Oatfdraftreport 1

Ocean Acidification
Its Causes, Impacts, and Mitigation;

A Report to the New York State Legislature
BY OCEAN ACIDIFICATION TASK FORCE, JULY 2023
For questions concerning ocean issues

and the State’s Ocean Action Plan, please
contact NYSDEC’s Division of Marine
Resources at 631-444-0430.
Cite as:
New York State Ocean Acidification Task
Force. 2022. Ocean Acidification: Its
Causes, Impacts, and Mitigation; A Report to
the New York State Legislature. Complete.
This report represents the views and

opinions of the Ocean Acidification Task
Force and does not necessarily represent
NYSDEC’s views and opinions.
In Memory of Dr. Swanson
Ocean Acidification
OA
So, some say
Ocean acidification
A troubling situation
Declining pH
In too much haste
Seashells dissolving
Mitigation not evolving
To remediate
Need more carbonate
Reduce carbon dioxide
Worldwide
Raise pH to eight
The ocean’s natural state
R. Lawrence Swanson
May 2020
Contents
Ocean Acidification Task Force Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ocean Acidification Investigators and Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Geographic Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Science of OA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Climate Change Magnifies OA Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Establishment of the Ocean Acidification Task Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Five Pillars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Coordination and Collaboration with Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Marine Resources at Risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Socioeconomic Impacts of Threatened Marine Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Pillar I. Mitigate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Implement Measures to Reduce the Extent, Magnitude, and Impact of OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
I-1. Review and implement nitrogen water quality standards in New York’s coastal areas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
I-2. Minimize discharges that contribute to coastal OA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
I-3. Promote seaweed cultivation in conjunction with shellfish aquaculture to bioextract nitrogen and carbon
dioxide from the surface waters.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
I-4. Enhance blue carbon sequestration using seagrasses, kelp beds, and marshes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Seagrasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
I-5. Support and broaden mollusk-shell recycling programs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
I-6. Support and broaden the Long Island Shellfish Restoration Project.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
I-7. Maintain barrier island inlet openings to improve estuarine circulation, thus reducing acidic conditions. . . . . . . 21
I-8. Introduce highly alkaline material into the marine environment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Buffering Solutions Reduce Acidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
I-9. Expand use of ocean outfalls for discharge of sewage effluent.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
I-10. Fill in dredged hypoxic holes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
continued on following page...
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION: ITS CAUSES, IMPACTS, AND MITIGATION; A REPORT TO THE NEW YORK STATE LEGISLATURE 1
Pillar II. Educate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Promote awareness concerning OA state of knowledge, its impacts, and opportunities for reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
II-1. Develop a statewide marketing and communications strategy around messaging on OA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
II-1a. Develop an OA module for the State’s secondary science level programs aligned to the
New York State Next Generation Science Standards, which became testable in 2020.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
II-1b. Use public service announcements on radio, TV, and other platforms to generate interest
and concern about climate change and OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
II-1c. Use social media creatively to generate public interest in OA issues and remediation measures.. . . . . 24
II-2. Require all SUNY institutions of higher learning (64 campuses) to have an introductory course on the
environment that includes a segment on climate change along with its connection to OA and its implications.. . . . 25
II-3. Provide financial support for OA graduate research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Pillar III. Investigate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Conduct relevant research and monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
III-1. Quantify mitigation measures in their effectiveness to reduce OA and its consequences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
III-2. Invest in monitoring New York’s nearshore and estuarine waters.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
New York Ocean Action Plan (2017) Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Iconic Bay Scallop as a Monitoring Standard for the Peconic Bays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
III-3. Develop a geospatial tool to prioritize locations for OA mitigation efforts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
III-4. Quantify linkages between nutrient enrichment, hypoxic waters, and OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
III-5. Scale from individual physiological effects to populations and ecosystems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
III-6. Study genetic variation of marine organisms to identify genetic disparities associated with resilience in the
face of OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
III-7. Study the chemistry of mitigation measures such as artificial ocean alkalinization of coastal waters.. . . . . . . . . 29
III-8. Understand ecological functioning in salt marshes and its relationship to OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
III-9. Support investigations of ribbed mussel restoration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
III-10. Determine residence times for embayments in the Marine and Coastal District. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
III-11. Understand the altering of freshwater flows on coastal OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
III-12. Study the socioeconomic impacts of OA as well as economic incentives for a mitigation strategy. . . . . . . . . . 30
III-13. Conduct a periodic OA status report from monitoring programs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
III-14. Establish a New York State sentinel OA site, supported by the newly renovated, state-of-the-art Flax Pond
facility as a New York OA research facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
III-15. Study the physiological and synergistic effects of OA on bivalves and other marine organisms, including at
early life stages.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
III-16. Understand the physical stability of the marine environment to enhance blue carbon sequestration.. . . . . . . 32
III-17. Understand the dynamics of the Cold Pool on coastal OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Cold Pool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2 OCEAN ACIDIFICATION TASK FORCE

III-18. Include pH and other measures of OA in the next iteration of the System-Wide Eutrophication Model.. . . . . . 32
III-19. Understand the benefits of Phragmites australis (spp. americanus) for nitrogen uptake and OA mitigation.. 33
III-20. Study the effect of OA on the nutritional value of shellfish.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Pillar IV. Engage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Inspire and stimulate businesses, industry, and governments to understand, reduce, and eliminate factors
contributing to OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
IV-1. Require that new development be carbon neutral.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
IV-2. Work with the agricultural industry to foster carbon sequestration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
IV-3. Work with the construction industry to substitute alternative materials such as
carbon-sequestering cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Portland Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
IV-4. Encourage and enforce robust community recycling programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Pillar V. Legislate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Develop a legislative action plan.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V-1. Participate in and contribute to national and global OA legislative actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Recent, Relevant Federal OA Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
H.R. 2533, the NEAR Act of 2021. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
H.R. 1447, the COAST Research Act of 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
H.R. 8632, the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
S. 914, the Coordinated Ocean Observations and Research Act of 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V-2. Revise, modernize, and enforce New York State’s pH water quality standards.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
V-3. Review the State Environmental Quality Review Act (SEQR) in order to use existing laws
to reduce OA impacts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
V-4. Coordinate OA Task Force recommendations with the Scoping Plan recommendations of the
Climate Action Council.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
V-5. Embrace Suffolk and Nassau counties’ Subwatershed Wastewater Management Plans.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
V-6. Create an initiative to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by improving building insulation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
V-7. Create an expedited permitting process for aquaculture operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
V-8. Develop a legislative process to avert conflicts between possible OA mitigation measures and freedom
of navigation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
V-9. Coordinate New York State’s OA initiatives with Connecticut and New Jersey.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
V-10. Participate in international OA activities.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
V-11. Create an OA advisory committee out of the Governor’s Office to help implement the OA plan. . . . . . . . . . . . 38
V-12. Amend legislation so that all indigenous macroalgal species are approved for aquaculture in the
Marine and Coastal District of New York State.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
V-13. Reduce fertilizer use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Marine and Coastal District of New York State
Figure 2. Reaction of carbon dioxide in water
Figure 3. One-day-old Pacific oyster larvae
Figure 4. The Bay Park Conveyance Project
Figure 5A. Bio-extraction via harvesting of shellfish and seaweed.
Figure 5B. Fishers Island oyster hatchery
Figure 6. Long Island Zostera marina seagrass bed
Figure 7. Select New York small coastal embayments
Figure 8A. Erosion of salt marsh peat in Stony Brook Harbor
Figure 8B. Flax Pond Salt Marsh
Figure 9. Ocean-acidification education posters.
Figure 10. R/V SEAWOLF ocean-acidification equipment and CTD cast from the R/V SEAWOLF
Figure 11. New York large coastal waterbodies
Figure 12. Concurrent low DO and pH trends at nighttime low waters in Flax Pond
Figure 13. Cement made with pulverized glass
List of Tables
Table 1. New York State sea level rise projections (6 NYCRR Part 490)
Table 2. Projected changes to New York State extreme weather, 90th percentile
Table 3. Average flushing times for selected Long Island embayments

Ocean Acidification Task Force Members
James Tierney, Chair John K. McLaughlin
Deputy Commissioner, Office of Water Resources Managing Director, Office of Ecosystem Services
NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation NYC Dept. of Environmental Protection
Ian MacCallum Jeff Herter

Senior Attorney Division of Community Resilience and Regional
NYS Office of General Services Programs, Office of Planning and Development
NYS Dept. of State
Marci Bortman, PhD (Designee of NYS Secretary of State Rosanna Rosado)
Climate Adaption Director
The Nature Conservancy Steve Malinowski
Owner/Operator
Chris Pickerell Fishers Island Oyster Farm
Marine Program Director
Cornell Cooperative Extension of Suffolk County Carl Safina, PhD
Endowed Research Chair for Nature and Humanity
Malcolm J. Bowman, PhD School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences
Distinguished Service Professor Stony Brook University
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Director, Safina Center
Stony Brook University
Joyce Novak, PhD
Jeremy Thornton Executive Director
Former U.S. Navy SEAL Peconic Estuary Partnership
Strategic Markets Director
Janssen Pharmaceuticals Jason Masters
Renewable Energy and Oceanographic Consultant
David Gugerty Gaiergy Corp.
Chair, Bayville Environmental Conservation Commission
Democratic Commissioner
Nassau County Board of Elections
Ocean Acidification Investigators and Staff

Henry Bokuniewicz Janet Nye
Larry Swanson Teresa Schwemmer
Bonnie Stephens Kaitlin Giglio
Acknowledgements
The Ocean Acidification Task Force (OATF) members and staff would like to thank all the former task force members for
the work they contributed to completing this report, namely, Chad Cook, Karen Rivera, Larry Swanson, James F. Gennaro,
Todd Gardner, and David Gugerty. Although they were unable to remain on the task force to see the report through to its
completion, their efforts were integral to the formation and development of the report. In addition, the task force would like
to thank the many experts that provided their expertise through presentations at past OATF meetings, including Dr. Janet
Nye, Teresa Schwemmer, Kyle Rabin, Dr. Frank Roethel, Dr. Bradley Peterson, and Dr. Chris Gobler. These presentations
allowed the task force to broaden and strengthen the collective knowledge base that could be drawn from for the develop-
ment of this report. Finally, the task force would like to thank those experts who provided guidance at working group meet-
ings and through document review, including Tom Gulbransen, Dr. Peter Raymond, Maureen Dunn, Jason Greer, Dr. Grace
Saba, and Katie O’Brien-Clayton. Their input was invaluable and strengthened the report significantly.
List of Abbreviations
ANC Acid-neutralizing capacity
BMP Best management practices
DIC Dissolved inorganic carbon
DO Dissolved oxygen
DOS New York State Department of State
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FOARAM Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring
LINAP Long Island Nitrogen Action Plan
LIRPC Long Island Regional Planning Council
LIS Long Island Sound
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
NYC New York City
NYS New York State
NYSDEC New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
NYSERDA New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
OA Ocean acidification
OATF Ocean Acidification Task Force
PSA Public Service Announcement
QAQC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
SBU Stony Brook University
SEQR State Environmental Quality Review Act
SPDES State Pollution Discharge Elimination System
STP Sewage treatment plant
TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
WTE Waste-to-energy

Executive Summary
In 2016, the New York State Legislature established Pillar II: Educate to promote awareness of the occur-
the Ocean Acidification Task Force (OATF) “to identify rence of OA, its adverse impacts, and opportunities for
the causes and factors contributing to ocean acidifica- mitigation.
tion and evaluating ways of addressing the problem by
applying the best available science as to ocean acidifica- Knowledge and awareness are essential for informing
tion and its anticipated impacts.” One of New York State’s good policy and action. The OA community in New York
most significant climate change impacts, ocean acidifi- should work with the extensive climate-change adapta-
cation (OA) has far-reaching, adverse impacts on marine tion and resilience community to take advantage of exist-
living resources, altering ecosystems and the socioeco- ing educational opportunities and resources to create
nomic benefits derived from oceanic ecosystem services, new avenues for outreach and engagement. In some
including fishing, aquaculture, and coastline protection. cases, new legislation and changes in public policy will
In the coastal ocean, the carbonate system is strongly be necessary. New York State should regularly report on
influenced by marine discharges of various acidic waters, the status of coastal OA and how existing conditions and
such as fresh water, wastewater, and upwelling, as well impacts are being mitigated once reasonable and suffi-
as indirectly by excessive nutrient discharges driving cient monitoring has taken place.
coastal OA. Recommendations in this report are intended
Pillar III: Investigate through relevant OA research and
to reduce the impact of OA in the coastal waters of New
monitoring.
York. Although the OATF embraces the broad global and
national goals of reducing factors contributing to global The dynamic interactions and functioning of marine
carbon emissions and OA, efforts are centered in this ecosystems are complex, and mitigating OA requires
report on identifying mitigation measures that are suit- a broad understanding and continuing investigation of
able to New York State’s marine waters. those systems. Research should focus on increasing the
understanding of ocean carbonate chemistry and devel-
In this report, there are five categories, or pillars, of
oping baseline data by monitoring the relevant chemi-
actions recommended for addressing the effects of
cal parameters, and the status of sentinel, shell-building
coastal OA in New York’s marine waters.
marine organisms that are most sensitive to OA. Research
Pillar I: Mitigate by implementing measures to reduce the must also identify appropriate remedial actions for each
extent, magnitude, and impact of OA. waterbody and OA mitigation best practices scalable to
a level that results in significant environmental improve-
Coastal OA has a variety of drivers, such as carbon diox- ment and meaningful investment. Research efforts should
ide emissions, eutrophication, freshwater flows, marine include long-term monitoring of implemented measures
discharges, and coastal upwelling. Mitigation measures for adaptive management and establishment of explicit
can be directed at decreasing acidity directly or at utiliz- marine environment targets for coastal OA in the major
ing and ameliorating the sources of nutrients or carbon waterbodies in New York State’s Marine and Coastal
dioxide that are causing OA. The ability of diverse natural District.
systems, such as marshes, sea grasses, and seaweeds, to
store blue carbon must be protected. One way to reduce Pillar IV: Engage, convene, and support efforts of busi-
OA is keeping active circulation in coastal waterbodies, nesses, industry, and all levels of governments to reduce
thereby reducing residence times, nitrogen accumulation, or eliminate factors contributing to OA through the adop-
occurrences of low dissolved oxygen (DO), and eutrophic tion of best management practices (BMPs).
conditions. Given that nitrogen is a driver of estuarine
Reducing the impact of OA on New York’s coastal waters
hypoxia and coastal OA, more stringent nitrogen water
will require working closely with businesses, industry, and
quality standards are recommended. Programs that use,
local governments to develop appropriate financial and
recycle, or store nitrogen and carbon, such as shell-recy-
other incentives for OA mitigation.
cling and aquaculture, are to be encouraged to counter-
act the fundamental causes of OA. Land-use zoning may Pillar V: Legislate a regulatory action plan to set criteria;
be the best tool available to balance land development fund education, research, and monitoring; fund incentives
and the protection of New York State’s marine waters and for businesses and industry to implement BMPs; and fund
their economically important marine resources. The State implementation of mitigation measures.
and its partners should assist zoning boards in planning
for OA mitigation.
Introduction
Ocean acidification (OA) is caused by the dissolution This report recommends definitive actions the State
of excessive amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide in and its partners1 and stakeholders can undertake that
marine waters, a global problem largely resulting from the will have measurable impacts for curbing and mitigat-
burning of fossil fuels and the transformative changes in ing contributing factors to coastal OA. To identify the
land use. OA is one of the many effects of anthropogenic best actions for mitigating and reducing the contribut-
(human-caused) climate change. This report will provide ing factors to coastal OA, specific marine environmen-
guidance to the New York State executive branch and tal targets and mitigation measures should be identified
Legislature in addressing the problem of OA. Success- for each waterbody that are scaled in time and space to
ful implementation of appropriate recommendations will achieve the targets. Targets might be based on specific
require hard work, ingenuity, financial and staff support, life stages of key OA-sensitive species. New York State
and extensive collaboration of all partners and stakehold- has several tools available to establish and enforce
ers, including federal, state, and local governments; and targets through the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
nonprofit, academic, research, and private sector agen- (as amended, commonly referred to as the Clean Water
cies and institutions. Act) and the authorizations given to the states, including
technology-based standards (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013).
Geographic Focus
This report identifies many of the New York State
resources that are at risk in its Marine and Coastal
District (Figure 1) and its neighboring waters in the New
York Bight. The tidally influenced waters of the New York
Marine and Coastal District consist of interconnected
marine systems with distinct ecosystems. These systems
include:
● The open Atlantic Ocean;
● South Shore Estuary Reserve, a series of shallow

bar-built estuaries on the South Shore of Long
Island, separated from the open Atlantic Ocean by
barrier islands and connected by narrow inlets;
Figure 1. The Marine and Coastal District of New York State.
● The Hudson River Estuary system, running 233 km Credit: https://www.dec.ny.gov/permits/95483.html
(145 mi) north to Albany from New York Harbor;
● The Long Island Sound (LIS), a large estuary shared

with Connecticut; and
● The Peconic Estuary, located between the north

and south forks of Long Island.
1 NYSDEC works closely with a broad coalition of partners, including the NYS Department of State, the Long Island Regional Planning Council
(LIRPC), the region’s National Estuary Programs, Suffolk and Nassau counties, federal government agencies, local governments, area
scientists, numerous environmental organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and a cadre of consultant services.

