop:
20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.

grid is much more If |ATR – SR| 0.5

10 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.

reasonable for ATL = ATL + 1

this space at the ATR = ATL / ATW
cost of having the Else If |ATR – SR| > 0.5

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ATW = ATW + 1 match the space aspect ratio as closely as possible.

ATL = ATW × [RS] This algorithm allows the user to add diffusers in the
ATR = ATL / ATW smallest increment possible while maintaining the
Until: desired diffuser count, ATW × ATL is reached tightest characteristic length. In the case of our 20 ft ×
where SR is the space aspect ratio, calculated by dividing 40 ft (6 m × 12 m) space, the diffuser counts would prog-
the space length, SL, by the space width, SW. ress from 2 to 3 to 4 to 4 to 6 to 8 as shown in Figure 7.

In this example it is assumed that SL is the larger Length to 50 fpm Terminal Velocity, T50
dimension. ATR is the diffuser aspect ratio, calculated by As previously mentioned, T50 is the diffuser throw
dividing the diffuser count in the larger dimension (ATL, length to a terminal velocity of 50 fpm (0.25 m/s). These
by ATW), which is the diffuser count along the shorter values can be determined for a given diffuser size and
dimension. To ensure the diffuser grid follows the space throw pattern at a given cfm by reviewing the catalog
shape as closely as possible, initially and every time we data. An example for a louvered face diffuser is given in
add a diffuser in the shorter dimension, we multiply Figure 8.3
the grid count in the shorter dimension (ATW) by the Regardless of what the ideal T50/L is, each diffuser is
rounded space aspect ratio, [SR]. going to ideally “cover” some area for a given cfm based
When the diffuser aspect ratio diverges too significantly on the T50 throw of the diffuser. If the ideal T50/L is 1,
from the space aspect ratio, as indicated by the absolute then the area covered will be (T50 × 2/1).2 If the desired
value of the difference of the two aspect ratios being T50/L is 2, then the area covered is (T50 × 2 / 2).2 For an
greater than 0.5 (|ATR – SR| > 0.5), then a diffuser in the example from Figure 8, an 8 in. (203 mm) four-way lou-
shorter dimension must be added and the grid reset to vered face diffuser with 314 cfm (148 L/s) of supply air

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FIGURE 7 Air terminal layout pattern progression for the first six loops.

40 ft – 0 in. 40 ft – 0 in. 40 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in. 10 ft – 0 in. 13 ft – 4 in. 6 ft – 8 in. 10 ft – 0 in. 5 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.

10 ft – 0 in.
40 ft – 0 in. 40 ft – 0 in. 40 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in. 10 ft – 0 in. 13 ft – 4 in.

10 ft – 0 in.

20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.
20 ft – 0 in.

6 ft – 8 in. 10 ft – 0 in. 5 ft – 0 in.

5 ft – 0 in.
5 ft – 0 in.
5 ft – 0 in.

would have a T50 throw of 14 ft (4 m) in all four direc- with an ideal T50/L of 2 is used. If one 8 in. (203 mm)
tions, and with an ideal T50/L of 1, would cover a 28 ft × neck diffuser is placed in the center of the space,
28 ft (9 m × 9 m) area, or 784 ft2 (73 m2). the characteristic length would be 10 ft (3 m), and
These areas are calculated for 6 in. (152 mm) and 8 in. the actual T50 would be 14. So, the actual T50/L is 1.4
(203 mm) in Table 2. If the coverage areas vs. the cfm (14/10), which is only 70% (1.4/2) of the ideal 2. If the
across all neck sizes are plotted as shown in Figure 9, it is characteristic length is reduced to 5 ft (2 m) placing
clear that the area “covered” by each diffuser is linear four 6 in. (152 mm) neck diffusers, each diffuser would
with the cfm applied. This holds true for many popular now only have 78.5 cfm (37 L/s) and a 7 ft (2 m) throw.
diffuser types, including radial plaque and perforated. In this case, the actual T50/L is still 1.4 (7/5), which is
Because the coverage area decreases linearly with the still 70% of the ideal 2, but now with more construction
cfm applied (even across multiple neck sizes), coverage cost. Because the coverage area decreases linearly with
area cannot be increased simply by adding more diffus- the cfm applied (even across multiple neck sizes), this
ers. If the diffuser count is increased from one to four, is true in all situations.
the cfm available to assign each diffuser reduces by ¼, This demonstrates that with the given constraints,
and the coverage area remains the same. the actual T50/L is decided solely by the diffuser type
For example, assume 314 cfm (148 L/s) is being deliv- and the airflow density (cfm/ft2) of the space. With
ered to a 20 ft × 20 ft space (6 m × 6 m) or 0.785 cfm/ft2 popular diffuser types and standard ranges of airflow
(3.99 L/s·m2), and a louvered face diffuser from Figure 8 densities at maximum flow, ideal T50/L ranges are

FIGURE 8 Typical diffuser catalog data.

