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8.
3 Process capability ratios

8.3.1 Utilization and interpretation of Cp:
In order to express process capability, we use a simple , quantitative
way is through the process capability ratio (PCR) Cp with
With USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits. Cp and
other process capability ratios are used extensively in industry. They are
also widely misused
In practical application, the process standard deviation σ is almost
always unknown and must be replaced by an estimate σ . In order to
estimate σ we typically use either the sample standard deviation s or
( when variables control charts are used in the capability study) .
this results in an estimate of Cp- say
The PCR Cp in the first equation has a useful practical interpretation-

namely, is the percentage of the specification band used up by the
process.
For one-sided specifications, one- sided process-capability ratios are

used. One- sided PCRs are defined as follows
Estimates and would be obtained by replacing and in those
equations by estimate respectively
The process capability ratio is a measure of the ability of the process to

manufacture product that meets the specifications. The upper table
presents several values of the PCR Cp along with the associated value of
process fallout, expressed in defective parts or nonconforming units of
product per million (ppm). For EX, notice that a PCR for a normally
distributed stable process of Cp=1.00 implies a fallot rate of 2700 ppm
for two sided specifications, whereas a PCR of Cp= 1.50 for this process
implies a fallout rate of 4ppm for one-sided specificaitons.
The ppm quantities in that table were calculated using the following
important assumptions :
1. The quality characteristic has a normal distribution.
2. The process is in statistical control.
3. In the case of two-sided specifications, the process mean is
centered between the lower and upper specification limits
These assumptions are absolutely critical to the accuracy and validity of
the reported numbers, and if they are not valid, then the reported
quantities may be seriously in error.
Stability or statistical control of the process is also essential to the
correct interpretation of any PCR. Unfortunately, it is fairly common
practice to compute a PCR from a sample of historical process data
without any consideration of whether or not the process is in statistical
control. If the process is not in control, then of course its parameters
are unstable, and the value of these parameters in the future is
uncertain. Thus the predictive aspects of the PCR regarding process
ppm performance are lost.
Finally, remember that what we actually observe in practice is an
estimate of the PCR. This estimate is subject to error in estimation,
since it depends on sample statistics. English and Taylor (1993) report
that large errors in estimating PCRs from sample data can occur, so the
estimate one actually has at hand may not be very reliable. It is always a
good idea to report the estimate of any PCR in terms of a confidence
interval.
8.3.2 process capability ratio for an Off-center Process:

The process capability ratio Cp does not take into account where the
process mean is located relative to the specifications. Cp simply
measures the spread of the specifications relative to Six Sigma spread
into the process.
This situation may be more accurately reflected by defining a new
process capability ratio (PCR) -Cpk - that takes process centering into
account. This quantity is
Generally, if Cp = Cpk, the process is centered at the midpoint of the

specifications, and when Cpk < Cp the process is off center.
The magnitude of Cpk relative to Cp is a direct measure of how off
center the process is operating.
we usually say that Cp measures potential capability in the process,
whereas Cpk measures actual capability.
8.3.3 Normality and the Process Capability Ratio

An important assumption underlying our discussion of process
capability and the ratios Cp and Cpk is that their usual interpretation is
based on a normal distribution of process output. If the underlying
distribution is non-normal, then as we previously cautioned, the
statements about expected process fallout attributed to a particular
value of Cp or Cpk may be in error.
One approach to dealing with this situation is to transform the data so
that in the new, transformed metric the data have a normal distribution
appearance. There are various graphical and analytical approaches to
selecting a transformation
Other approaches have been considered in dealing with non-normal
data. There have been various attempts to extend the definitions of the
standard capability indices to the case of non-normal distributions.
Luceño (1996) introduced the index Cpc, defined as
There have also been attempts to modify the usual capability indices so
that they are appropriate for two general families of distributions: the
Pearson and Johnson families. This would make PCRs broadly applicable
for both normal and non-normal distributions.
The general idea is to use appropriate quantiles of the process
distribution—say,x0.00135 and x0.99865—to define a quantile-based
PCR—say,

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8.

3 Process capability ratios

The PCR Cp in the first equation has a useful practical interpretation-

For one-sided specifications, one- sided process-capability ratios are

The process capability ratio is a measure of the ability of the process to

8.3.2 process capability ratio for an Off-center Process:

Generally, if Cp = Cpk, the process is centered at the midpoint of the

8.3.3 Normality and the Process Capability Ratio

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