Science of OA
To develop appropriate recommendations and appropri-
ate policies for OA, it is essential to understand the basic
science behind OA and how climate change and anthro-
pogenic activities are contributing. Over the last 200
years, a measure of acidity known as pH2 has declined on
average by about 0.1 units throughout the world’s oceans
(Honisch, 2012; The Ocean Portal Team, 2018). This is
about 50 times greater than the rate prior to the Indus-
trial Revolution. The ocean is naturally slightly alkaline,
with a normal average pH of 8.2. The ocean’s average
pH is now approximately 8.1. This decline translates into
an increase in acidity of about 26% in the last two centu-
ries, and ocean pH is expected to further decline 0.3–0.4 Figure 2. Reaction of carbon dioxide in water. When
units by the end of the twenty-first century (The Ocean carbon dioxide dissociates in water it forms carbonic acid
Portal Team, 2018). and carbonate ions and can either be used by calcifying
organisms or taken up by excess hydrogen ions. Under
On a global scale, the dissolution of atmospheric carbon acidic conditions, more carbonate ions react with hydrogen
dioxide in the ocean causes OA. When atmospheric ions, making carbonate molecules unavailable to calcifying
carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, the carbon dioxide organisms. Credit: NYS OATF
is hydrated and forms carbonic acid that then separates
into bicarbonate and carbonate, leaving hydrogen ions Coastal eutrophic waters and hypoxia4 can exacerbate
available in the water column (Figure 2). Marine organ- acidic conditions as marine algae, phytoplankton, and
isms depend on carbonate ions in the form of calcium microbes respire and release carbon dioxide to the water
carbonate to create their shells. If the waters are too in a variety of marine environments reducing the buffering
acidic, the carbonate ions will associate with excess capacity of those environments (Cai et al., 2011; Cai et al.
hydrogen ions, decreasing the availability of calcium 2017). Locally, Baumann et al. (2015) have shown the wide
carbonate in the form of aragonite,3 which is necessary daytime (diurnal) fluctuations of pH, DO, and the partial
for proper shell formation. This is what is referred to as pressure of carbon dioxide5 in Flax Pond (Baumann et
global OA. In the coastal ocean, the carbonate system al., 2015), a small, highly productive embayment of the
is strongly influenced by marine discharges of various LIS. The LIS experiences seasonal fluctuations in pH that
acidic waters, such as freshwater and wastewater, upwell- occur together with low DO and high chlorophyll values
ing (Rheuban et al., 2019), and stormwater and fertilizer (Wallace et al., 2014). The greatest fluctuations occur in
inputs, all of which drive what is referred to as coastal bottom waters of the western LIS where the effect of
OA (Wallace et al., 2014). In coastal OA, nitrogen from high levels of partial pressure of carbon dioxide on the
sewage and fertilizer seeps into coastal marine waters availability of aragonite would negatively impact many
and stimulates excessive biological growth in the form marine organisms (Kroeker et al., 2013). Large portions
of marine algae. As the excess algae die off and decom- of the water column have low aragonite concentrations
pose, the process consumes DO every night and releases in summer months that can persist in the western LIS into
carbon dioxide into the water when excess organic matter the fall (Wallace et al., 2014). Hempstead Bay and Jamaica
decomposes. Nitrification, the process by which ammo- Bay (on the South Shore of Long Island) also display high
nia is oxidized to form nitrite and then is oxidized again to levels of partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Wallace et al.,
form nitrate, also contributes to acidification in nearshore 2014). Considerable marine resources, including coastal
waters. The relative contributions of both coastal OA and ecosystem services and assets, are potentially at risk
global OA to regional acidification conditions in New York from OA. Significant ecological and economic impacts
State’s waters have not yet been quantified, but coastal have already affected the western LIS, Hempstead Bay,
OA generally is thought to be the more immediate prob- and Jamaica Bay (Wallace et al., 2014), where the acidity
lem in New York’s waters. of marine waters has reduced growth and survival in early
2 pH, or potential of hydrogen, measures the concentration of hydrogen ions, that is, the acidity, of a liquid. A pH below 7 is acidic and above 7
is alkaline. pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where a 1 pH unit change is equivalent to a ten-fold change in hydrogen-ion concentration.
3 Aragonite, a calcium carbonate mineral, is secreted from water by animals to form a shell. Aragonite saturation state is a measure of the
tendency of aragonite to form or dissolve.
4 Hypoxia is a condition of low levels of DO in the water (O2 < 3 mg/L). Eutrophication is a process that occurs when there is an overabundance
of nutrients in the water that leads to excessive growth of plants. When these plants die, bacteria use DO in the process of decomposition and
this can lead to low levels of DO in the water.
5 The partial pressure of carbon dioxide is a measure of the concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved as a gas in the water.
life stages of both fish (Murray et al., 2014) and shellfish ogy, and physical aspects of the already-stressed marine
(Miller et al., 2009; Talmage et al., 2009; Kroeker et al., environment, actions taken to mitigate the effects of OA
2013). may not be as effective or even viable in the near future.
For example, biogeographic zones of valued species
OA is only one effect of global climate change, and the in New York’s waters may shift for reasons not directly
state of knowledge concerning OA is incomplete and caused by OA, but OA may make it impossible for those
rapidly evolving. Climate change impacts are considered species to return to those zones even after habitat resto-
to be threat multipliers because underlying stressors, ration projects are completed. Thus, it is imperative that
like pollution, habitat destruction, and overexploitation, the State's OA-management approach take into consid-
weaken the health and resilience of the marine ecosys- eration current and future climate change conditions and
tem. Climate change impacts work synergistically to push how these impacts exacerbate existing stressors, and be
ecosystems toward and beyond their limits (thresholds). readily adaptable to meet the changing environmental
As climate change continues to modify the chemistry, biol- realities under climate change.
Climate Change Magnifies OA Impacts

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions result in both climate change and ocean acidification, and ocean acidification has been
referred to as “the other carbon dioxide problem” (Logan, 2010). Beyond their root causes, ocean acidification and climate change
are often approached as distinct and separate problems. Recent research provides insights into a much more complex relationship,
and demonstrates how unfolding physical effects and impacts of climate change are already exacerbating the impacts of ocean
acidification and are projected to increase. In this way, climate change can be considered a threat- or risk-multiplier of ocean
acidification.
Climate change has already resulted in significant physical effects and impacts and climate change projections have been developed
for anticipated future climate changes. Average temperature increases have occurred every decade between 1901 and 2012 in all
parts of NYS, with temperature increases ranging from 0.09–0.35 degrees Fahrenheit per decade (Horton et al., 2014). In the 2100s,
New York City and Long Island temperatures are projected to be 12.1°F higher than baseline. Regional sea-surface temperatures
have also risen more than 1.0°F over the course of the twentieth century, and future projections developed for the 2050s show
substantial increases of 1.8–2.5°F above the 1980s baseline for regional nearshore waters (Buonaiuto et al., 2011). Projections for
ocean waters over the Northeast Continental Shelf expect increased warming by up to 0.76°F per decade by the period 2070–2099,
compared to 0.40°F per decade during the period 1976–2005 (Alexander et al., 2018).
Average annual precipitation has increased in New York City and Long Island by 0.76 inches per decade (1901–2012) (Horton et
al., 2014). By 2080, the New York City area is projected to have an additional increase of 6–19% in average annual precipitation
depending on carbon emissions levels (Horton et al., 2014).
Sea level along New York’s ocean coast and in the Hudson River has already risen about 1.2 inches per decade, for a total of more
than one foot since 1900 (Horton et al., 2014). New York State’s official sea level rise projections, adopted under Title 6 of the New
York Codes, Rules and Regulations (6 NYCRR Part 490), are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. New York State sea level rise projections (6 NYCRR Part 490)
Region Long Island NYC/Lower Hudson Mid-Hudson
Inches of rise over baseline level, defined as the average level of the surface of tidal
water over the years 2000-2004
Descriptor L L-M M H-M H L L-M M H-M H L L-M M H-M H
2020s 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 9
2050s 8 11 16 21 30 8 11 16 21 30 5 9 14 19 27
2080s 13 18 29 39 58 13 18 29 39 58 10 14 25 36 54
2100 15 21 34 47 72 15 22 36 50 75 11 18 32 46 71
L = Low, M = High; H=High; Baseline = "The average level of the surface of marine or tidal water over the years 2000–2004"
The number of days of extreme heat, with temperatures at or above 90°F, have been increasing since the 1970s. Total days of
extreme heat, as well as both the number and duration of heat waves, are expected to increase in the coming decades. (Rosenzweig
et al., 2011). Changes in future storm frequency is unclear, although it is expected that storm intensity will increase (Alexander et
al., 2018). Average annual precipitation increases for New York City and Long Island were 0.76 inches per decade from 1901–
2012 (Horton et al., 2014). Drought frequency in New York is projected to increase by the end of this century as increased rates
of evaporation associated with warmer temperatures are expected to outweigh increases in precipitation (Horton et al., 2014).
Projected changes to extreme weather in New York State as listed here, Table 2, were adapted from data in Horton et al., 2014.
sidebar continued on following page...

Climate Change Magnifies OA Impacts (continued)
Table 2. Projected changes to New York State extreme weather, 90th percentile
Extreme Heat Number of Heat Waves (# of Duration of Extreme Rain
(additional days additional periods of 3+ days Heat Waves (additional days with
Future Time Period above 90°F of extreme heat) per year (additional days) more than 1 inch)
Baseline 0.3–18 0–2 3–4 5–13
2020s 1.7–15 0.2–3 0–1 1–3
2050s 9.7– 4 1–7 1–2 1–4
2080s 26.7–73 3–8 2–5 2–5
Climate change effects are already having and are expected to have increasingly compound, cumulative, and synergistic impacts on OA.
Intense precipitation associated with tropical systems in late summer and fall have caused flooding to the state’s larger riverine systems
(Rosenzweig et al., 2011). Heavy rain events result in increased runoff and streamflow and reduced water quality (Dupigny-Giroux,
2018). Increases in precipitation are expected to alter the salinity of nearshore waters, impacting fish and shellfish (Alexander et al.,
2018). Sea-surface temperature significantly influences the physiology, behavior, and phenology of temperate marine fish (Houde, 1989;
Pepin, 1991; Nye et al., 2009). According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “increased sea surface
temperature in combination with runoff, sewage, and fertilizers may be interacting to alter the natural pattern of algal blooms, altering
their frequency, spatial extent, species composition, and toxicity” (NOAA, n.d.). When climate change impacts such as thermal stress and
hypoxia combine with OA, they can have a compound and synergistic effect that reduces the survival rate of larval fish (DePasquale et
al., 2015; Gobler and Baumann, 2016). Atlantic fisheries are expected to experience “notable redistributions” under combined impacts
of OA and warming waters from climate change by the end of the century (Wilson et al., 2020). Nutrient decreases coupled with warming
temperatures may reduce phytoplankton biomass (Rose and Carron, 2007). Increasing temperatures, increasing ocean acidification, and
reduced ocean food supplies, including phytoplankton, can work synergistically to reduce the survival and development of small fish
in Atlantic estuaries (Gobler, et al., 2018). The combined effects of warming temperatures and OA threaten cold-water corals (Hoegh-
Guldberg, et al., 2017). As climate change continues to intensify ocean acidification, “reductions in the survival, calcification, growth,
development, and abundance of marine organisms” will become more likely (Mid-Atlantic Coastal Acidification Network, 2018).
Although there are still many uncertainties, and the dynamics of climate change and OA are not yet well understood, there is enough
initial evidence to suggest that policies to address OA might be more robust if the current and projected physical effects and impacts
of climate change were considered.
Establishment of the Ocean Acidification Task Force

Recognizing that the state’s coastal waters are in distress, — Identify and monitor early effects of OA
the New York Legislature enacted legislation establishing on marine life, animals, plants, and natural
the Ocean Acidification Task Force (OATF; Laws of New communities; and
York, 2016, Chapter 464). The OATF was charged with
identifying “the causes and factors contributing to ocean — Integrate OA mitigation and adaptation strate-
acidification and evaluating ways of addressing the prob- gies into State environmental plans;
lem by applying the best available science as to ocean
● Recommendations on State and local regula-
acidification and its anticipated impacts.”
tory and/or statutory alterations to respond to the
The legislation included several requirements: impacts of OA;
● An assessment of the anticipated impacts related ● Review of existing scientific literature and data on
to OA; OA and how it has directly or indirectly affected or
may potentially affect commercially harvested and
● Recommendations related to mechanisms New grown species along the coast;
York could establish to provide stronger, more
protective standards, and the implementation and ● Identification for monitoring the factors contribut-
enforcement of such standards; ing to OA; and
● Recommendations regarding adaptive measures ● Recommendations to increase public awareness

that may be taken to respond to OA, including of OA.
measures to:
To identify the best actions for mitigating and reducing
the contributing factors to coastal OA, specific marine
environmental targets and mitigation measures should
be identified for each waterbody that are scaled in time through legislative action. Pillar V addresses the impor-
and space to achieve the targets. Targets might be based tance of the legislative process in setting standards; fund-
on specific life stages of key OA-sensitive species. New ing education, research, and monitoring; and requiring
York State has several tools available to establish and appropriate reporting. The legislative process can also
enforce such targets through the Federal Water Pollution provide incentives for businesses and industry to use
Control Act and the authorizations given to the states BMPs and to invest in mitigation measures, perhaps by
including technology-based standards, the State Pollution creating tax benefits.
Discharge Elimination System (SPDES), and Total Maxi-
mum Daily Loads (TMDLs) (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013). Coordination and
Five Pillars Collaboration with Partners
New York has a plethora of entities that have been and
This report is divided into five pillars. Each pillar contains
currently are working to address many water quality
specific recommendations for addressing a different
problems in the Marine and Coastal District. For exam-
aspect of the OA issue. Collectively, the recommen-
ple, in 2015, NYSDEC, the Long Island Regional Planning
dations within the pillars have the potential to achieve
Council (LIRPC), and Suffolk and Nassau counties, with
measurable improvements in our coastal ocean and will
input from multiple partners and stakeholders, devel-
also contribute to broader goals for OA reduction.
oped the Long Island Nitrogen Action Plan (LINAP), a
Pillar I: Mitigate – Identifying mitigation and resiliency multiyear initiative to reduce nitrogen in Long Island's
measures to reduce the extent, magnitude, and impact surface and groundwaters. New York State DEC, Depart-
of OA. These are intended to improve the conditions of ment of State (DOS), Energy Research and Development
New York State waters and their living marine resources. Agency (NYSERDA), and other state agencies have addi-
If implemented, these can not only reduce or help control tional programs and initiatives that work on improving
New York’s coastal OA but also be used in other states, Long Island’s water quality. Additionally, LINAP further
increasing their impact. partners with Long Island Sound Study to fund a Nutrient
Bioextraction Coordinator to improve water quality. There
Pillar II: Educate – Promoting awareness concerning the are five estuary programs that are doing incredible work
OA state of knowledge, its impacts, and opportunities for to assess and address water quality problems. On the
mitigation. Awareness of the importance of OA, particu- federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
larly coastal OA, its consequences, and the potential for NOAA, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and other agen-
mediation is essential to develop the political will for its cies have led many successful water quality projects and
resolution. initiatives. Local government, academic institutions, and
nonprofit groups also work tirelessly to address water
Pillar III: Investigate – Undertaking relevant research pollution in this area of the state.
and monitoring. There are many questions still surround-
ing the issue of OA. It is particularly important to iden- Given limited staff and funding, and the far-reaching
tify remediation measures that have practical meaningful effects of OA, partnerships are critical to ensuring sustain-
application, and not just implement aspirational measures able management of ocean resources to the benefit of
that do not have a substantial quantitative effect. Reme- all stakeholders. Since many of the recommendations in
diation must be able to be scaled to a level that results this report complement or expand on another group’s
in measurable environmental improvement. Long-term activities, it will be most efficient and cost effective to
monitoring is a cornerstone of the adaptive management collaborate with partners. By properly directing funding
needed to ascertain that OA science is well founded and to supplement an existing program or project, leverag-
that New York State’s remediation efforts are having the ing will be maximized and thus ensure the most efficient
desired outcomes. Social sciences also have an import- and effective response to OA. At times, it will be essen-
ant role in informing mitigation actions. Barriers to change tial for ocean stakeholders to collaborate and coordi-
within society must be anticipated if the consequences of nate collectively to advocate for programs that advance
OA are to be successfully mitigated. shared goals.
Pillar IV: Engage – Engaging businesses and industry to Many partners have already added OA to the list of
invest in seeking solutions for OA impacts. The private water-related priorities, and we look forward to partner-
sector should be inspired, and markets encouraged for ing with them. The Task Force encourages others to also
marine products that can mitigate OA, such as kelp mari- recognize and help address OA.
culture.
Pillar V: Legislate – In many cases, the primary way in

which OA processes will be understood and appropri-
ately monitored and remedial measures undertaken is