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TABLE 2 Louvered face data. FIGURE 9 Diffuser coverage area for popular models.
NECK DIAMETER AIRFLOW (cfm) A4 T 50 (ft) COVERAGE AREA T 50/L = 1 (ft 2) Air Terminal Coverage Area T50/L = 1
98.0 8 256 4,000
117.0 9 324 3,500
137.0 9 324 3,000

Coverage Area (ft2)

6 in. 156.0 10 400 2,500
176.0 11 484
2,000
215.0 12 576
1,500
254.0 13 676 Louvered 6 in. – 16 in. Ø Neck Size
1,000
174.0 11 484 Plaque 6 in. – 15 in. Ø Neck Size
500
209.0 12 576 Perforated 6 in. – 16 in. Ø Neck Size
0
244.0 13 676 0.0 500.0 1,000.0 1,500.0 2,000.0
8 in. 279.0 14 784 cfm

314.0 14 784
383.0 16 1,024 Diffusers,” which showed that thermal comfort signifi-
453.0 18 1,296 cantly improved when VAV minimums were reduced
from 30% to 10% of maximum flow.4 Therefore, the
typically met. It’s important to note that while catalog lower bound of the ideal T50/L ranges probably need to
data is typically presented for isothermal conditions be reassessed.
(i.e., supply air temperature equals room tempera-
ture), non-isothermal correction factors will only Complex Spaces
increase or decrease the slope of the coverage area vs. Complex spaces are a conglomerate of simple spaces
cfm lines, so the range of acceptable airflow densi- and can be addressed by being broken into simple rect-
ties will change in heating and cooling mode, but the angular subspaces that are treated separately.
conclusion is the same: adding more diffusers does not Because architects are concerned about sight lines,
lead to better coverage. complex spaces should be decomposed in a manner
As previously mentioned, with popular diffuser types that leaves the largest area intact. For instance, the
and standard ranges of airflow densities at maximum L-shape space in Figure 10 could be decomposed with
flow, ideal T50/L ranges are typically met. However, at a vertical line shown in the left image, or a horizontal
VAV minimum flow, the actual T50/L will typically be far line shown in the right image. The right image would
below the ideal T50/L range. This is the situation that have the largest consistent diffuser grid pattern and
most engineers refer to as “dumping,” where there is not the most aesthetically pleasing sight lines, so it is the
enough airflow coming out of the diffuser to cause ade- logical choice.
quate mixing and the air “dumps” onto the occupants, As shown in the previous section, coverage area
causing discomfort. While it may seem like “dumping” is decreases linearly with cfm; if more cfm is assigned to
a diffuser layout problem, it is a VAV minimum setpoint one subspace in an attempt to get better coverage for
problem. Again, adding more diffusers does not allevi- that subspace, the other subspaces will be under cov-
ate the “dumping” problem because, for example, it is ered. Therefore, cfm should be simply assigned to each
unclear if it is better to “dump” 40 cfm (19 L/s) out of one subspace in proportion to its area.
8 in. (203 mm) diffuser or 10 cfm (4.7 L/s) out of four There are some layouts in which uneven cfm distribu-
6 in. (152 mm) diffusers. tion would be desired, e.g., a lab space with many hot
To help the reader accept the fact that the ideal T50/L plates in a nook or a space with uninsulated brick and
will not be met at VAV minimum, we ask you to consider single-pane glass walls.
a 2014 ASHRAE Research Project entitled “Thermal
and Air Quality Acceptability in Buildings that Reduce Procedure
Energy by Reducing Minimum Airflow from Overhead Now that the individual components of the procedure

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FIGURE 10 Two ways of decomposing a space. FIGURE 11 An example table of the maximum allowable cfm.

