UNIT III

UNIT-III: Planned Hours: 10

S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes CO PO
1. Discover Partial ordering relations, Hasse diagrams, CO2 PO1,
Lattices properties and its applications PO2, PO3
2. Explain Functions and properties CO1, CO2 PO1, PO2

Lesson Schedule
UNIT - III
Class No. Topic Covered
L26 & L27 Ordered Sets, Hasse Diagrams of Partially Ordered Sets
L28 Supremum and Infimum
L29 & L30 Isomorphic (Similar) Ordered Sets, Well-Ordered Sets
L31 Lattices and its Properties
Functions Introduction, Functions, One-to-One, Onto and Bijective
L32 & L33
Functions
L34 & L35 Invertible Functions, Recursive Functions
 Material
Ordered Sets

Partially Ordered Sets

Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties:

1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.

2. R is antisymmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.
3. R is transitive, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Then R is called a partial order relation, and the set S together with partial order is called a
partially order set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤).

Example:
1. The set N of natural numbers form a poset under the relation '≤' because firstly x ≤ x,
secondly, if x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then we have x = y and lastly if x ≤ y and y ≤ z, it implies x
≤ z for all x, y, z ∈ N.
2. The set N of natural numbers under divisibility i.e., 'x divides y' forms a poset because
x/x for every x ∈ N. Also if x/y and y/x, we have x = y. Again if x/y, y/z we have x/z, for
every x, y, z ∈ N.
3. Consider a set S = {1, 2} and power set of S is P(S). The relation of set inclusion ⊆ is a
partial order. Since, for any sets A, B, C in P (S), firstly we have A ⊆ A, secondly, if A
⊆B and B⊆A, then we have A = B. Lastly, if A ⊆B and B ⊆C,then A⊆C. Hence, (P(S),
⊆) is a poset.

ELEMENTS OF POSET:
1. Maximal Element: An element a ∈ A is called a maximal element of A if there is no
element in c in A such that a ≤ c.
2. Minimal Element: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of A if there is no
element in c in A such that c ≤ b.

Note: There can be more than one maximal or more than one minimal element.

Example: Determine all the maximal and minimal elements of the poset whose Hasse diagram is
shown in fig:
Solution: The maximal elements are b and f.

The minimal elements are d and e.

COMPARABLE ELEMENTS:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called comparable if

a≤b or b≤a
R R

NON-COMPARABLE ELEMENTS:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-comparable if neither a
≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility. Determine all the
comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements of A.

Solution: The comparable pairs of elements of A are:

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}

The non-comparable pair of elements of A are:

{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}

LINEARLY ORDERED SET:

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally ordered set, if every
pair of elements in A is comparable.
Example: The set of positive integers I+ with the usual order ≤ is a linearly ordered set.

Hasse Diagrams

It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated partial order. Therefore, it is also
called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a directed graph of a relation on a set A to
an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore, while drawing a Hasse diagram following points must
be remembered.

1. The vertices in the Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by circles.
2. Since a partial order is reflexive, hence each vertex of A must be related to itself, so the
edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in Hasse diagram.
3. Since a partial order is transitive, hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have aRc. Eliminate all
edges that are implied by the transitive property in Hasse diagram, i.e., Delete edge from
a to c but retain the other two edges.
4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b' by an edge, i.e., aRb, then the vertex 'b' appears
above vertex 'a'. Therefore, the arrow may be omitted from the edges in the Hasse
diagram.

The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the partial order.

Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the relation ≤ on A. Draw the directed
graph and the Hasse diagram of R.

Solution: The relation ≤ on the set A is given by

R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6}, {7, 7}}
The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in fig:

To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply the following points:

1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.

(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)
2. Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.
(4, 7), (5, 7), (4, 6)
3. Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots.
4. Omit the arrows.

The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:

Upper Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element x ∈ A is called

an upper bound of B if y ≤ x for every y ∈ B.

Lower Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element z ∈ A is called a

lower bound of B if z ≤ x for every x ∈ B.
Example: Consider the poset A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} be ordered shown in fig. Also let B = {c, d,
e}. Determine the upper and lower bound of B.

Solution: The upper bound of B is e, f, and g because every element of B is '≤' e, f, and g.

The lower bounds of B are a and b because a and b are '≤' every elements of B.

LEAST UPPER BOUND (SUPREMUM):

Let A be a subset of a partially ordered set S. An element M in S is called an upper bound of A if

M succeeds every element of A, i.e. if, for every x in A, we have x <=M

If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound of A, then it is called the supremum of
A and is denoted by Sup (A)

GREATEST LOWER BOUND (INFIMUM):

An element m in a poset S is called a lower bound of a subset A of S if m precedes every element

of A, i.e. if, for every y in A, we have m <=y

If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound of A, then it is called the infimum of A
and is denoted by Inf (A)

Example: Determine the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of B = {a, b, c} if they
exist, of the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:
Solution: The least upper bound is c.