Marine Resources at Risk
OA is projected to have an adverse impact on marine fish- edulis), oysters (Crassostrea virginica), and bay scallops
eries, especially shellfishing. Adverse OA impacts to living (Argopecten irradians) frequently have been identified as
marine resources are far-reaching, including impacts on species at risk due to OA (Griffith and Gobler, 2017; White
physiology, population dynamics, and altered ecosys- et al., 2013; White et al., 2014; Talmage and Gobler, 2009).
tems (Doney et al., 2020). Societal benefits derived from Bay scallops (the official shellfish of New York State) are
oceanic ecosystem goods and services, including fish- just starting to recover from reduced populations due to
ing, aquaculture, and coastline protection, are also jeop- exposure to frequent harmful algal blooms, but they may
ardized because of OA (Doney et al., 2020). now be in jeopardy again from OA, as well as from warm-
ing temperatures and other elements of climate change.
Consistent, negative, worldwide impacts of OA on Other economically important marine species potentially
survival, calcification, development (Figure 3), growth, at risk due to impacts of OA include Atlantic surf clam
and abundance in marine organisms have been identified (Spisula solidissima), longfin squid (Loligo pealei), and sea
(Kroeker et al., 2013). These impacts have been recog- scallop (Placopecten magellanicus).
nized from Maryland to Rhode Island (Maryland Task
Force on OA, 2015; Ekstrom et al., 2015). OA can also affect organisms without shells (finfish, jelly-
fish, plankton, etc.). Exposure
of fish eggs and larvae to OA
can reduce their growth and
survivorship rates (Baumann
et al., 2012a). OA-induced
declines in growth and survival
of shellfishes also reduced the
biomass of upper trophic levels
such as finfish (Fay et al., 2017).
Simultaneously, there was an
increased abundance of some
jellyfish species, which could
have a net negative impact
on ecosystems because the
jellyfish may then be able to
Figure 3. Effects of acidified water on shellfish larva development. This image shows one-day-
outcompete other organisms
old Pacific oyster larvae, both from the same parents, raised by the Taylor Shellfish Hatchery for food (Guinotte and Fabry,
in natural waters of Dabob Bay, Washington. The larva on the left was reared in favorable 2008). The life stages of the
carbonate chemistry; on the right, in unfavorable chemistry. The 0.1 mm scale bar is about the sand lance (genus Ammo-
diameter of a human hair. (Credit: George Waldbusser and Elizabeth Brunner, Oregon State dytes), a keystone forage fish
University, https://news.agu.org/press-release/ocean-acidification-killing-oysters-by-inhibiting- for species such as hump-
shell-formation/) back whales, sharks, and tuna,
are particularly vulnerable to
OA may produce adverse impacts on the physiology of elevated partial pressure of carbon dioxide and increased
many different types of organisms (Guinotte and Fabry, temperatures, especially during their early life (Murray et
2008). Numerous studies have overwhelmingly demon- al., 2019).
strated reduced calcification, development, photosynthe-
sis, growth, survivorship, and abundance of bivalves, with While the majority of OA research has focused on calcar-
the magnitude of these effects varying across taxa (Kroeker eous, shell-forming organisms, effects of OA on crus-
et al., 2013). Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp have shown some taceans with chitinous shells, such as lobsters, crabs,
initial ability to develop stronger shells in adaptation to OA shrimp, and krill, have also been studied. American lobster
(Ries et al., 2009), but these organisms may experience (Homarus americanus) has already been locally deci-
indirect negative impacts of OA on other physiological mated in the LIS by water temperature extremes (Wilson
processes, like metabolism, growth, and reproduction. and Swanson, 2005) and may also be vulnerable to OA
(Klymasz-Swartz et al., 2019; Tai et al., 2021; Waller et al.,
While many shellfish are being and will be affected, 2016). The blue crab, a recreationally important species in
it is unlikely that OA will impact all shellfishes equally. New York, seems to be increasing in abundance due to
Understanding the various impacts will inform mitiga- warming water temperatures. This species may be able to
tion approaches. East Coast shellfish such as soft-shell increase shell thickness in the presence of OA; however,
clams and hard-shell clams (Mya arenaria and Merce- the physiological costs of doing so are unknown. The
naria mercenaria respectively), blue mussels (Mytilus horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) is harvested locally
for use in the biomedical industry and as bait (Sargent, can translate into socioeconomic costs not only through
2002), but its shell-building ability could be threatened the loss of jobs and income, but also through the loss
in changing ocean conditions. Additionally, the eggs of of cultural traditions, iconic species, jobs, and ecosystem
the horseshoe crab are the almost-exclusive food source services (shoreline protection, nutrient cycling, tourism,
for the migrating red knot (Sargent, 2002), a threatened etc.) (Cooley et al., 2009). All face increasing risk.
shorebird species which is found along the salt meadows
and mudflats of the South Shore of Long Island during its Locally, shellfish such as ribbed mussels (Geukensia
spring and autumn migrations (NYSDEC, 2014). demissa) and oysters provide reinforcement to marshes
that offer shoreline protection. The State is experimenting
Some finfish species appear to be particularly affected with living breakwaters off the southern portion of Staten
by OA in their early life stages (Baumann et al., 2012b), Island initiated in response to Superstorm Sandy (October
although as they grow past the larval stage, they tend 2012). The intent is to reduce storm risk through ecological
to confer resilience to OA (Cattano et al., 2018). Other enhancement (New York State Governor’s Office of Storm
fish species have been observed to be resilient under Recovery). It is hoped that the oysters will improve harbor
increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide, like the black water quality through filtering and gradual shell dissolution,
sea bass (Meseck et al., 2022) and the Atlantic herring hence raising the calcium carbonate concentrations. When
(Franke and Clemmesen, 2011). Little is known, however, fully permitted, this living breakwater will include a veneer
about impacts on growth rates, blood buffering, age to of oysters. Certainly, the functionality of the oysters in the
maturity, sexual maturity, spawning, and homing instincts. breakwater system is dependent on whether oysters can
survive in the environmental and physical conditions at the
Alterations in the physiology of marine organisms could site in New York Harbor. New York State also has invested
lead to reduced biodiversity impacting the entire marine in developing sanctuaries for the hard-shell clam (Merce-
food web. Calcareous phytoplankton that would normally naria mercenaria) in embayments around Long Island to
sink rapidly instead tend to develop thinner exoskele- test their ability to improve water quality by using the natu-
tons in acidified conditions, causing them to sink more ral filtration capacity of these organisms. The potential
slowly and further alter carbon dioxide cycling in the water benefits of these projects could be reduced if such species
column (Gronlund, 2018). OA induced a community-level as the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and presumably other
shift toward smaller cells in phytoplankton communities in filter feeders, like clams, experience slower growth and
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Although currently being survival due to OA (Doney et al., 2020).
studied, these types of indirect effects of OA remain poorly
known, and there are more questions than answers. Is the The loss of the LIS lobster population in 1999 mentioned
surface area of exposure of marine organisms to acidi- earlier, while not a consequence of OA, is an exam-
fied water important and thus small planktonic organisms ple of what can happen to a marine resource, industry,
are more at risk than larger ones, impacting food webs? and coastal communities within New York State with an
Does OA affect the ecological carbon pump by promot- altered environment. Much of the lobster population,
ing growth in smaller forms of phytoplankton? The known worth $36 million ex-vessel value7 per year and affecting
impacts are concerning enough, but more OA research in some 1,000 lobster fishermen, was nearly extinguished
this vein is needed to properly predict ecosystem interac- (Lopez et al., 2014). The consequences of lost services
tions and reactions to changing pH. due to OA and adaptation to these changes will require
mitigation measures in New York’s coastal ocean (Cooley
The Socioeconomic Impacts of et al., 2009).
Threatened Marine Resources

New York State has 2,977 km (1850 mi) of tidal coastline
(NOAA, 1975). The Natural Resources Defense Coun-
cil (NRDC) states that New York ranks sixth nationally
in economic dependence “for shellfish harvests but
that harvest is in jeopardy due to OA” (NRDC, 2015). In
2016, New York had commercial fisheries with a value
added6 of about $1.6 billion, including imports, and a
value added of about $85 million without imports. The
value added from recreational fisheries was approxi-
mately $770 million (National Marine Fisheries Service,
2018). The threats to marine resources posed by OA
6 Value-added is defined as the net value of an industry, i.e., the industry’s sales minus the cost of the goods and services it purchases from
other industries to produce its outputs (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2018).
7 Ex-vessel value is the value of the fish at the point at which it has been unloaded from the vessel.

Pillar I. Mitigate
Implement measures to I-1. Review and implement
reduce the extent, magnitude, nitrogen water quality
and impact of OA. standards in New York’s
The mitigation measures recommended by the OATF coastal areas. (Substantiated)
address OA from multiple angles. Some of the measures
Excess nitrogen in the water column may be the single
are aimed at utilizing or ameliorating sources of nutri-
greatest factor contributing to coastal acidification. Thus,
ents or carbon dioxide, which are causing coastal acid-
it is imperative that New York State, in collaboration with
ification, while others are aimed at decreasing acidity
its partners, accelerate the nitrogen management efforts.
more directly. Removing or neutralizing sources of acidic
In the LIS and in many Long Island embayments, hypoxic
water helps in the short term to reduce coastal OA. Over
and eutrophic8 waters were found to be acidified during
the long term, mitigation measures that ecologically
late summer and/or early fall (Wallace et al., 2014). Close
use, recycle, or store nitrogen and carbon are needed
spatial and temporal correspondence between low DO
to counteract the fundamental causes of OA rather than
and increasing acidity, and areas of high nutrient load-
just treat the resulting symptoms. An array of mitiga-
ing, indicating that these two were driven by microbial
tion measures should be used in concert to effectively
respiration (Wallace et al., 2014). Nitrogen is a problem
address various aspects of OA. The mitigation recom-
contributing to coastal OA globally and there is irrefutable
mendations presented here are sorted into three cate-
evidence that it is also occurring in New York’s coastal
gories and labeled parenthetically following the title of
waters. Continuing efforts to implement more stringent
each recommendation. The categories are:
nitrogen controls could help reduce coastal eutrophica-
● Substantiated – Those that have been shown to tion, increasing the ability of the coastal waters to buffer9
be beneficial at geographic or ecosystem levels; coastal OA.
● Potential – Those that have promise but need In the LIS, hypoxia appears to have been reduced follow-
more research on their impact in particular ing rigorous adherence to a plan for reducing nitrogen
settings. Many proposed mitigation measures are inputs to the LIS by 58.8% in New York and Connecticut
experiments largely unquantified and are there- from contributing sewage treatment plants (STPs; Vlahos,
fore not proven to be effective practices. Before 2020; Tedesco et al., 2014). This successful control strat-
solutions can be scaled up statewide or even egy may have the added benefit of lessening the impacts
embayment-wide, mitigation measures must be of OA.
considered for research, and be monitored over
Upon proper monitoring and research, New York State
the long term to ascertain viability and to deter-
and its partners should aspire to the establishment of
mine if they have negative synergistic effects
justifiable water-quality standards appropriate to protect
(Gobler et al., 2014);
marine resources from the impacts of OA. But there are
● Conceptual – Those that may be promising but impediments to this approach. The current narrative stan-
need to be further studied and developed before dard for nitrogen in New York State is “none in amounts
being put into practice. Many proposed mitigation that result in the growths of algae, weeds, and slimes that
measures are experiments largely unquantified will impair the waters for their best usages” (NYSDEC, Divi-
and are therefore not proven to be effective prac- sion of Water), which does not explicitly address the issue
tices. Before solutions can be scaled up statewide of OA. Parts 702/706 of 6 NYCRR lay out the require-
or even embayment-wide, mitigation measures ments for deriving a new numeric water quality stan-
must be considered for research, and be moni- dard for the protection of aquatic life. The requirements
tored over the long term to ascertain viability and include scientifically acceptable acute/chronic laboratory
to determine if they have negative synergistic toxicity studies across eight different biological families.
effects—spreading shellfish disease, for example. Nitrogen-induced OA toxicity data of this type and scope
is not currently available. When the data becomes avail-
able, NYSDEC should consider the practicality of creating
a new nitrogen water quality standard for OA. Additionally,
8 Hypoxic waters have low levels of dissolved oxygen, which disrupts ecosystems. Eutrophic water contains an overabundance of nutrients.
9 Buffering is the ability of a system to withstand or resist external changes. Specifically, it is the capacity of the system to uptake some of the
free hydrogen ions, thus preventing pH shifts.
a single nitrogen standard may not be suitable consider- In addition to TMDLs, land use planning is used to reduce
ing the diverse nature of New York’s coastal waterbodies the impacts of OA (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013). Implement-
and the different uses to which they are put. ing smart growth, increasing riparian buffers, decreas-
ing impermeable surfaces, and improving stormwater
An Alternative Restoration Plan has been approved for management should be considered (Kelly and Caldwell,
the south shore of Suffolk County, based on the Suffolk 2013). Land-use zoning may be the best tool available to
County Subwatershed Wastewater Plan (an approved properly achieve a balance between land development
Nine Element Plan). An Alternative Restoration Plan is and the protection of New York’s marine waters and their
planned to be written for Nassau County. Alternative economically important marine resources. Zoning boards
Restoration Plans are accepted by the EPA for waterbod- must embrace a holistic view of proposed actions about
ies where stakeholders are actively working to pursue cumulative wastewater management (including stormwa-
restoration to achieve water quality standards, and are ter discharges) across each watershed instead of consid-
considered to be akin to a TMDL. TMDLs and Alterna- ering each in isolation. New York State and its partners
tive Restoration Plans define the maximum amount of a can assist zoning boards and encourage them to plan
pollutant (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, pathogens) a water- for OA mitigation using existing resources like those
body can receive and still meet water quality standards provided by NYSDOS (see Pillar V).
or avoid an impairment. Impairments such as low DO or
OA might be used to justify development of TMDLs. To Long Island is investing heavily in technologies and infra-
date, there has not been quantifiable impairment speci- structure to reduce nitrogen loads into coastal water-
fied for OA, and therefore, this management approach is bodies. In Nassau County, the rerouting of the Bay Park
not appropriate to address OA. Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) discharge from Reynolds
Channel to the ocean outfall of the Cedar Creek Water
I-2. Minimize discharges Pollution Control Plant will reduce nitrogen and improve
water quality overall in the Western Bays (Figure 4).
that contribute to coastal Suffolk County is embarking on having individual home-
OA. (Substantiated) owners convert conventional cesspools and septic
systems to nitrogen-removing, innovative alternative
The most effective way to reduce the consequences of systems. These systems are varied, some of them rely-
coastal OA is to limit the contributing sources that create ing on organic material as substrata for microbial growth
it. In New York, eutrophication, largely driven by nitro- and nutrient uptake. While they are still being evaluated
gen inputs and by the redistribution and concentration for their downstream carbon input, these systems are
of acidic freshwater discharges, has been implicated as a far more advanced than the conventional cesspools that
driver of coastal OA. In the East River, for example, acid- many Long Island homes still utilize. Continued finan-
ified freshwater discharges are concentrated as point cial incentives at the federal, state, and local levels are
sources. These discharges are, for the most part, a result required to expand the number of homeowners upgrad-
of excessive historical and modern terrestrial developing their septic systems. Given that on Long Island up to
ment (Swanson and Gobler, 2011), as demonstrated by 70% of nitrogen loads are from conventional cesspools
high nitrogen concentrations in coastal embayments from and septic systems, it is imperative to have programs like
high population density. these to help address water quality and OA.
Figure 4. The Bay Park Conveyance Project: The project is rerouting the South Shore Water
Reclamation Facility effluent from its current outfall in the Western Bays to connect to the existing Cedar
Creek Ocean Outfall located three miles offshore in the Atlantic Ocean. The figure depicts the new
conveyance pipeline under construction. Credit: Western Bays Constructors

