Radiation Exchange

UNIT 10 RADIATION EXCHANGE

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 The View Factor
10.2.1 View Factor Integral
10.2.2 View Factor Relations
10.3 Blackbody Radiation Exchange
10.4 Radiation Exchange between Diffuse, Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure
10.5 Net Radiation Exchange at a Surface
10.6 Radiation Exchange between Surfaces
10.7 The Two Surface Enclosure
10.8 Radiation Shield
10.9 The Reradiating Surface
10.10 Multimode Heat Transfer
10.11 Crossed String Method
10.12 Summary
10.13 Key Words
10.14 Answers to SAQs

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will consider the problem of radiative exchange between two or more
surfaces. This exchange depends strongly on the surface geometries and orientations, as
well as on their radiative properties and temperatures. We will assume that the surfaces
are separated by a nonparticipating medium, since such a medium does not emit, absorb
or scatter the radiation. It has no effects on the transfer of radiation between surfaces. A
vacuum meets these requirements exactly, and most gases meet them to an excellent
approximation.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 understand method of estimation of radiative heat transfer between surfaces,
 apply the concept of view factor to find the radiative heat transfer between
different geometric surfaces,
 apply view factor algebra for calculation of radiative heat transfer,
 utilise net radiation method for radiative exchange between surfaces, and
 understand the concept of radiation shield and reduction of radiation mode
of heat transfer in some applications.

10.2 THE VIEW FACTOR

To compute radiation exchange between any two surfaces, we must first introduce the
concept of a view factor (also called a configuration or shape factor).
43
Radiation 10.2.1 The View Factor Integral
The view factor Fij is defined as the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that is
intercepted by surface j. To develop a general expression for Fij, we consider the
arbitrarily oriented surfaces Ai and Aj of Figure 10.1.
dAj

nj
j

AjTj dAj cos j

R

ni
ni dwj
i

dAi

dAi

AiTi

Figure 10.1 : View Factor Associated with Radiation Exchange between

Elemental Surfaces of Area dAi and dAj
Elemental areas on each surface, dAi and dAj are connected by a line of length R, which
forms the polar angles i and j, respectively, with the surface normals ni and nj. The
values of R, i and j, vary with the position of the elemental areas on Ai and Aj.
From the definition of the radiation intensity, and Eq. (9.4), the rate at which radiation
leaves dAi and is intercepted by dAj may be expressed as :
dqi  j  I i cos i d Ai d  j  i . . . (10.1)
where Ii is the intensity of the radiation leaving surface i and d  j  i is the solid angles
(cos  j d A j )
subtended by dAj when viewed from dAi. With d  j  i  from Eq. (9.1), it
R2
follows that
cos i cos  j
dqi  j  Ii dAi dA j . . . (10.2)
R2
Assuming that surface i emits and reflects diffusely and substituting from Eq. (9.23), we
then obtain
cos i cos  j
dqi  j  J i dAi dA j . . . (10.3)
 R2
The total rate at which radiation leaves surface i and is intercepted by j may then be
obtained by integrating over the two surfaces. That is,
cos i cos  j
qi  j  J i    R2
dAi dA j . . . (10.4)
Ai Aj

where it is assumed that the radiosity Ji is uniform over the surface Ai. From the
definition of the view factor as the fraction of the radiation that leaves Ai and is
intercepted by Aj,
qi  j
Fij  . . . (10.5)
Ai J i
44
It follows that, Radiation Exchange

1 cos i cos  j
Fij 
Ai    R2
dAi dA j . . . (10.6)
Ai Aj

Similarly, the view factor Fji is defined as the fraction of the radiation that leaves Aj and
is intercepted by Ai. The same development then yields
1 cos i cos  j
F ji 
Aj    R2
dAi dA j . . . (10.7)
Ai Aj

Either Eq. (10.6) or Eq. (10.7) may be used to determine the view factor associated with
any two surfaces that are diffuse emitters and reflectors and have uniform radiosity.
10.2.2 View Factor Relations
An important view factor relation is suggested by Eqs. (10.6) and (10.7). In particular,
equating the integrals appearing in these equations, it follows that
Ai Fij  A j F ji . . . (10.8)

This expression, termed the reciprocity relation, is useful in determining one view factor
from knowledge of the other.
TN

JN
T1 J1
T1

J1

J2

T2

Figure 10.2 : Radiation Exchange in an Enclosure

Another important view factor relation to the surfaces of an enclosure as shown in

Figure 10.2. From the definition of the view factor, the summation rule may be applied
to each of the N surfaces in the enclosure. The rule follows from the conservation
requirements that all radiation leaving surface i must be intercepted by the enclosure
surfaces. The term Fij appearing in this summation represents the fraction of the
radiation that leaves surface i and is directly intercepted by i. If the surface is concave,
it sees itself and Fij is nonzero. However, for a plane or convex surface, Fij = 0.
N
 Fij  1 . . . (10.9)
j 1

To calculate radiation exchange in an enclosure of N surfaces, a total of view factors are

needed. This requirement becomes evident when the view factors are arranged in the
matrix form.