The greatest lower bound is k.

Lattices:
Let L be a non-empty set closed under two binary operations called meet and join, denoted by ∧
and ∨. Then L is called a lattice if the following axioms hold where a, b, c are elements in L:

1) Commutative Law: -
(a) a ∧ b = b ∧ a (b) a ∨ b = b ∨ a

2) Associative Law:-
(a) (a ∧ b)∧ c = a ∧(b∧ c) (b) (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)

3) Absorption Law: -
(a) a ∧ ( a ∨ b) = a (b) a ∨ ( a ∧ b) = a

DUALITY:

The dual of any statement in a lattice (L,∧ ,∨ ) is defined to be a statement that is obtained by
interchanging ∧ an ∨.

For example, the dual of a ∧ (b ∨ a) = a ∨ a is a ∨ (b ∧ a )= a ∧ a

BOUNDED LATTICES:

A lattice L is called a bounded lattice if it has greatest element 1 and a least element 0.
Example:

1. The power set P(S) of the set S under the operations of intersection and union is a
bounded lattice since ∅ is the least element of P(S) and the set S is the greatest element of
P(S).
2. The set of +ve integer I+ under the usual order of ≤ is not a bounded lattice since it has a
least element 1 but the greatest element does not exist.

PROPERTIES OF BOUNDED LATTICES:

If L is a bounded lattice, then for any element a ∈ L, we have the following identities:

1. a∨1=1
2. a ∧1= a
3. a ∨0=a
4. a ∧0=0

Theorem: Prove that every finite lattice L = {a1,a2,a3....an} is bounded.

Proof: We have given the finite lattice:

L = {a1,a2,a3....an}

Thus, the greatest element of Lattices L is a1∨ a2∨ a3∨....∨an.

Also, the least element of lattice L is a1∧ a2∧a3∧....∧an.

Since, the greatest and least elements exist for every finite lattice. Hence, L is bounded.

SUB-LATTICES:

Consider a non-empty subset L1 of a lattice L. Then L1 is called a sub-lattice of L if L1 itself is a

lattice i.e., the operation of L i.e., a ∨ b ∈ L1 and a ∧ b ∈ L1 whenever a ∈ L1 and b ∈ L1.

Example: Consider the lattice of all +ve integers I+ under the operation of divisibility. The lattice
Dn of all divisors of n > 1 is a sub-lattice of I+.

Determine all the sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements, D30={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}.

Solution: The sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements are as follows:

1. {1, 2, 6, 30} 2. {1, 2, 3, 30} 3. {1, 5, 15, 30} 4. {1, 3, 6, 30}

5. {1, 5, 10, 30} 6. {1, 3, 15, 30} 7. {2, 6, 10, 30}
ISOMORPHIC LATTICES:

Two lattices L1 and L2 are called isomorphic lattices if there is a bijection from L1 to L2 i.e., f:
L1⟶ L2, such that f (a ∧ b) =f(a)∧ f(b) and f (a ∨ b) = f (a) ∨ f (b)

Example: Determine whether the lattices shown in fig are isomorphic.

Solution: The lattices shown in fig are isomorphic. Consider the mapping f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c,
3), (d, 4)}.For example f (b ∧ c) = f (a) = 1. Also, we have f (b) ∧ f(c) = 2 ∧ 3 = 1

DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICE:

A lattice L is called distributive lattice if for any elements a, b and c of L,it satisfies following
distributive properties:

1. a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
2. a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

If the lattice L does not satisfies the above properties, it is called a non-distributive lattice.

Example:
1. The power set P (S) of the set S under the operation of intersection and union is a
distributive function. Since,
a ∩ (b ∪ c) = (a ∩ b) ∪ (a ∩ c)
and, also a ∪ (b ∩ c) = (a ∪ b) ∩ (a ∪c) for any sets a, b and c of P(S).
2. The lattice shown in fig II is a distributive. Since, it satisfies the distributive properties
for all ordered triples which are taken from 1, 2, 3, and 4.
COMPLEMENTS AND COMPLEMENTED LATTICES:

Let L be a bounded lattice with lower bound o and upper bound I. Let a be an element if L. An
element x in L is called a complement of a if a ∨ x = I and a ∧ x = 0

A lattice L is said to be complemented if L is bounded and every element in L has a complement.