I-3. Promote seaweed cultivation in conjunction with
shellfish aquaculture to bioextract nitrogen and carbon
dioxide from the surface waters. (Substantiated)
Bio-extraction removes nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the system and cycle naturally, but by harvesting these
the water by growing and harvesting seaweed and shell- species, nitrogen and carbon dioxide are removed from
fish. Without the harvesting of the seagrasses and shell- the waterbody entirely (Figure 5a). A significant number
fish, the nitrogen and carbon dioxide would stay within of macro-algae (brown, red, and a few green algae) are
more competitive in waters
with increased levels of carbon
dioxide (Clements and Chopin,
2017; Palacios and Zimmer-
man, 2007; Martin and Gattuso,
2009; Young et al., 2018). Aqua-
culture involving both macroal-
gae and shellfish has been
demonstrated in other places,
including the LIS.
Shellfish hatcheries here and

on the West Coast (Figure 5b)
are already feeling the effects
of OA. Loss of larvae has led
to drastically reduced produc-
tion, attributed to local acid-
ified waters (Clements and
Chopin, 2017). Most hatcher-
ies on Long Island buffer the
seawater they take in.
As part of LINAP, the Bioex-

Figure 5a. Bio-extraction via harvesting of shellfish and seaweed. Credit: https:// traction Coordinator is work-
longislandsoundstudy.net/our-vision-and-plan/clean-waters-and-healthy-watersheds/nutrient- ing with shellfish growers who
bioextraction-overview/ are interested in diversifying
into seaweed aquaculture to
conduct a nutrient bioextraction
pilot project using sugar kelp.
Additionally, the Bioextraction
Coordinator is a co-lead on the
New York State Marine Aqua-
culture Advisory Committee,
which provides advice and
recommendations on regu-
latory, economic, and other
issues related to shellfish and
seaweed aquaculture and nutri-
ent bioextraction.
Figure 5b. Fishers Island oyster hatchery. Credit: Julie Qiu
Figure 6. Long Island Zostera marina seagrass bed. Credit: Kaitlyn O’Toole
I-4. Enhance blue carbon sequestration using seagrasses,

kelp beds, and marshes. (Substantiated)
In coastal ecosystem environments, carbon is seques- In the Pacific Northwest, large canopy (tens of hect-
tered by seagrasses, mangroves, and salt marshes. They ares) kelp beds (Macrocystis and Nereocystis) have
take up the carbon as they grow, which ends up being been shown to change the seawater carbonate chem-
buried and removed from the food web (NOAA, n.d.; istry inside and outside the canopy. During the growing
Figure 6). Kelp beds, seagrasses, and salt marshes also season, primarily in daylight, they decrease nitrates and
contribute to blue carbon sequestration when the detritus the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, while reducing
makes its way into the sediment rather than going back acidity and increasing calcification.
into the food web (Atwood et al., 2015; Krause-Jensen
and Duarte, 2016). Seagrasses are also important net producers of DO
during photosynthesis. This helps reduce areas of marine
Wetlands, meadows, algal beds, and macroalgal forests hypoxia as a condition of OA. For example, the biotic
sequester carbon differently. The diversity of carbon production of calcium carbonate by the seagrass Thalas-
storage methods and the use of these natural systems sia testudinum reduces acidity in the extensive grass
must be protected. One of the benefits of salt marshes, beds of the upper Chesapeake Bay (Su et al., 2020).
eelgrass (Zostera marina), and mangroves is that they
trap carbon via their roots, making them many times more Macroalgae, including Laminaria or sugar kelp, which is
effective than kelp (McLeod et al., 2011). Duarte (2017). a native seaweed, take up carbon; but perhaps a greater
However, carbon associated with macroalgae is often benefit is that they take up nitrogen, reducing the like-
transported to other locations, such as the deep ocean, lihood of hypoxia. As already demonstrated in the LIS,
for long-term removal (Ortega et al., 2019; Krause-Jensen macroalgae can then be harvested, totally removing the
and Duarte, 2016). nitrogen from the marine environment (Jang et al., 2014).
The Nutrient Bioextraction Initiative is examining this
through a series of pilot studies on the South and North
Shores of Long Island (both nitrogen and carbon content

of the sugar kelp were analyzed). Harvesting of macroal-
gae could also be expanded to Ulva (sea lettuce). Ulva
proliferates in the New York State Marine and Coastal
District because of the excess nitrogen introduced to
local waterways. Harvesting of Ulva in the Forge River
and Hempstead Bay, West Bay, and East Bay (Figure 7)
could improve water quality (Tsagkamilis et al., 2010),
thereby removing nitrogen and increasing local pH,
and should be considered in cases where benefits may
outweigh possible adverse impacts.
Harvested macroalgae could then be used as a fertil-

izer or for other beneficial products. Studies are being
conducted by Suffolk County Cornell Cooperative Exten-
sion, academic institutions, and New York State. Both
seagrass and kelp have been observed to create what
some call a halo effect, where water quality, specifically
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, near the seagrass
and kelp is improved compared to that of the surrounding
water. Once the beds or forests are removed, however,
water quality returns to a poorer condition. The macroal-
gae must be maintained to provide continuing benefits.
Wetlands are extremely beneficial as they more perma-

nently sequester carbon compared to seagrass or kelp.
New York State already has strong wetlands protection
regulations. However, over the last 40 years, wetlands
have been lost at about 85 acres per year for a variety
of reasons (Cameron Engineering and Associates, 2015).
Figure 8a shows the erosion of salt marsh peat in Stony
Brook Harbor, resulting in more than a meter of recession
of the marsh edge from 2010–2020 due to sea level rise. Figure 8a. Top: Eroding peat
As sea level rises, many wetlands have little or no room to Figure 8b. Bottom: Flax Pond salt marsh
transition landward (Figure 8b). New York needs to create
opportunities for marsh transition. This can be accom- owners proposing shoreline modifications and consider
plished by encouraging homeowners who own waterfront sea-level rise, storm surge and flooding for major projects
properties to make the property more resilient, and the under Article 25, so as to allow wetland migration where
State can provide resources and tools to homeowners. appropriate. The State should also consider prohibiting
New York should expand wetlands regulations to gauge the hardening of shorelines and consider Transfer-of-De-
the appropriateness of nature-based features for land- velopment-Rights techniques to allow for wetland migra-
tion. New York State and its partners
should continue purchasing lands where
Figure 7. Select New York small coastal embayments. Image created in Google Earth wetlands migration is occurring.
To add to the complexity of protecting

salt marshes and eelgrass beds, pred-
ators that consume the herbivores of
marsh grass and eelgrass also deserve
protection (Atwood et al., 2015). For
example, excessive harvesting of blue
crabs from the U.S. East Coast has
contributed to a loss of marsh plant
production (Silliman and Bertness,
2022). Thus, protecting and enhanc-
ing blue carbon sequestration is much
more complicated than just setting
aside acreage—it requires ecosys-
tem-based management.
Seagrasses I-5. Support and broaden
Seagrasses are rooted plants that live in coastal systems. mollusk-shell recycling
New York has two species of seagrass: eelgrass (Zostera
marina) and Widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima). Water programs. (Substantiated)
conditions are known to be favorable for eelgrass in some
places in the Long Island Sound where these plants have
Several local governmental and nongovernmental organi-
been successfully restored or have naturally flourished. zations on Long Island and in New York City have imple-
However, unlike macroalgae, seagrasses are generally mented shell recycling programs whereby restaurants
carbon limited (Buapet et al., 2013). That is because save shells for use in shoreline stabilization projects or
they cannot as readily use bicarbonate in the water as for setting oyster larvae. Shell placement is regulated by
macroalgae can. When seagrasses have been exposed to NYSDEC under Article 15, 6NYCRR, Part 608 – Use and
higher dissolved organic carbon, which happens during Protection of Waters. A permit is also required from the
OA, these plants respond by significantly increasing their
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under Section 404, Federal
photosynthesis and productivity. In addition, seagrasses
Water Pollution Control Act, and its Amendments. This
have shown higher reproductive output, increased
belowground biomass, and increased carbohydrate is a time-consuming process, but worthwhile if used
investment in experimentally elevated carbon dioxide levels. shells can be returned to the water to buffer sediments
As a result, seagrass meadows have been recognized as to increase shellfish survivability (Green et al., 2009).
important carbon sinks in coastal environments. By returning the shells to coastal waters, the concentra-
The ability of seagrasses to simultaneously draw-down tions of calcium carbonate are increased through disso-
carbon dioxide and oxygenate the water column may lution. This program should be encouraged and possibly
also be increasingly important; recent work suggests expanded to become mandatory if it can be ascertained
that with increasing seawater carbon dioxide, the ratio of that it can increase calcium carbonate at a waterbody
oxygen to carbon dioxide will decrease, and practical dead scale. Further, to increase the dissolution rate and thereby
zones (areas where aerobic respiration is not observed) increase calcium carbonate in solution, research should
may increase. The net carbon uptake within seagrass
be undertaken to explore the value of crushing shells and
habitats will result in a localized draw-down of dissolved
optimally distributing them to OA hot spots such as north-
inorganic carbon; an increase in oxygen, pH, and aragonite
saturation state; as well as a reduction in total partial ern Jamaica Bay and portions of Hempstead Bay (Wallace
pressure of carbon dioxide, thereby effectively buffering et al., 2014). So far, crushing shells, while theoretically
against acidification. This will have significant impacts for advantageous, has not been studied enough to reason-
the organisms that live within the seagrasses, particularly ably predict whether it can be scaled up beyond the labo-
shellfish and juvenile finfish. What is unknown is how ratory to increase calcium carbonate in a waterbody, or
significant an effect the seagrasses will have on modifying even produce a halo effect around a placement area.
the water that flows through them. Will seagrasses only
modify the water immediately associated with their leaves
or will low partial pressure of carbon dioxide carry to I-6. Support and broaden
surrounding areas as water flows out of seagrass meadows
to other adjacent areas?
the Long Island Shellfish
There is sufficient evidence that seagrasses can modify Restoration Project. (Potential)
local seawater within their canopies to generate refugia
from acidified waters (Manzello et al., 2012; Bergstrom et al.,
The goal of the Long Island Shellfish Restoration Proj-
2019). Many management strategies call for increasing their ect is to “improve Long Island’s water quality and bolster
abundance and coverage to mitigate the effects of OA. For the economies and resilience of coastal communi-
New York, that strategy is hampered by decreasing water ties by restoring native shellfish populations to coastal
quality and clarity. Seagrasses’ extent will only increase with waters” (Long Island Shellfish Restoration Project, n.d.).
improved water quality. The greatest potential for increasing This program is directly applicable to mitigating coastal
seagrass acreage and abundance is in the South Shore OA by removing nitrogen via nutrient sequestration.
estuaries. However, potential sites for increasing seagrasses
Trial sanctuary sites in Bellport Bay, Huntington Harbor,
also exist in the Peconic Bays. Currently, the water quality
Shinnecock Bay, South Oyster Bay, and Hempstead Bay
within Jamaica Bay prevents restoration efforts. Enhancing
New York’s seagrass coverage and abundance is intimately should continue to be evaluated for restoration success
linked with LINAP, which strives to improve the water quality and expanded to extend the project’s reach and impact
by reducing nitrogen inputs to waterbodies, increasing as appropriate. Bay scallop hatchery programs have the
water clarity, and improving DO levels. additional benefit of restoring a species that has suffered
severe adult die-offs since 2019 10, once the source
of die-off is understood and reseeding is likely to be
successful (Peconic Estuary Partnership, 2020).
10 In 2019, there was no commercial harvest of Peconic Bay scallops due to this die-off of adults, but the die-off was probably not related to OA.