have been addressed, we can formulate a streamlined

and consistent process: leaving the largest continuous area intact.
1. Select a diffuser manufacturer and model based on 4. Assign subspace airflow, cfmSS, to each subspace in
performance, material, aesthetics, cost, availability and proportion to the subspace’s area, SSA, to the total space
local support. area, SA.
2. Determine an acceptable noise criteria (NC) rating 5. Decrease the characteristic length by increasing
for the space and use the catalog to build a table of maxi- the number of diffusers, following the procedure in the
mum allowable cfm for each neck size at the acceptable Characteristic Length section of this article.
NC, such as the example in Figure 11. 6. Stop when the cfm/diffuser is below the allowable
3. Break complex spaces into rectangular subspaces cfm of the largest neck size, cfmMax. Assign the smallest

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neck size where the maximum cfm for that neck size is tion as the ceiling grid shifts from plan. The flexible duct
above the cfm/diffuser. also absorbs noise coming down the duct from fans and
dampers. This also applies to return diffusers, even if
As pseudocode: they aren’t ducted. Return diffusers are frequent sources
For Each Subspace SS, in Space S of “cross-talk” between private spaces like offices and
cfmSS = cfmS × SSA / SA adjacent public spaces. If too much noise is transferring
SR = SL / SW back and forth, adding a short length of flexible duct to
ATW = 1 the returns is a quick and inexpensive way to mitigate
ATL = ATW × [SR] the problem. Occasionally, there are also distracting
ATR = ATL / ATW visual elements in plenums, such as blinking lights from
Loop: lighting controllers or glare from sheet metal, that can
If cfmSS / (ATW × ATL) < cfmMax be hidden with a short length of flex duct attached to
Break the round neck. If square neck diffusers are selected for
If |RAT – Rs| ≤ 0.5 returns, the fix becomes an expensive internally lined
ATL = ATL + 1 plenum box that may not fit in a crowded plenum.
Else If |ATR - SR| > 0.5 3. A damper should be provided for every supply
ATW = ATW + 1 diffuser, preferably at the take-off from the main duct
ATL = ATW × [RS] trunk. Dampers can produce significant noise;3 by plac-
ATR = ATL / ATW ing them as far away from the diffuser as possible, the
End ductwork and flexible duct connection can be used to
dampen the noise generated by the damper.
The algorithm works well for many spaces; however, 4. Provide lay-in frames for diffusers located in dry-
the isovel method of diffuser layout cannot be totally wall ceilings. This allows the diffuser to be lifted for ceil-
disregarded. In some cases, ceiling spaces can be very ing plenum space access, which can facilitate balancing
cluttered due to other ceiling devices such as lighting, and general inspection.
smoke detectors and sprinkler heads, which may take 5. Limit diffuser neck sizes to 12 in (305 mm). The
precedence, so the diffusers get pushed from their ideal 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chapter 21 recom-
location closer to the perimeter or an adjacent diffuser. mends at least one duct diameter of straight duct.5 As
This may require users to map the isovels to ensure air the diffuser neck size increases, the required plenum
isn’t crashing on a wall or adjacent airstream at too high space to properly install the diffuser grows as well.
a velocity, which could cause uncomfortable drafts in
the occupied zone. Conclusion
These rules don’t work well for long thin spaces, such Most designers and engineers follow the procedure
as corridors, which may have aspect ratios of 10+. In this outlined in this article quickly and instinctively when
scenario, placing 10 diffusers down a hallway may not laying out diffusers for most spaces. However, it is
be worth it; two-way throw patterns should be installed important to document our knowledge for new entrants
instead. to the industry and so that tools can be built to automate
the more repetitive tasks.
Additional Diffuser Suggestions
1. Return diffusers should be placed diagonally to the References
supply grid to limit “short circuiting,” where the sup- 1. ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016, ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.
ply air is blown directly into a return. The same type of 2. 2015 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications.
diffusers can be used for returns as well as supplies to 3. Titus. 2015. “2015 Product Catalog.”
ensure a consistent look and cadence of the ceiling. 4. Arens, E., H. Zhang, T. Hoyt, S. Kaam, et al. 2014. “Thermal
and Air Quality Acceptability in Buildings that Reduce Energy by
2. Round neck diffusers with flexible duct connections Reducing Minimum Airflow from Overhead Diffusers.” ASHRAE
should be used, as this greatly increases constructability Research Project RP-1515, Final Report.
because it allows slight adjustments to the diffuser loca- 5. 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.

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