Example: Determine the complement of a and c in fig:

Solution: The complement of a is d. Since, a ∨ d = 1 and a ∧ d = 0

The complement of c does not exist. Since, there does not exist any element c such that c ∨ c'=1
and c ∧ c'= 0.

MODULAR LATTICE:

A lattice (L, ∧,∨) is called a modular lattice if a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ c whenever a ≤ c.

DIRECT PRODUCT OF LATTICES:

Let (L1 ∨1 ∧1)and (L2 ∨2 ∧2) be two lattices. Then (L, ∧,∨) is the direct product of lattices, where
L = L1 x L2 in which the binary operation ∨(join) and ∧(meet) on L are such that for any
(a1,b1)and (a2,b2) in L.

(a1,b1)∨( a2,b2 )=(a1 ∨1 a2,b1 ∨2 b2)

and (a1,b1) ∧ ( a2,b2 )=(a1 ∧1 a2,b1 ∧2 b2).
Example: Consider a lattice (L, ≤) as shown in fig. where L = {1, 2}. Determine the lattices (L 2,
≤), where L2=L x L.

Solution: The lattice (L2, ≤) is shown in fig:

 Functions
It is a mapping in which every element of set A is uniquely associated at the element with set B.
The set of A is called Domain of a function and set of B is called Co domain.

DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN, AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION:

Domain of a Function: Let f be a function from P to Q. The set P is called the domain of the
function f.

Co-Domain of a Function: Let f be a function from P to Q. The set Q is called Co-domain of

the function f.

Range of a Function: The range of a function is the set of picture of its domain. In other words,
we can say it is a subset of its co-domain. It is denoted as f (domain).

1. If f: P → Q, then f (P) = {f(x): x ∈ P} = {y: y ∈ Q | ∃ x ∈ P, such that f (x) = y}.

Example: Find the Domain, Co-Domain, and Range of function.

1. Let x = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. y = {a, b, c, d, e}
3. f = {(1, b), (2, a), (3, d), (4, c)
Solution:

Domain of function: {1, 2, 3, 4}

Range of function: {a, b, c, d}
Co-Domain of function: {a, b, c, d, e}
FUNCTIONS AS A SET

If P and Q are two non-empty sets, then a function f from P to Q is a subset of P x Q, with two
important restrictions

1. ∀ a ∈ P, (a, b) ∈ f for some b ∈ Q

2. If (a, b) ∈ f and (a, c) ∈ f then b = c.

Note1: There may be some elements of the Q which are not related to any element of set P.
2. Every element of P must be related with at least one element of Q.

Example1: If a set A has n elements, how many functions are there from A to A?

Solution: If a set A has n elements, then there are nn functions from A to A.

REPRESENTATION OF A FUNCTION

The two sets P and Q are represented by two circles. The function f: P → Q is represented by a
collection of arrows joining the points which represent the elements of P and corresponds
elements of Q
 Example1:

1. Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {x, y, z} and f: X → Y such that

2. f= {(a, x), (b, z), (c, x)}

Then f can be represented diagrammatically as follows

Example2: Let X = {x, y, z, k} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which of the following
functions. Give reasons if it is not. Find range if it is a function.

a. f = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 3), (k, 4)

b. g = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (k, 4)
c. h = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (x, 4)
d. l = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 1), (k, 1)}
e. d = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3), (z, 4), (z, 4)}.

Solution:

1. It is a function. Range (f) = {1, 2, 3, 4}

2. It is not a function because every element of X does not relate with some element of Y
i.e., Z is not related with any element of Y.
3. h is not a function because h (x) = {1, 2, 3, 4} i.e., element x has more than one image in
set Y.
4. d is not a function because d (y) = {2, 3} i.e., element y has more than image in set Y.
Types of Functions

1. Injective (One-to-One) Functions: A function in which one element of Domain Set is

connected to one element of Co-Domain Set.

2. Surjective (Onto) Functions: A function in which every element of Co-Domain Set has one
pre-image.

Example: Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, b, c} and f = {(1, b), (2, a), (3, c), (4, c)}.

It is a Surjective Function, as every element of B is the image of some A

Note: In an Onto Function, Range is equal to Co-Domain.

 3. Bijective (One-to-One Onto) Functions: A function which is both injective (one to - one)
and surjective (onto) is called bijective (One-to-One Onto) Function.

Example:

1. Consider P = {x, y, z}
2. Q = {a, b, c}
3. and f: P → Q such that
4. f = {(x, a), (y, b), (z, c)}

The f is a one-to-one function and also it is onto. So it is a bijective function.