To be effective, large numbers of hatchery-reared shell- tion. More site-specific research would be necessary to
fish will be required. Ownership of the shellfish, once substantiate maintaining barrier inlet openings as a long-
transplanted, will have to be resolved, as will potential term option.
attractive nuisance harvesting issues. Restoring shellfish
to local waterways will have little impact, however, if water Table 3. Average flushing times for
quality is severely degraded. This option is best consid- selected Long Island embayments
ered in select locations where it is likely to succeed. Average Flushing
Embayment Time (days)
I-7. Maintain barrier island inlet North Shore:
openings to improve estuarine Little Neck Bay 1
circulation, thus reducing Manhasset Bay (head) 2.8

Hempstead Bay (head) 7.4
acidic conditions. (Potential) Oyster Bay:
The wilderness breach that was opened in the eastern Oyster Bay Cove 7.6
reaches of Fire Island National Seashore during Super- Eastern Smithtown Bay 3
storm Sandy introduced oceanic waters into the rela-
Port Jefferson Harbor:
tively slowly circulating waters at the east end of the
Great South Bay (Hinrichs et al., 2018; Gobler et al., North and tributaries 4.3
2019). Although there are some adverse impacts to be South and tributaries 2.6
considered, ecological benefits have been documented Mt. Sinai Harbor 4.5
for the area, including a reduction in the likelihood of South Shore:
hypoxia and harmful algal blooms in that end of the bay
Hempstead Harbor 9.3
(Hinrichs et al., 2018). Shellfish growth may be enhanced
by the breach (Gobler et al., 2019). Reducing the “resi- South Oyster Bay 8.0
dence time”11 of enclosed waterbodies is a means to Patchogue Bay 4.0
lessening pollution impacts, including eutrophication,
Bellport Bay 4.0
and coastal OA because waterbodies having long resi-
dence times tend to store nutrients (Cloern, 2001). The Fort Pond Bay 2.8
amount of nitrogen exported from a waterbody depends Data and calculations courtesy of Robert E. Wilson and LINAP.
on its residence time (Deltmann, 2001). A flexible policy Those embayments in bold experience chronic summertime
on the closure of new breaches should be considered in bottom water hypoxia. (R.L. Swanson, Stony Brook University,
conjunction with the mitigation of coastal OA. 2021, personal communication)
Keeping active circulation through authorized naviga- I-8. Introduce highly alkaline
tional inlets to the South Shore estuaries and some of
the hypoxia-prone North Shore harbors is a means to material into the marine
reduce residence times, nitrogen accumulation, occur- environment. (Conceptual)
rences of low DO, and eutrophic conditions with concom-
itant coastal OA. Waterbodies in the Marine and Coastal If a source of acidic water cannot be removed from a
District with short residence times (Table 3) are not as marine ecosystem, then neutralizing it might be the best
prone to hypoxia. For example, the lack of inlet mainte- alternative.
nance in Flax Pond on Long Island’s North Shore impaired
its water quality (Swanson et al., 2021). Flushing time Scrubber residuals are alkaline materials that are currently
would be halved if the inlet was dredged and maintained being disposed of at a significant cost but instead could
to mean low water in the LIS as originally designed. The be used in a way like shell-recycling programs, to help
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers generally only dredges for mitigate local acidification. This material, predominately
navigational purposes, but to improve water quality, they quicklime, is the by-product of acid gas removal from
approved the maintenance of dredged inlets for environ- coal-fired power plants and waste-to-energy (WTE) facili-
mental purposes as well. The LINAP is studying hydrody- ties. While the New York City-Long Island region does not
namic modifications, including environmental dredging, to have any coal-fired power plants, numerous WTE facil-
review various water exchange scenarios and their feasi- ities are in close proximity to the coastline. Long Island
bility and success. This work has indicated a low benefit, has four such facilities, Westchester and Dutchess coun-
if any, in all scenarios, with a high cost of implementa- ties have several operations, located near the Hudson
River, and there is a WTE facility in Essex, New Jersey.
11 The residence time expresses the how fast a pollutant moves through the waterbody. Residence time (flushing time) = time required for a
dissolved substance within the embayment to drop to about 37% of its initial value.
Combined, there is a large supply of quicklime. This
waste, if meeting marine disposal criteria, could be used
I-9. Expand use of ocean
for beneficial purposes (e.g., reefs) in marine systems, outfalls for discharge of
and might help mitigate the effects of OA instead of being
disposed of as waste in a terrestrial setting. Other mate-
sewage effluent. (Conceptual)
rials, such as limestone and silicates (e.g., basalts) should Because nitrogen is a driver of hypoxia and the lowering
also be considered, in the event that quicklime cannot of pH of coastal waters, New York State and its partners
meet marine disposal criteria. might optimize their use of ocean outfalls, with tertiary
treatment, to minimize coastal OA by increasing dilu-
tion. Water and sediment quality in Boston Harbor have
Buffering Solutions Reduce Acidity

Buffering techniques have been used for lakes, feedwater, and water discharges with considerable success and may have
applicability in wastewater effluents, such as sewage (pH ≈ 6.8–7.3). Acid deposition caused many Adirondack lakes and ponds
to become fishless. To address this problem and reestablish native brook trout populations in some of these decimated waters,
NYSDEC’s Bureau of Fisheries started a liming program. In 1959, NYSDEC began to apply agricultural lime to certain ponds to
raise their pH. This program has been found to enhance fish survival (Shea, 2008). While typically used to enhance farm soil, the
agricultural lime temporarily improves the water’s ability to buffer acid deposition, raising the pH to a level that fish can tolerate.
Today’s liming program includes 37 waters across the Adirondacks. Each year, researchers take water samples from the ponds to
monitor their pH and acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC). If a pond’s water has a pH below 6 and an ANC below 20, it is scheduled for
a liming treatment. Treatments, which last between 5 and 15 years, are often done in the winter by spreading lime across the pond’s
frozen surface. These treatments are only a stop-gap measure while working to limit acid precipitation. However, without liming, these
waters would remain fishless. Liming also benefits a wide range of native fauna and flora, including many sensitive species such as
loons and otters. The areas that were sensitive to acidity are resurging, suggesting that the whole region may undergo revitalization.
Fish and shellfish hatcheries have been buffering low-pH water to improve the survival of larvae in the Pacific Northwest (Brown, 2017)
and in the Northeast (Sibrell et al., 2006). In the Pacific Northwest, oyster hatcheries have added sodium carbonate to their influent
waters in order to raise pH from as low as 7.5 up into the range of 8.1–8.2. This buffered water, which is then discharged back into
the environment, helps the young oysters survive the early stages of life. On the East Coast, the Craig Brook National Fish Hatchery in
Maine has used a limestone fluidized-bed treatment for acidified waters (Sibrell et al., 2006). In New York, Mystic Oysters, an aquaculture
enterprise in the Town of Southold, has used sodium bicarbonate to bolster pH of the intake-water from 6.8-7.2 up to about pH 8 to aid
young oyster larvae (Karen Rivera, personal communication).
Sewage treatment plants (STPs) already adjust pH to enhance phosphorus precipitation, though wastewater effluent is generally still
a source of acidifying water for the New York coastal region, so there is a precedent for buffering wastewater. Soda ash and liquid
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) have both been used to raise pH (Cheremisinoff, 1994). Sodium hydroxide (Cheremisinoff, 1994)
and magnesium hydroxide are also used in STPs to adjust alkalinity. Suffolk County Sewer District 3 (Southwest Sewer District) has
fed a magnesium hydroxide slurry to seasonally reduce nitrogen and the concurrent consumption of alkalinity in the aeration system
(Ben Wright, personal communication). As the plant expands, the engineers are exploring the use of magnesium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide to maintain pH and accommodate the nitrification process.
Thus, there is precedent for using caustic drips to adjust pH for various reasons in waters that are eventually discharged to marine
and freshwater environments. New York has a vast array of marine discharges where this approach could be beneficial to increase
the pH in localized waters. STPs, stormwater discharges, and power plants might be eligible for such treatment.
For example, roughly 1 billion gallons of secondary treated sewage are discharged daily to the East River from five STPs. This effluent
represents 7% of the East River total flow (Blumberg and Pritchard, 1997). Theoretically, raising the pH of these STP discharges from
around 7.3 to 8 could have the potential to be an effective local OA buffer. In the East River, pH fluctuates annually in the range of
7.1–8.1. This type of buffering of STP discharges is novel and should be investigated further to determine its real-world effects and
implications. Potential sites for case studies could include smaller STPs that discharge into enclosed embayments that are currently
impacted by low pH.
For example, roughly 1 billion gallons of secondary treated sewage are discharged daily to the East River from five STPs. This effluent
represents 7% of the East River total flow (Blumberg and Pritchard, 1997). Theoretically, raising the pH of these STP discharges from
around 7.3 to 8 could have the potential to be an effective local OA buffer. In the East River, pH fluctuates annually in the range of
7.1–8.1. This type of buffering of STP discharges is novel and should be investigated further to determine its real-world effects and
implications. Potential sites for case studies could include smaller STPs that discharge into enclosed embayments that are currently
impacted by low pH.

improved dramatically since the Deer Island STP outfall date without negative synergistic effects. NYSDEC has
was relocated to Massachusetts Bay around 2006, with funded studies of this nature at the two existing outfalls
minor impacts in the bay itself (Werme et al., 2019). There on Long Island’s South Shore.
are currently two sewage outfalls, discharging directly
to ocean waters on Long Island’s South Shore about 2.5 I-10. Fill in dredged hypoxic
nautical miles offshore. These are Cedar Creek in Nassau
County and the Southwest Sewer District in Suffolk holes. (Conceptual)
County. Each facility will be releasing greater volumes
Hypoxic dredged holes in the seafloor have the poten-
soon. The Bay Park STP, along with several smaller facil-
tial to contribute to OA in coastal waters. Filling these in
ities, will be combined and discharged through Cedar
to recontour the bay bottoms where hypoxic conditions
Creek for the purposes of abating eutrophication in the
exist, circulation is sluggish, and water residence times
Western Bays (Swanson et al., 2017; Figure 4). Investi-
are long would eliminate hypoxia and reduce the likeli-
gations should be carried out to determine the carrying
hood of it contributing to OA. Ideally, clean dredge mate-
capacity and the environmental consequences of expand-
rial could be used as fill for this purpose. However, some
ing the use of ocean outfalls on the South Shore of Long
fill might come from recyclable ground glass covered with
Island, including where such discharges can be optimally
clean sand. Recycled glass currently has a small market
located, volumes that can be safely discharged, and how
and is in excess supply locally. This approach would
many such discharges the South Shore can accommo-
create a beneficial use for an existing waste material.
Pillar II. Educate

Promote awareness II-1. Develop a statewide
concerning OA state of marketing and
knowledge, its impacts, and communications strategy
opportunities for reduction. around messaging on OA.
A crucial part of addressing a large-scale problem such as
OA is to increase public awareness, understanding, and
II-1a. Develop an OA module for
concern for the problem. All efforts should be based on the State’s secondary science
the current understanding of social sciences and devel- level programs aligned to the
oping research on effective strategies of behavioral
change campaigns. Whereas some issues, like marine New York State Next Generation
debris, have been readily visible to the public, OA is an Science Standards, which
elusive concept, largely because it isn’t visible. It must be
promoted to establish public awareness. Perhaps shells
became testable in 2020.
with holes in them are the best symbol of the problem, An OA module is an ideal topic to create three distinct
but they are not the only, or even the most pressing, and equally important dimensions to learning science—
concern about the biological impacts of OA. Additionally, cross-cutting concepts, science and engineering prac-
the regional waters have not yet gotten so acidified as tices, and core concepts. It could be incorporated into
to cause such an obvious impact. such as dramatic fish the existing curricula for Regents Earth Science, Biology,
and shellfish larvae mortality. Consequently, to generate and Chemistry as well as Advanced Placement Biology,
support for mitigation, research, monitoring, and legis- Chemistry, and Environmental Science. An OA module
lation, it is important to effectively alert and inform the could be integrated into all the existing statewide curric-
public and industrial community. Additionally, there are ula, general education courses for marine science, envi-
extensive, ongoing outreach and extension efforts, and ronmental science, and ecology. This could provide a
OA outreach and education should coordinate with exist- model for national application.
ing efforts.
II-1b. Use public service An effective means of communicating science is direct
contact with an audience using visual displays and
announcements on radio, TV, demonstrations. Marketing firms can assist the State and
and other platforms to generate its partners with effective messaging as they have expe-
rience in developing public awareness through news
interest and concern about vignettes, insertion of content into TV plotlines, public
climate change and OA. service announcements (PSAs), etc. PSAs can call atten-
tion to the OA situation and educate about the associated
The visual arts are an effective means for reaching and processes creating the OA problem and the conse-
inspiring the public to take an interest in environmen- quences of ignoring it.
tal issues. Poster art can be appealing, and its creation
can be a learning experience (e.g., Figure 9). Sponsoring
school posters and art contests will inspire both interest
II-1c. Use social media creatively
in the science behind the problem as well its ameliora- to generate public interest in OA
tion. In addition to classroom settings, the marine commu- issues and remediation measures.
nity should engage in outreach opportunities to spread
the word concerning OA and its impact. Seafood festivals, Investing in outreach tools on Facebook, Twitter, Insta-
environmental celebrations, and Maker Faires represent gram, and other platforms to create campaigns can have
opportunities for spreading the word. Exciting OA demon- broad impacts, increasing awareness, educating the
stration materials could be developed for organizations public, and serving as a call to action. Infographics from
like New York Sea Grant, Cornell Cooperative Extension, the PSAs should be used across social media platforms
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at Stony like memes to spread awareness to a larger audience.
Brook University (SBU), Science and Resiliency Institute A contest could be started with the effect of generat-
at Jamaica Bay, and various environmental organizations ing short video clips describing OA to a broad audience,
to use in a variety of public venues. The New York Marine like the Flame Challenge initiated by actor and science
Sciences Consortium might be engaged to broaden this promoter Alan Alda.
initiative.
Figure 9. OA education posters created by SBU Sustainability Studies students Mei-Lyn Stout and Madison Newton

II-2. Require all SUNY II-3. Provide financial support
institutions of higher learning for OA graduate research.
(64 campuses) to have an The Mid-Atlantic Sea Grant Programs, in partnership
introductory course on the with the NOAA OA Program, announced the OA Gradu-
ate Research Fellowships for the two-year period cover-
environment that includes a ing the 2018 and 2019 academic years. The fellowship
segment on climate change was open to full-time graduate students at any academic
institution in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York,
along with its connection to and Virginia who were engaged in coastal and marine
OA and its implications. research relevant to regional ocean, coastal, and estua-
rine acidification. OA Graduate Research Fellows address
The Chancellor of SUNY could be encouraged to initi- issues relevant to coastal ecosystems and adjacent
ate an environmental module across the 64 SUNY communities related to coastal and OA. Projects encom-
campuses for all incoming students concerning global pass natural and/or social science research topics. New
climate change. This should include such topics as waste York State could institute a similar program cooperatively
management and climate change, their connection to OA, managed by NYSDEC, New York Sea Grant, and other
and their impacts. appropriate partners, and continue providing support for
graduate students researching OA in the New York Bight
through existing mechanisms.
Pillar III. Investigate

Conduct relevant research hash to significantly increase pH and aragonite satura-
tion and improve survival and growth of early life stage
and monitoring. hard clams (Curtin et al., 2022). In Humboldt, California,
eelgrass beds located near oyster hatchery seawater
Improving the scientific understanding of coastal OA intakes could reduce acidity of the influent so that buffer-
processes and consequences is essential for ultimately ing chemicals might not be required (Werblow, 2020), but
managing it. Therefore, research and monitoring are did not remove carbon sufficiently to meet the require-
key. For this pillar, recommended research and moni- ments of the oyster hatchery. So, the question remains:
toring tasks were ranked as high-, medium-, or low-pri- at what scale can eelgrass beds be considered a coastal
ority levels. The categorization is listed in parenthesis OA mitigation measure? Along these lines, the Shinne-
following the recommendation title. Nevertheless, all the cock Bay Restoration Program is exploring the benefits
recommendations within the pillar are worth pursuing of restored oyster reefs, clam spawner sanctuaries, and
regardless of their priority at this time. eelgrass reseeding. Partner programing and initiatives
are an ideal opportunity to test for changes, if any, in
III-1. Quantify mitigation aragonite saturation states as a result of these and other
measures in their effectiveness types of interventions.
to reduce OA and its III-2. Invest in monitoring New

consequences. (High priority) York’s nearshore and estuarine
Most OA marine mitigation measures are aspirational; that waters. (High priority)
is, they are based on laboratory studies or constrained
field experiments. These experiments must be scaled up Monitoring coastal OA is imperative to clearly establish
to ecosystem and waterbody dimensions. While results the natural variability in the parameters of interest (arago-
appear promising, their impact on ecosystems needs nite saturation, dissolved inorganic carbon, pH, partial
to be quantifiable on a large scale along with potential pressure of carbon dioxide, total alkalinity) and identify
synergistic or antagonistic effects on marine systems changes that may be detrimental to ecosystem goods
to justify investment in their implementation. Model- and services. The state of knowledge concerning OA
ing can play a role, but large-scale field research over and its complex drivers is changing rapidly (Doney et al.,
time is required. For example, a recent study has found 2020). Monitoring and management strategies will need
success in buffering muddy sediments with aged shell to be flexible and adaptive to meet evolving understand-
ing. Entities that conduct monitoring should be encour-
aged to add their data to the federal Water Quality Data measuring any two of the four related carbonate chem-
Exchange (WQX) to make it accessible to all interested istry parameters concurrently (partial pressure of carbon
parties. dioxide, total alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbon,
and pH), although to fully understand OA impacts, all
Watching sentinel organisms most impacted by OA is a four should be measured. NYSDEC began funding an
proven strategy. Shellfish are some of the best sentinel OA monitoring program in the New York Bight in 2018.
organisms for OA because they have a known sensitiv- Measurements of the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
ity to low aragonite states, are ecosystem engineers, are along with pH are being collected by researchers at SBU
prey to fishes, and are iconic species in New York State via a flow-through shipboard monitoring system and this
(New York Ocean Action Plan 2017). However, because will continue for a 10-year period (Figure 10). A similar
of climate change, marine organisms are responding to investigation should be undertaken in New York’s coastal
many stresses, not solely OA, as well as moving across waters.
traditional marine boundaries (Doney et al., 2020).
While minimum monitoring occurs within New York’s
coastal waters, additional monitoring and funding
New York Ocean Action Plan are needed in the future. There is already an admin-
(2017) Recommendations istrative structure that could oversee this monitoring
● Monitor OA and investigate the impacts of OA on shellfish provided by the five New York estuary programs: the
and crustaceans. LIS Study, Peconic-National Estuary Program, New York
South Shore Estuary Reserve, New York-New Jersey
● Using currently available data, develop methods to assess
impacts and predict future responses of commercially
Harbor Estuary Program, and the Hudson River Estuary
important shellfish (e.g., surf clams, ocean quahogs) and Program, as well as the Hudson River National Estuarine
crustacean (e.g., blue crabs, lobster, horseshoe crabs) Research Reserve and its partners. Providing funding to
species to increased OA (decreased pH), decreased these estuary programs would aid in the management
carbonate concentration, various carbonate saturation and coordination of such monitoring program activities.
states, and an increase in gaseous carbon dioxide in
seawater. Figure 10. Top: R/V SEAWOLF OA equipment. Credit: Thomas
● Monitor inshore species, such as oysters, hard clams, and Wilson; Bottom: CTD cast from the R/V SEAWOLF. Credit:
bay scallops, that may be predictive indicators of impacts Karin Schweitzer
associated with climate change.
● Collaborate on an OA monitoring network through
the Mid-Atlantic Regional Planning Body and develop
mitigation strategies for New York.
Each waterbody in New York State is characterized by

different assemblages of shellfish species, with differ-
ent social and economic values as well as different
sensitivities to OA. Any standards should be based on
established and justified scientific methods. The State-es-
tablished methodology to develop standards is designed
to protect even the most sensitive species. The early life
stages of marine bivalves and fishes are known to be the
most vulnerable to OA. So, water quality criteria might be
based on early life stages of shellfish in conjunction with
aragonite saturation states, while research is continued
to determine how the impacts on early life stages affect
overall population productivity.
Establishing baselines now and observing changes

caused by various stressors, such as excessive runoff
and nutrient loading, will provide the justification needed
to invest in mitigation efforts. Ideally, aragonite satura-
tion should be monitored to ascertain the impact of OA
on shellfish species, as aragonite is the form of calcium
carbonate that is biologically available to them. Unfortu-
nately, aragonite cannot currently be measured directly in
seawater, but aragonite saturation can be calculated by

Additionally, New York City operates
the longest running marine water qual-
ity monitoring program in the country
and would have the appropriate infra-
structure to manage OA monitoring
efforts, if provided with the requisite
funding. Specifically, the State should
collaborate with its partners to invest
in a dual-sensor monitoring program
that measures the carbonate chemistry
parameters so that aragonite saturation
can be calculated and the potential for
shell growth and health can be deter-
mined. This investment should not be
limited to equipment, but should also
include funds for maintenance, cali-
bration, data management, quality Figure 11. New York’s large coastal waterbodies. Image created in Google Earth
assurance, and reporting. The most inorganic carbon, and total alkalinity. Such investigations
tractable parameters to measure in terms of cost and can also lead to further understanding of the aragonite
available sensor technology are pH and the partial pres- saturation process.
sure of carbon dioxide, but in instances where vessel-
based water quality monitoring programs are ongoing, Programs for OA monitoring should be located through-
water samples could be added to the regular collection out the Marine and Coastal District and into the New York
program to be analyzed in a laboratory for pH, dissolved Bight (Figure 11). The estuary programs acquire publicly
available data that have an approved Quality Assurance
Program plan and can act as a data repository for OA
The Iconic Bay Scallop monitoring.
as a Monitoring Standard Supplemental funding for OA equipment and analyses for

for the Peconic Bays these existing programs will allow for complete monitor-
ing coverage with associated, standardized Quality Assur-
White et al. (2013) investigated the effect of OA on the larval
ance/Quality Control (QAQC) protocols throughout State
stages of shell growth of the bay scallop, which is found in
bays and estuaries of the northwest Atlantic Ocean. They
waters. Community science monitoring can also play a
determined that high concentrations of carbon dioxide role collecting shallow-water samples for measurements
during the first week following spawning compared to of, for example, total alkalinity and dissolved inorganic
ambient conditions led to reduced survival and diminished carbon (DIC), and for further assessment by certified labo-
shell length for those that did survive. ratories, like those at SBU or the environmental labora-
Baumann et al. (2015) remind us that pH is highly tory run by the Town of Hempstead.
variable over the year with seasonal changes and
diurnal fluctuations. The latter may surpass the seasonal III-3. Develop a geospatial tool
fluctuations. For example, in Flax Pond on Long Island’s
North Shore, they found that the average seasonal signal of to prioritize locations for OA
pH varied 0.6 units and daily could exceed 0.7 units. In the
same study, the observed daily changes in partial pressure
mitigation efforts. (High priority)
of carbon dioxide were on the order of 3,500 μatm at some
Different types of mitigation measures are not likely to
times of year.
have the same effect in all locations. For example, some
In the White et al. (2013) experiments, ambient conditions mitigation measures may be ill-suited to areas with high
were pH and a partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 7.9 and
flow volume, like in the western Long Island Sound, or
509 μatm (aragonite saturation = 2.26), respectively. The
high carbon dioxide conditions (pH = 7.4; partial pressure
fast water speeds, such as the East River, but could be
of carbon dioxide = 1,987 μatm; aragonite saturation = beneficial in shallower, more enclosed embayments, such
0.74) resulted in a shell length of 88% than that of ambient as those found on Long Island’s South Shore. Further-
conditions after a week. Importantly, the shell formation more, some areas are likely to benefit more than others
didn’t recover once the organisms were exposed to ambient from mitigation efforts. These are the places where New
conditions after seven days. York State and its partners could expect a greater return
Thus, if the goal is to maintain coastal OA at a level to on their investment. A geospatial tool should be devel-
support the bay scallop in the Peconic Bay, a standard oped to help funding agencies prioritize areas for OA
aragonite saturation state during spawning season (May– mitigation efforts based on the probability of improving
September) might be appropriate. the water quality/acidity in that area.
III-4. Quantify linkages between the higher trophic level organisms that rely on them for
food, as has been illustrated in ecosystem models (Fay et
nutrient enrichment, hypoxic al., 2017; Olsen et al., 2018).
waters, and OA. (High priority) It is of considerable importance to investigate the syner-
The extent to which nitrogen impacts the carbonate gistic and antagonistic effects of redistributions, changing
chemistry of marine and estuarine waters is modified by abundances, or total disappearance of calcareous phyto-
many physical, chemical, and biological factors. Many plankton caused by OA on the associated food webs
earlier studies of water quality discuss acidity or hypoxia even though research will be difficult because of other
in isolation. For example, although discussing low DO, the environmental shifts, including ocean warming (Guinotte
LIS Study’s Prospects for the Urban Sea (Latimer et al., and Fabry, 2008).
2014) does not cover OA. While there are many mecha-
nisms and methods to regulate water quality standards III-6. Study genetic variation
for nitrogen, some other factors such as large-scale circu-
lation and wind are beyond human control. Neverthe-
of marine organisms to
less, it is critical to understand and quantify the extent to identify genetic disparities
which each of these factors, particularly nitrogen pollu-
tion, affect DO.
associated with resilience in
the face of OA. (High priority)
Research needs to be advanced to understand the
causes of hyperlocal coastal OA in order to impose regu- Despite the challenges marine organisms face to build
latory restrictions and remediation measures (Rheuban their shells, many species flourish in estuarine envi-
et al., 2019). For example, to what extent is OA in the East ronments that experience large fluctuations in OA and
River and Jamaica Bay caused directly by acidic effluent calcium carbonate concentrations (Parker et al., 2011;
as opposed to by drivers of hypoxic conditions or other Sanders et al., 2013). These spatially and temporally vari-
contributing factors like long residence times (Table 3)? able environments represent a major source of genetic
An understanding of local drivers of coastal OA is needed diversity to which individual organisms may adapt. This
for all our estuary programs in New York State. genetic richness has been shown to produce resilience
in marine species in the face of environmental alter-
III-5. Scale from individual ations. For example, different populations of the Sydney
rock oyster (Saccostrea glomerata) perform differently in
physiological effects to response to OA (Parker et al., 2011). Other studies high-
populations and ecosystems. lighted that good performance in some individuals is
genetically encoded. For instance, genetic determinants
(High priority) of adaptation in populations of the purple sea urchin
(Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) along the west coast of
It is necessary to learn more about how OA-impacted the U.S. suggest adaptations to acidification conditions
species affect ecosystems. The individual effects of (Pespeni et al., 2013a; Pespeni et al., 2013b). Similar find-
temperature and OA have been established for some ings of genetic determinants for resilience toward climate
species, but natural resources are managed at the level of change, including OA, were also described in phyto-
populations and ecosystems rather than that of individual plankton (Collins et al., 2014; Lohbeck et al., 2012). These
organisms. For example, fish and shellfish are managed at results highlight that natural genetic variation represents
the stock or population level, but to provide good scien- a valuable source of resilience to OA. Genetic variations
tific advice on harvest limits, the degree to which changes associated with resilience toward other stressors (e.g.,
in growth, survival, and reproduction impact harvestable temperature stress, heat tolerance, disease) have been
populations must be quantified. Harvest limits might have widely used to improve the production of resistant stocks.
to change to sustain populations resilient to multiple envi- In this context, it is a primary research priority to develop
ronmental stressors. In New York State waters, a doubling strategies and approaches to identify and promote stocks
of the daytime partial pressure of carbon dioxide could that are resistant to OA for aquaculture and restoration
increase the risk of population decline within five years needs and to determine whether such actions would alter
from 25% to more than 79% for hard clams and from 56% responses to other stressors.
to 99% for bay scallops (Grear et al., 2020). Eutrophi-
cation and OA could cause such doubling of the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide through the seasonal period
of early life stage development in the near future. Massive
declines in shellfish production could lead to declines in

III-7. Study the chemistry of due to their taste; therefore, restoring ribbed mussels,
opposed to clams and oysters, avoids issues associated
mitigation measures such as with illegal harvesting.
artificial ocean alkalinization of
coastal waters. (High priority) III-10. Determine residence
times for embayments in
Artificial ocean alkalinization is the process by which alka-
line components are added to the marine environment the Marine and Coastal
to decrease acidity (Burns and Corbett, 2020). While this District. (High priority)
may decrease OA, the benefits may not persist (Cripps
et al., 2013; Burns and Corbett, 2020). Some studies in Residence times, a controlling factor for ecosystem func-
marine systems have shown that the buffering effect of tioning, are extremely varied throughout the Marine and
calcium carbonate enrichment only lasts while the enrich- Coastal District. Residence times have been calculated
ment project is ongoing (Feng et al., 2016). In addition, for all of Nassau County’s and Suffolk County’s water-
large-scale deployment may not be practical. Those bodies (Table 1). For managing coastal OA, estimates of
uncertainties concerning the long-term benefits of calci- discharge loading for different embayments should be
um-carbonate buffering should be investigated further. normalized to residence times to understand the carrying
capacity of these waterbodies for a variety of pollutants.
III-8. Understand ecological Further, the effectiveness of some mitigation measures,
such as placing shells to raise calcium carbonate, will
functioning in salt marshes depend on residence times.
and its relationship to A review of residence time calculations throughout the
OA. (High priority) Marine and Coastal District should be undertaken to
ascertain the methodology used, boundary conditions,
As discussed earlier, salt marshes will be important in driving forces, wetting, and drying capabilities, bathymet-
offsetting the effects of OA through blue-carbon seques- ric detail, and spatial resolution. Where residence time
tration. Thus, it is essential to protect their status and calculations are not available or do not meet modern
ecological health as well as to provide space for their standards, such determinations should be made. Proba-
landward progression as rising sea levels force their bly the best measure of residence time would be the time
migration, while research continues to better under- required for an embayment averaged concentration of a
stand their complex ecology. For example, fiddler crabs substance to decrease to 1/e, or about 37%, of the initial
are important as prey but also help with decomposition value (Table 3). However, whatever technique is used for
processes and provide drainage and aeration for marsh calculation, it must be consistent across embayments to
soils (Bertness, 1985; Howes et al., 1981). Their shells are be meaningful.
partially made from calcium carbonate and they already
live in an acidic environment. The effect of OA on these
types of organisms and their subsequent effect on the
III-11. Understand the altering
health of the marsh should be studied. of freshwater flows on
coastal OA. (High priority)
III-9. Support investigations
of ribbed mussel restoration. The pH of precipitation remains low, and riverine and
other freshwater inputs are more acidic than the coastal
(High priority) waters they enter. Natural runoff patterns have been
concentrated by sewers, combined sewers, roads, etc.,
NYC DEP and NYSDEC are investigating the restoration which may affect OA. In addition, annual precipitation in
of ribbed mussel (Geukensia demissa) populations as the Marine and Coastal District is projected to increase
a means of improving water quality to meet State stan- 5–10% by 2080 due to climate change (Horton et al.,
dards and reducing coastal OA. The project outcomes 2014), often occurring as heavy downpours caused by
will provide resource managers and regulators with a wet microbursts (New York Climate Change Science
comprehensive understanding of the value and efficacy Clearinghouse, n.d.). Also due to a warming climate,
of ribbed mussels as a water quality improvement strat- the distribution of runoff throughout the year has been
egy. Ribbed mussels help to stabilize wetlands, provide altered. The timing of the spring freshet impacting the
nutrients to marsh grasses, and, when in abundance, LIS associated with snow melt occurs about six weeks
consume significant amounts of small particles such as earlier in the year relative to 50 years ago (Tedesco et al.,
algae that can form harmful algal blooms. Also, ribbed 2014). Thus, seasonal stratification commences earlier in
mussels are not a species used for human consumption some waterbodies, increasing the likelihood of hypoxia
throughout summers. Research should be initiated to Marine Sciences Consortium, should be committed to
explore the consequences of altering freshwater flows periodically (perhaps biennially) synthesize the OA status
on coastal OA and benefits that may accrue from more for the State’s coastal waters and the New York Bight (see
broadly distributing such flows to resemble those typi- Legislative Pillar V-11).
cally seen in stable coastal ecosystems.
III-14. Establish a New York State
III-12. Study the sentinel OA site, supported by
socioeconomic impacts of the newly renovated, state-
OA as well as economic of-the-art Flax Pond facility
incentives for a mitigation as a New York OA research
strategy. (High priority) facility. (High priority)
In 2016, the marine sector contributed $304 billion or
Sentinel OA sites are needed all around the U.S. coast-
1.6% of GDP to the U.S. economy (NOAA, 2019a) and the
line. Sentinel sites should be representative of the coastal
share of the New York State GDP from fishing, ship build-
area and not likely to have significant anthropogenic
ing, transportation, marine construction, offshore miner-
change over the next several years.
als, and tourism was $27.7 billion (NOAA, 2019b). Society
will be impacted by a more acidified ocean (Wilson et The Flax Pond Marine Lab is jointly owned by NYSDEC
al., 2020). The National Academy of Sciences (2010) and SBU. It provides a modern research facility for inves-
warned that the complexities of OA may take some years tigators to conduct relevant OA research in both a labo-
to appreciate and realize but its consequences will be ratory and a natural open water setting. The lab includes
with us for a long time. In fact, we are already seeing its a multi-stressor system for controlling seawater tempera-
impact. ture, salinity, pH, and DO in flow-through mesocosms. It
is one of the most advanced OA laboratories in the north-
A problem with considering the importance of the marine
east U.S., allowing novel experiments such as the study of
sector to the economy is that it is limited to quantities
the interaction of the physiology of marine organism with
such as jobs added and the value of physical goods and
changes in both the physical and biological condition in
services, without considering ecosystem services. The
the coastal ocean.
National Academy of Sciences (2010) described ecosys-
tem services as “non-use values,” or those that are not While Flax Pond might be New York’s contribution to a
seen in terms of present or future uses. Non-use values regional sentinel site, to monitor status and trends in New
provided by the coastal ocean include ecosystem func- York’s diverse Marine and Coastal District, other opportu-
tions and regulation (nutrient cycling, climate control), nities exist to employ and enhance sensors for incorpo-
protection (storm mitigation, flood control, natural beach ration into a New York system. The existing instrumented
nourishment), aesthetics (inspiration, tranquility), and suite in the New York’s Marine and Coastal District could
cultural value (community identity, education, spiritual be incorporated or augmented to provide measurements
importance). In the case of OA, a non-use value of an relevant to coastal OA. USGS, for example, already has
oyster reef is that it protects the shore from erosion if it is established about 20 instrumented sensor sites (https://
not dissolved by OA. waterdata.usgs.gov/ny/nwis/current/?type=tidal&group_
key=basin_cd); Stony Brook University has another 17
Non-use values need to be assessed and considered
sites (https://www.lishore.org/); and others are maintained
along with jobs and goods in decisions to utilize and
by the Hudson River Environmental Conditions Observ-
protect often-underappreciated resources of New York
ing System, (https://www.hrecos.org/). Additional coastal
State’s coastal waters. Coastal, marine, and socioeco-
facilities could be engaged in measuring and monitoring
nomic research will help broaden appreciation of the
sentinel species at, for example, the Science and Resil-
importance of the marine environment and ultimately lead
ience Institute at Jamaica Bay (https://www.srijb.org/) and
to greater support for employing mitigation measures.
the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies (https://www.cary-
institute.org/).
III-13. Conduct a periodic OA
status report from monitoring
programs. (High priority)
Once OA monitoring has been established through the
estuary programs and other identified programs (see
III-2), New York State, with its partners, like the NYS