4. Into Functions: A function in which there must be an element of co-domain Y does not have
a pre-image in domain X.

Example:

1. Consider, A = {a, b, c}
2. B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f: A → B such that
3. f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)}
4. In the function f, the range i.e., {1, 2, 3} ≠ co-domain of Y i.e., {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, it is an into function

 5. One-One Into Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called one-one into function if
different elements of X have different unique images of Y.

Example:

1. Consider, X = {k, l, m}
2. Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f: X → Y such that
3. f = {(k, 1), (l, 3), (m, 4)}

The function f is a one-one into function

6. Many-One Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is said to be many-one functions if there

exist two or more than two different elements in X having the same image in Y.

Example:

1. Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2. Y = {x, y, z} and f: X → Y such that
3. f = {(1, x), (2, x), (3, x), (4, y), (5, z)}

The function f is a many-one function

 7. Many-One Into Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called the many-one function if
and only if is both many one and into function.

Example:

1. Consider X = {a, b, c}
2. Y = {1, 2} and f: X → Y such that
3. f = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1)}

As the function f is a many-one and into, so it is a many-one into function.

8. Many-One Onto Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called many-one onto function if
and only if is both many one and onto.

Example:

1. Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. Y = {k, l} and f: X → Y such that
3. f = {(1, k), (2, k), (3, l), (4, l)}

The function f is a many-one (as the two elements have the same image in Y) and it is onto (as
every element of Y is the image of some element X). So, it is many-one onto function
 Identity Functions

The function f is called the identity function if each element of set A has an image on itself i.e. f
(a) = a ∀ a ∈ A.

It is denoted by I.

Example:

1. Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and f: A → A such that

2. f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}.

The function f is an identity function as each element of A is mapped onto itself. The function f
is a one-one and onto

INVERTIBLE (INVERSE) FUNCTIONS

A function f: X → Y is invertible if and only if it is a bijective function.

Consider the bijective (one to one onto) function f: X → Y. As f is a one to one, therefore, each
element of X corresponds to a distinct element of Y. As f is onto, there is no element of Y which
is not the image of any element of X, i.e., range = co-domain Y.

The inverse function for f exists if f-1 is a function from Y to X.

 Example:

1. Consider, X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Y = {k, l, m} and f: X→Y such that
3. f = {(1, k), (2, m), (3, l)

The inverse function of f is shown in fig:

Compositions of Functions

Consider functions, f: A → B and g: B → C. The composition of f with g is a function from A

into C defined by (gof) (x) = g [f(x)] and is defined by gof.

To find the composition of f and g, first find the image of x under f and then find the image
of f (x) under g.
 Example1:

1. Let X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Y = {a, b}
3. Z = {5, 6, 7}.

Consider the function f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b)} and g = {(a, 5), (b, 7)} as in figure. Find the
composition of gof.

Solution: The composition function gof is shown in fig:

(gof) (1) = g [f (1)] = g (a) = 5, (gof) (2) = g [f (2)] = g (a) = 5

(gof) (3) = g [f (3)] = g (b) = 7.

Note:

o If f and g are one-to-one, then the function (gof) (gof) is also one-to-one.
o If f and g are onto then the function (gof) (gof) is also onto.
 o Composition consistently holds associative property but does not hold commutative
property.

Solved Problems

Example 1: Consider f, g and h, all functions on the integers, by f (n) =n2, g (n) = n + 1 and h (n)
= n - 1.

Determine (i) hofog (ii) gofoh (iii) fogoh.

Solution:

(i) hofog (n) = n + 1,

hofog (n + 1) = (n+1)2
h [(n+1)2 ] = (n+1)2 - 1 = n2 + 1 + 2n - 1 = n2 + 2n.

(ii) gofoh (n) = n - 1, gof (n - 1) = (n-1)2

g [(n-1)2 ] = (n-1)2 + 1 = n2 + 1 - 2n + 1 = n2 - 2n + 2.

(iii) fogoh (n) = n - 1

fog (n - 1) = (n - 1) + 1
f (n) = n2.
Example: Which of the following diagrams represent a function?
Let X={1,2,3,4} and Y={a,b,c,d}.
Review Questions
S. No. Question TLO Bloom’s
Level
1 Define one-to-one, Onto and Bijective functions and give TLO2 L2
example for each function?
2 Let A={1,2,3,4,5,6} and B={6,7,8,9,10} if a function f:A->B is TLO2 L3
defined by f={(1,7),(2,7),(3,8),(4,6),(5,9),(6,9)}.Determine f-
1
(6), f-1(9).if B1={7,8} and B2={8,9,10} find f-1(B1), f-1(B2). Let f
and g be two functions from R to R defined by f(x) = ax +b and
g(x) = cx +d. what relation must satisfied by a,b,c,d if fog=gof?