III-15. Study the physiological and synergistic effects
of OA on bivalves and other marine organisms,
including at early life stages. (Medium priority)
In New York’s coastal waters, OA and hypoxia often coin- isms to acclimate can help maintain fitness in OA condi-
cide, and recent studies have begun to examine how tions (Sunday et al., 2014). Acclimation, however, has a
waters that are both acidified and hypoxic affect organ- cost resulting in the reallocation of energy among differ-
isms. At a minimum, the combined effects of DO and OA ent physiological functions. The growth/fitness reduction
are equal to what would be expected by adding the indi- observed in many marine organisms subjected to acid-
vidual effects of each stressor together, but for some ification is the result of a metabolic trade-off to main-
organisms, the combined effect of DO and OA is worse tain homeostatic processes (Lannig et al., 2010; Lardies
than if the isolated effects of each stressor were added et al., 2014; Thomsen and Melzner, 2010). The realloca-
together (Gobler et al., 2014). tion of energy for maintaining ionic balances is therefore
expected to be at the expense of other important physi-
New York’s estuarine waters experience some of the ological processes, like immunity and resistance to infec-
greatest temperature fluctuations in the world (Swanson tions, reproduction, etc. Several studies also reported
and Bowman, 2016) and wide diurnal fluctuations (Figure increased resilience to acidified environments when
12). Impacts of the combined effects of OA and DO have food supply is abundant to balance the increased meta-
varied among species and initial conclusions suggest that bolic costs associated with homeostasis maintenance
there could be benefits to multi-trophic aquaculture. Wide (Hettinger et al., 2013; Sanders et al., 2013; Thomsen et
fluctuations on the diurnal, co-varying partial pressure of al., 2013). Thus, investigations of the complex linkages
carbon dioxide and DO concentrations provided relief among nutrient inputs generating OA and aragonite
from static conditions of low DO exposure, for example, saturation and the effect of OA on energy turnover and
in the important forage fish, Atlantic silversides (Menidia trophic interactions are a high priority.
menidia) (Cross et al., 2019). The ability of marine organ-
Figure 12. Concurrent low DO and pH trends at night near the bottom of Flax Pond, September 2014. Carbon dioxide is in a mixed
water column, but decomposes mostly in the bottom waters, causing low DO. Credit: R.L. Swanson, K.W. Giglio, and L. Chi, 2021
III-16. Understand the physical able from year to year. Understanding the Cold Pool is
a research priority for many groups, such as NYSERDA,
stability of the marine who is currently conducting a survey to better understand
environment to enhance offshore wind areas. All efforts should be coordinated
with appropriate partners.
blue carbon sequestration.
(Medium priority) The Cold Pool
New York State lost some 13% of its tidal wetlands The New York Bight is prone to coastal upwelling or
between 1974 and 2008 (Cameron Engineering and onwelling across the continental shelf during summer
Associates, 2015). Hardening of shorelines has prevented when southwesterly winds are persistent (Swanson and
Sindermann, 1979; Glenn et al., 2004). Upwelling is a
marsh migration and disrupted sediment supply for marsh
process where surface waters are transported offshore
maintenance. Waterlogging, erosion of marsh edges, and and replaced by cold bottom waters. A bottom-waterbody
widening of channels (Cameron Engineering and Asso- known as the Cold Pool is located on the mid-continental
ciates, 2015) are all indicators of marsh loss. Excessive shelf in the Bight, persisting during seasonal thermal
nitrogen loading can result in marsh loss by reducing stratification (Lentz, 2017). It is remnant winter water and is
the rhizome biomass that contributes to marsh stability important for OA because carbon dioxide gas solubility is
(Deegan et al., 2012). Shellfish, like oyster and ribbed greater for cold water than warm, thus potentially lowering
mussels, provide protective barriers and stimulate vege- pH. Additionally, as this water mass is subject to reduced
mixing and ventilation with oxygenated, higher ratio of
tation to enhance marshes (Sterling, 1967). As discussed
pH/aragonite saturation surface water during summer,
earlier, these organisms are vulnerable to OA (https://
biological respiration is also a likely contributor to lower
ocean.si.edu/oceanlife/invertebrates/ocean-acidifica- ratio of pH/aragonite saturation (Wright-Fairbanks et al.
tion, downloaded August 23, 2019). Since blue carbon 2020). Geographically it is large, from 20 m–60 m (66
sequestration is important to reducing OA, it is import- ft–197 ft) thick (Lentz, 2017) and it has a volume of 3,100
ant to understand how marshes are physically stabilized km3 (488 nautical miles3) or some 30% of the volume of
and destabilized, and how to keep them healthy and in a water of the Mid-Atlantic Bight shelf water (Cook, 1983).
condition whereby they can expand and migrate upward That portion of the Cold Pool in the New York Bight
as the climate changes. Investigation of living organisms experiences the coldest temperatures throughout the
Mid-Atlantic Bight. Thus, the influence of the Cold Pool
(ecosystem engineers) contributing to physical stability of
on New York ecosystems is of particular concern since
marine environments is needed. its waters can be transported shoreward by upwelling.
Goldsmith et al. (2019) discussed the transport of this
If sedimentation on wetlands cannot keep up with rising remnant water that can bring acidic waters into New York’s
sea levels, spray sedimentation techniques may serve as Territorial Sea (three nautical mile limit).
an amelioration measure. The U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers, the National Park Service, and NYC have success-
fully partnered to stabilize and restore some marshland in
the interior of Jamaica Bay (Davis et al., 2017). Given the III-18. Include pH and other
importance of marshes in mitigating the effects of OA, an measures of OA in the next
investigation into marsh stabilization techniques, includ-
ing constructed wetlands, in the face of climate change iteration of the System-
and sea level rise, is required. Wide Eutrophication
III-17. Understand the dynamics Model. (Medium priority)
of the Cold Pool on coastal The System-Wide Eutrophication Model covers much of
New York Harbor and the LIS. NYSDEC should suggest
OA. (Medium priority) to New York City, who is leading the project, to include
appropriate OA/biogeochemical parameters (pH, the
The origin and dynamics of the Mid-Atlantic Cold Pool partial pressure of carbon dioxide, alkalinity, dissolved
and its influence on OA in the New York Bight should inorganic carbon) as part of the model output as feasible
be thoroughly understood. The Mid-Atlantic Cold Pool to expand the overall utility in managing water quality.
is associated with both low DO and OA. The transport Observational data could then be used to parameterize
of offshore, carbon dioxide-rich water toward the coast the model and improve model output.
interacts with the Cold Pool; this upwelling contributes to
the creation of OA (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013). Upwelling
across New York’s broad continental shelf occurs episod-
ically, typically in the summer months (Glenn et al., 2004).
While the formation of the Mid-Atlantic Cold Pool is well
understood, its size and extent toward the coast are vari-

III-19. Understand the benefits III-20. Study the effect of
of Phragmites australis (spp. OA on the nutritional value
americanus) for nitrogen uptake of shellfish. (Low priority)
and OA mitigation. (Low priority) In a recent study, a 12-week exposure to six OA and
warming scenarios resulted in lower nutritional content
Phragmites australis may be more effective in removing
(i.e., lower levels of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate)
nitrogen and carbonaceous materials from the environ-
and reduced caloric content from Magallana gigias
ment than classic New England-type salt marsh grasses
and Ostrea edulis (two commercially valuable oyster
(Toyama et al., 2016; Alldred, 2019; Alldred et al., 2016)
species) than in existing marine environmental condi-
and therefore may play an important role in mitigating OA
tions (Lemmasson et al., 2018). Also, compared to existing
(Toyama et al., 2016; Alldred, 2019; Alldred et al., 2016).
ambient conditions, increased accumulation of copper in
There is some evidence that Spartina marshes are not
M. gigas was observed and could pose a health concern
as effective nitrogen sinks as once thought (Alldred et
for consumption. Research on OA-altered nutritional
al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2016). Phragmites’s ability to
benefits and health concerns of shellfishes for ecosys-
sequester nutrients in the context of reducing coastal OA
tems and people should be undertaken.
could possibly outweigh its threat to the native Spartina.
Pillar IV. Engage

Inspire and stimulate ple, older than five years should have dedicated plans
to achieve carbon-zero or be required to participate in
businesses, industry, and cap-and-trade systems.
governments to understand,
IV-2. Work with the
reduce, and eliminate factors
agricultural industry to foster
contributing to OA.
carbon sequestration.
Businesses and industry should be nurtured to become
actively involved in OA reduction. They need pathways Carbon capture can be improved by replacing fields
to create profitable products that also reduce OA’s detri- lying fallow in winter with appropriate cover crops.
mental aspects. New York State must collaborate with The New York agricultural community may be able to
its partners to create and maintain these pathways and increase carbon sequestration by the planting of more
encourage business and industry involvement in OA-re- winter cover crops. The University of California at Davis
duction efforts. completed a 19-year experiment showing winter cover
crops supplemented with compost enhanced soil carbon
IV-1. Require that new sequestration (Tautges et al., 2019). This treatment of the
cover crop with compost improved soil organic carbon by
development be carbon neutral. 12.6%. If such a program could be implemented in New
York, the value would not only be to sequester carbon,
To the extent consistent with the State Environmental but to provide a beneficial use for compost.
Quality Review Act (SEQR), new development should
demonstrate efforts to be carbon neutral and be required Regionally, grains, legumes, winter peas, rye, and hairy
to respond to proposed revisions of Environmental vetch are viable candidates for winter cover crops. The
Assessment Forms (See Pillar V). Projects should identify Town of East Hampton recently modified its zoning code
their carbon footprint and provide a mitigation plan. to require winter cover crops to protect soil from wind
erosion. Thus, there is already precedent for communities
A modified carbon cap-and-trade system should be to require cover crops to improve environmental condi-
considered as part of the SEQR analysis as an alterna- tions. The county-run agricultural extension programs and
tive, if appropriate, including investigating the value of farm bureaus should work with the farming community
it or a carbon tax that creates incentives for projects like to explore increasing planting of winter cover crops to
wetland restoration in ways that are environmentally and improve carbon storage. The practice might be encour-
socially just. It is important that new businesses are not aged with tax incentives for farmers.
hindered, but that those businesses that are, for exam-
Another method that might be considered to foster type of product’s use on State contracts and State grants
carbon sequestration is enhanced rock weathering for conversion of cement plants might be considered as
(Beerling et al., 2020). This consists of adding crushed ways to incentivize this practice.
calcium-rich and magnesium-rich silicate rock or lime-
stone to accelerate carbon-dioxide sequestration with
potential co-benefits for crop production and soil pH. Portland Cement
A small pilot project had been done on Long Island to The production of Portland cement generates carbon
help growers amend their soil pH with lime applications dioxide through the use of fossil fuels in manufacturing
(Corey Humphrey, District Manager, Suffolk County Soil and calcination (calcium carbonate, when heated, breaks
down to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide) (National Ready
and Water Conservation District, 2020 personal commu-
Mix Concrete Association, 2012). In the heating process,
nication). Costs and logistics were identified as obstacles.
temperatures reach 1,482ºC (2,700 ºF) (Portland Cement
Association, 2019a).
IV-3. Work with the construction Coal fly ash, which is used as a supplementary cementitious
industry to substitute alternative material, is in decline with the demise of the coal industry.
Thus, Portland cement use will probably increase (Wicks,
materials such as carbon- 2019). However, micro-sized waste glass has pozzolanic
sequestering cement. reactions with cement hydrates that form calcium silicate
hydrate and thus can be used to replace Portland cement,
meeting ASTM standards (Islam et al., 2017). According
The cement industry contributes between four and seven to Islam et al. (2017), for every six tons of glass powdered
percent of the world’s carbon-dioxide emissions (Andrew, concrete used in lieu of typical concrete, there will be a
2018; Reed, 2018). Research is ongoing to find a means to carbon-dioxide reduction of one ton. Very little energy is
reduce this output, including the use of powdered recy- required to pulverize glass.
cled glass, which has pozzolanic engineering properties
as a substitute for Portland cement. Using powdered
glass as a substitute for Portland cement has been shown
to reduce carbon emissions compared with landfilling
IV-4. Encourage and
glass and glass to glass recycling (Tucker et al., 2018). Six enforce robust community
tons of powdered glass substituted for Portland cement
results in a one-ton reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
recycling programs.
(Islam et al., 2017). The Waste Reduction and Manage- Warming the ocean surface leads to increased stratifi-
ment Institute at SBU, along with Urban Mining and the cation of the water column that can result in increasing
World Center for Concrete Technology (Alpena, Michi- hypoxia, which then contributes to coastal OA. Utiliz-
gan), have initiated a research program to assess using ing recycled materials provides environmental benefits
pulverized glass as a substitute for Portland cement in that include improving New York State’s coastal waters
concrete products (Figure 13). Expanding the engineer- by reducing carbon dioxide and methane production.
ing aspects of this research could lead to the New York For each ton of material typically recycled (aluminum,
construction industry having a mitigative impact on steel, glass, high-density polyethylene), 756 pounds of
carbon dioxide emissions and OA. It would also provide carbon-dioxide equivalents are avoided. Even though
a U.S. market for recycled glass. Tax breaks requiring this there are few markets for recycled materials, communi-
ties should not curtail recycling. New York State should be
Figure 13. Cement made with pulverized glass at the World
looking for new opportunities to encourage and support
Center for Concrete Technology. Credit: Frank Roethel recycling with new technologies, new venues, new prod-
ucts, and new markets.

Pillar V. Legislate
Develop a legislative V-1. Participate in and
action plan. contribute to national and
Because the understanding of OA is evolving, legislation global OA legislative actions.
to manage OA must be flexible, perhaps requiring a peri-
The Federal OA Research and Monitoring (FOARAM) Act
odic review of the state of knowledge.
was passed in 2009, but other bills passed in the U.S.
To develop effective legislation to implement the recom- House of Representatives have not made it through the
mendations in this OA Report, a mechanism is needed U.S. Senate, with the exception of the Coordinated Ocean
to implement and fund them. NYSDEC, with the support Observations and Research Act of 2020. By continually
of various partners conducting OA activities, should be engaging our State and federal legislators and exec-
committed to carry out the report’s recommendations utives, New York State can convey the importance of
and summarize biennially on progress toward meeting the OA message. Additional federal legislation must be
the goals herein. NYSDEC will need substantial funding enacted that provides resources for OA research, moni-
to support a program and to hire personnel with the best toring, and mitigation, and New York State needs to be
qualifications and experience to manage the effort. This prepared to compete when opportunities and funding
will also require substantial interagency coordination to arise.
assure consistency and monitor outcomes.
Recent, Relevant Federal OA Legislation

In June 2019, the U.S. House of Representatives passed OA legislation for the first time in 10 years with four bills (H.R. 988, “NEAR
Act of 2019”; H.R. 1237, “COAST Research Act of 2019”; H.R. 1716, “Coastal Communities Ocean Acidification Act of 2019”; H.R.
1921, “Ocean Acidification Innovation Act of 2019”). While none of these initial bills were approved by the U.S. Senate, the House
has not abandoned these bills, and new, revised iterations have been reintroduced since 2019. Three bills have been introduced and
passed by the House and one has been made law (S. 914). The latest OA bills to have passed through the chamber include:
● H.R. 2533, the NEAR Act of 2021
● H.R. 1447, the COAST Research Act of 2019
● H.R. 8632, the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2020
● S. 914, the Coordinated Ocean Observations and Research Act of 2020
H.R. 2533, the NEAR Act of 2021
The NEAR Act of 2021 would direct the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NAS) to examine the existing
science related to the impact of OA on U.S. estuaries and nearshore waters and to further examine the challenges to studying OA and
its interactions with other stressors in estuarine environments. Further, the NAS would be tasked with providing recommendations for
science in management and mitigation decisions.
H.R. 1447, the COAST Research Act of 2019
This bill reauthorizes the Ocean Acidification Program of NOAA and the OA grant program of the National Science Foundation
through FY 2026. It additionally expands these programs and the OA activities of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) to include coastal acidification in addition to OA.
H.R. 8632, the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2020
This bill amends FOARAM to require an assessment of coastal community vulnerability with regard to OA and climate change,
broaden the scope of work on OA to include coastal acidification in addition to ocean acidification, update recommended
funding levels for OA research, and authorize the establishment of an Ocean Acidification Advisory Board which would include
representatives from OA advisory groups across the country. It additionally established the Blue Carbon Program to further
conservation objectives for fish and wildlife habitat conservation and restoration and coastal resilience.
S. 914, the Coordinated Ocean Observations and Research Act of 2020
This bill amends FOARAM to require a report on OA every six years (beginning two years after the date of the enactment of this bill)
submitted to Congress, in addition to broadening the research outlined in FOARAM to include combined impacts of changing ocean
chemistry and other environmental stressors.
OA is a national issue. The New York delegation is encouraged to move these and future OA legislation forward to help the nation as
well as the state.
V-2. Revise, modernize, and V-3. Review the State
enforce New York State’s pH Environmental Quality
water quality standards. Review Act (SEQR) in
Standards and effluent limitations need to be defined that order to use existing laws
are meaningful and enforceable for the coastal environ- to reduce OA impacts.
ment, considering climate change and its ramifications
(Tomassetti and Gobler, 2020). Existing standards for Once sufficient monitoring has taken place to support
New York State are insufficient for managing coastal OA. modification/development of the standards, SEQR should
The current pH standards are derived from the Federal be modified to consider the impact of a proposed proj-
Water Pollution Control Act, but individual states have ect on acidity and on aragonite saturation as a contribu-
the authority to make the standards more stringent (Kelly tor to coastal OA. State and federal governments have
and Caldwell, 2013). New effluent limitations should be the authority to define significant adverse environmental
adopted based on aragonite saturation required for impacts that are subject to assessment (Kelly and Cald-
specific sentinel organisms identified for each of New well, 2013). Coastal OA is largely generated by develop-
York State’s major waterbodies (see Pillar III). The current ment, so eutrophication and its relationship to OA should
pH limitation for marine waters is that “the normal [pH] require environmental review (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013).
range shall not be extended by more than one-tenth Just as an impact of a project must be considered on
(0.1) of a pH unit” (NYSDEC, 2020) and has little mean- water quality, the Environmental Assessment Form (EAF),
ing for assessing the complex carbonate chemistry influ- Part 1, should be redesigned to identify the potential
encing coastal OA. “Normal” is used because the range actions that contribute to coastal OA. These activities
of fluctuation of pH varies from waterbody to waterbody should be subject to assessment and analysis in an Envi-
and also within waterbodies (Kelly and Caldwell, 2013). ronmental Impact Statement.
“Normal” is undefined statistically on both temporal and
spatial scales; it is neither practicable nor enforceable. V-4. Coordinate OA Task Force
Additionally, pH alone cannot act as a proxy for aragonite
saturation state, which is most important for the success recommendations with the
of marine calcifying organisms. However, by using pH Scoping Plan recommendations
along with another parameter to define aragonite satu-
ration state, a numeric value for pH may be more attain- of the Climate Action Council.
able, or at least a value such as “shall not be less than”
The goals of these two bodies are complementary.
may be defined for specific waterbodies (Kelly and Cald-
The Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act
well, 2013).
became law in 2019, established the Climate Action
Measurement methodology may have to be specified to Council (CAC) (https://climate.ny.gov/Our-Climate-Act/
be enforceable. If OA impairments are to be mitigated Climate-Action-Council accessed May 2022) and issued
through statues and regulations, pH is reported and is a Scoping Plan with climate adaptation and resilience
acceptable as an indicator for the SPDES permits for all recommendations in “Appendix H: Adaptation & Resil-
sewage and industrial effluents discharged into marine ience Recommendation Components.” The CAC, OATF,
waters. However, the allowable range of pH for some and other appropriate entities should coordinate findings
discharges such as STPs is large, and violations may not and recommendations.
have been actionable. While actionable OA standards are
a goal, those establishing and enforcing them (and those V-5. Embrace Suffolk and
complying with them) must be mindful that they must be
adaptable because of the complex and changing chem-
Nassau counties’ Subwatershed
istry of OA and the scientific understanding of it (Doney Wastewater Management Plans.
et al., 2020). A strong data set is needed to create new
standards. Putting quality-assured, quality-controlled data The Suffolk County Subwatershed Wastewater Manage-
into WQX will help build a robust data set. ment Plan (Suffolk County Department of Health Service,
2019) identifies cesspools and septic systems from
around 360,000 homes as the primary source of nitro-
gen to the county’s surface waters. The county’s report
focuses on reducing nitrogen to groundwater to improve
water quality. Targets include improved DO concentra-
tions, reduced chlorophyll-a concentrations and harmful
algal blooms, and increased acreage of eelgrass beds.

Suffolk County has embarked on an aggressive plan of
action through its Comprehensive Wastewater Manage-
V-6. Create an initiative
ment Plan for reducing nitrogen from septic systems with to reduce carbon dioxide
the goal of improving ground water resources as well as
surface waters. LINAP expands this effort into Nassau
emissions by improving
County, seeking to identify sources of nitrogen to surface building insulation.
and ground water, establish nitrogen reduction goals,
Electricity and heat production accounted for 28% of the
and develop an implementation plan to achieve reduc-
2017 global greenhouse gas emissions (City of New York,
tions. Monitoring endpoints, as identified in Suffolk Coun-
2017). Heating buildings ranks as the greatest source of
ty’s plan, is necessary to assess how much improvement
carbon dioxide emissions worldwide. Given development
will occur. If there is reduced hypoxia in local embay-
throughout New York State and particularly in the Marine
ments from improved DO concentrations, a concomitant
and Coastal District (Figure 1), the state is an important
increase in pH may also take place in the same waters, to
contributor locally. New York State should require improv-
the extent that DO and pH are coupled through ecosys-
ing and maintaining insulation of homes and buildings
tem metabolism. This should be monitored as part of the
for the purpose of reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
plan implementation.
Such an effort should involve the programs of NYSERDA
Assuming the Subwatershed Plan is fully implemented, (https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/home-energy-
Suffolk County anticipates that there could be a reduc- efficiency-upgrades, accessed June 2022).
tion in nitrogen loading to coastal waters from 44% of
the current total load (using the existing on-site systems) V-7. Create an expedited
to 22% (with the new innovative/alternative systems).
Legacy nitrogen, however, will continue to seep into
permitting process for
the waterways. This program should be supported, and aquaculture operations.
the coastal waterbodies monitored. But for this effort to
be effective, homeowners need ongoing assistance in The permitting processes for implementing aquaculture
directly financing the new innovative alternative septic operations are cumbersome and time consuming. Regu-
systems. New York State’s Septic System Replacement lations need to explore expediting permitting processes
Fund Program provides funding to counties to help home- for aquaculture to encourage coastal OA mitigation. While
owners upgrade septic systems through participating it is important to appropriately vet the environmental
counties (https://efc.ny.gov/septic-replacement accessed consequences of proposed actions, a permitting process
June 2022). should be in place that is both thorough and efficient.
In Nassau County, an initial report which characterized V-8. Develop a legislative

the nitrogen loading to the groundwater sheds using
the same methods as Suffolk County was completed in process to avert conflicts
2020. In 2022, an update to the report was completed between possible OA
using new groundwatershed boundaries from USGS and
adding an implementation plan to take action on reduc- mitigation measures and
ing the nitrogen load. The results from the Nassau County freedom of navigation.
plan show the north shore of the county needing to focus
on septic system replacements. Nassau County now has A legislative process should be started to resolve poten-
a State- and county-funded septic upgrade program to tial conflicts between possible coastal OA mitigation
replace cesspools and old septic system (https://www. measures such as aquaculture and the U.S. Freedom of
nassaucountyny.gov/5191/Nassau-Septic). The south Navigation Program. How much nearshore water and bay
shore of the county needs to focus on fertilizer reduction. bottom is appropriate to set aside for OA mitigation at the
The Nassau County plan outlines which best manage- expense of freely maneuvering in and otherwise using
ment actions are appropriate for each subwatershed to these waters? Cost-benefit analyses should be under-
meet its load reduction goals and offers a blueprint for taken for coastal OA mitigation measures that might
stakeholders to take part in these efforts. impinge on the freedom of navigation.
V-9. Coordinate New York biennially on how the State is addressing and meeting
the recommendations of the OATF’s Ocean Acidification
State’s OA initiatives with report.
Connecticut and New Jersey.
V-12. Amend legislation
New York State and its partners need to work with our
tri-state neighbors, and beyond12, to initiate OA mitiga- so that all indigenous
tion, research, and monitoring programs. The five estu- macroalgal species are
ary programs (New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary
Program, LIS Study, Peconic Estuary Partnership, and
approved for aquaculture
the South Shore Estuary Program, Hudson River Estuary in the Marine and Coastal
Program) can play an important role in this coordination.
The New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program and
District of New York State.
the LIS Study are already successful multistate programs. New York State recently permitted kelp (Saccharina latis-
At a minimum, there should be a coordinated, if not a sima) cultivation in Gardiners and Peconic bays (Senate
unified, monitoring program for OA amongst these estu- Bill S6532A), but not in other waterbodies in its Marine
ary programs. and Coastal District. In addition to sugar kelp, other
potentially cultivable macroalgae include Porphyra spp.,
V-10. Participate in Gracilaria tikvahiae (graceful red weed), and Chon-
international OA activities. drus crispus (Irish moss). As discussed in Section I-4,
the opportunity for seaweed aquaculture should be
New York State should become a leader in the Interna- expanded to help extract nitrogen and carbon dioxide
tional Alliance to Combat Ocean Acidification. New York from the surface waters.
is already becoming a national leader in addressing the
impacts of OA and other marine issues. For example, see V-13. Reduce fertilizer use.
the New York Ocean Action Plan covering the period
2017–2027 (NYSDEC and NYSDOS, n.d.). The State Fertilizer is the second leading source of nitrogen
should aggressively continue this precedent and expand contamination of Long Island’s waters. The LINAP Fertil-
the promotion of sound ideas and policies internationally. izer Management Workgroup advised the LINAP project
Resources should be made available to allow participa- management team on recommendations that balance
tion in the global arena. residents’ desire for a healthy lawn with the need to
significantly reduce nitrogen loads to Long Island’s water-
V-11. Create an OA advisory bodies. These recommendations are the most compre-
hensive in the nation. New York State is leading the way
committee out of the by calling for lower nitrogen application rates and for
Governor’s Office to help fertilizers with a large fraction of slowly available nitro-
gen to minimize nitrogen leaching to groundwater. When
implement the OA plan. these recommendations are implemented, there will be
up to a 40% reduction in fertilizer-sourced nitrogen enter-
The Governor is hereby encouraged to create an OA ing the environment. The recommendations are avail-
Advisory Committee once an OA report is submitted and able on NYSDEC’s website (http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/
reviewed. The mission of the committee should be to water_pdf/linapfertilizer.pdf).
oversee, advise, and promote adherence to the report’s
recommendations, including lobbying for State resources
and promoting the participation of businesses and indus-
try. The committee should consist of non-conflicted
experts who represent the relevant science, business and
industry, environmental, and social issues associated with
OA. Among other responsibilities, the Advisory Commit-
tee should work with NYSDEC to report periodically on
the state of OA in the Marine and Coastal District and
12 Elements of the East Coast Coastal Acidification Networks include The Northeast Coastal Acidification Network (NECAN), the MidAtlantic
Coastal Acidification Network (MACAN), the Southeast Ocean and Coastal Acidification Network (SOCAN), and the Gulf of Mexico Coastal
Acidification Network (GCAN), as well as global OA networks. New York lies at the northernmost edge of the Mid-Atlantic Region, although
participating in MACAN waters of the Long Island Sound are within the NECAN Network. https://midacan.org/

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Ocean Acidification

Its Causes, Impacts, and Mitigation;

For questions concerning ocean issues

This report represents the views and

So, some say

In too much haste

Mitigation not evolving

Need more carbonate

Reduce carbon dioxide

The ocean’s natural state

Ocean Acidification Investigators and Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Climate Change Magnifies OA Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Establishment of the Ocean Acidification Task Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Coordination and Collaboration with Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Marine Resources at Risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The Socioeconomic Impacts of Threatened Marine Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Implement Measures to Reduce the Extent, Magnitude, and Impact of OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

I-2. Minimize discharges that contribute to coastal OA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

I-5. Support and broaden mollusk-shell recycling programs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

I-8. Introduce highly alkaline material into the marine environment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Buffering Solutions Reduce Acidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

I-9. Expand use of ocean outfalls for discharge of sewage effluent.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

I-10. Fill in dredged hypoxic holes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

continued on following page...

II-3. Provide financial support for OA graduate research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Pillar III. Investigate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Conduct relevant research and monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

III-2. Invest in monitoring New York’s nearshore and estuarine waters.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

New York Ocean Action Plan (2017) Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

III-3. Develop a geospatial tool to prioritize locations for OA mitigation efforts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

III-5. Scale from individual physiological effects to populations and ecosystems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

III-9. Support investigations of ribbed mussel restoration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

III-11. Understand the altering of freshwater flows on coastal OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

III-13. Conduct a periodic OA status report from monitoring programs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

III-17. Understand the dynamics of the Cold Pool on coastal OA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

The Cold Pool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2 OCEAN ACIDIFICATION TASK FORCE

III-20. Study the effect of OA on the nutritional value of shellfish.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Pillar IV. Engage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

IV-1. Require that new development be carbon neutral.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

IV-2. Work with the agricultural industry to foster carbon sequestration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

IV-4. Encourage and enforce robust community recycling programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Develop a legislative action plan.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

V-1. Participate in and contribute to national and global OA legislative actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Recent, Relevant Federal OA Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

H.R. 2533, the NEAR Act of 2021. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

H.R. 1447, the COAST Research Act of 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

H.R. 8632, the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

S. 914, the Coordinated Ocean Observations and Research Act of 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

V-7. Create an expedited permitting process for aquaculture operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

V-10. Participate in international OA activities.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

V-13. Reduce fertilizer use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figure 2. Reaction of carbon dioxide in water

Figure 3. One-day-old Pacific oyster larvae

Figure 4. The Bay Park Conveyance Project

Figure 5A. Bio-extraction via harvesting of shellfish and seaweed.

Figure 5B. Fishers Island oyster hatchery

Figure 6. Long Island Zostera marina seagrass bed

Figure 7. Select New York small coastal embayments

QAQC Quality Assurance/Quality Control