 F11  F1N 
 
     . . . (10.10)
F 
 N 1  FNN  45
Radiation However, all the view factors need not be calculated directly. A total of N view factor
may be obtained from the N equations associated with application of the summation rule,
N ( N  1)
Eq. (10.9), to each of the surface in the enclosure. In addition, view factors
2
N ( N  1)
may be obtained from applications of the reciprocity relation, Eq. (10.8),
2
 N 2  N  N ( N  1)  N ( N  1)
which are possible for the enclosure. Accordingly, only  
 2  2
view factors need be determined directly. For example, in a three-surface enclosure this
3 (3  1)
required correspond to only  3 view factors. The remaining six view factors
2
may be obtained by solving the six equations that results from use of Eqs. (10.8)
and (10.9).
Table 10.1 : View Factors for Two-dimensional Geometries
Geometry Relation

Parallel Plates with Midlines

Connected by Perpendicular

W1
1 1
i 2 2
[(Wi  W j )  4] 2  [(W j  Wi )  4] 2
Fij 
2Wi
L
w w
Wi  , Wi 
L L

W2

Inclined Parallel Plates of Equal j

Width and a Common Edge


Fij  1  sin  
2


j
Perpendicular Plates with
a Common Edge

1
 w    2   2
2
1    1 
 wi    wi  
Fij 
2

W1

46
 Radiation Exchange
Three Sided Enclosure

Wj
Wk wi  w j  wk
j
Fij 
k 2 wi

Wi

 1
1  2 2
Fij     [C  ( R  1) ]2
2 
Parallel Cylinders of 
Different Radil
1
2 2
 [C  ( R  1) ] 2
rj
ri  1  R   1  
 ( R  1) cos      
 C   C  
j
i
 R   1   
 ( R  1) cos 1       
 C   C   

r s
R ,S
ri ri

C 1 R  S

r
Cylinder and Parallel Rectangle

j
L
r  1 S1 s 
Fij  tan  tan 1 2 
s1  s2  L L

S2

S1

Infinite Plane and Raw of Cylinders

s D 1
  D 2  2
Fij  1  1    
j   s  

1
D 1  s2  D2  2
   tan  
s  2 
i  D 

47
Radiation To illustrate the foregoing procedure, consider a simple, two-surface enclosure involving
the spherical surfaces as shown in Figure 10.3.

F12 = 1, F11 = 0
A A
F12 = 1 , F22 = 1  1
A2 A2
J1
J2

Figure 10.3 : View Factors for the Enclosure Formed by Two Spheres

Although the enclosure is characterized by N2 = 4 view factors (F11, F12, F21, F22),
( N  1)
N  1 only view factor need be determined directly.
2
In this case such a determination may be made by inspection. In particular, since all
radiation leaving the inner surface must reach the outer surface, it follows that F12 = 1.
The same may not be said of radiation leaving the outer surface, since this surface sees
itself. However, from the reciprocity relation, Eq. (10.8), we obtain

A  A 
F21   1  F12   1  . . . (10.11)
 A2   A2 

From the summation rule, we obtain

F11  F12  1 . . . (10.12)

in which F11 = 0, and

F21  F22  1 . . . (10.13)

A 
in which case F22  1   1  . . . (10.14)
 A2 

For more complicated geometries, the view factor may be determined by solving the
double integral of Eq. (10.6). Such solutions have been obtained for many different
surface arrangements and are available in equation, graphical and tabular form. Results
for several common geometries are presented in Tables 10.1 and 10.2 and Figures 10.4
to 10.6.
The configurations of Table 10.1 are assumed to be infinitely long (in a direction
perpendicular to the page) and are hence two-dimensional. The configuration of
Table 10.2 and Figures10.4 to 10.6 is three-dimensional. It is useful to note that the
results of Figures 10.4 to 10.6 may be used to determine other view factors. For example,
the view factor for an end surface of a cylinder (or a truncated cone) relative to the
lateral surface may be obtained by using the results of Figures 10.4 and 10.6 may be used
to obtain other useful results if two additional view factor relations are developed.
48
 Radiation Exchange

Table 10.2

Geometry Relation

Aligned Parallel Rectangles X Y

X  ,Y 
L L

 1
2   (1  X 2 ) (1  Y 2 )  2

Fij  ln  
XY   1  X 2  Y 2 

i
L

j 1
Y 2 1 X
X  X (1  Y ) 2 tan
1
(1  Y 2 ) 2

1
2 1 Y
 Y (1  X ) 2 tan
1
(1  X 2 ) 2

 X tan 1 X  Y tan 1 Y 
Coaxial Parallel Disks r r
Ri  . R j 
L L

rj
j 1  R12
S 1
ri L R12

i
 1
  22 
1  r   
Fij  S  S 2  4  
2    
   ri   
 

Perpendicular Rectangles with a Common Edge Z Y

H  ,W 
X X

1  1 1  H tan 1 1 
Fij   W tan 
W  W H

1
2 2 1 1
 (H  W ) 2 tan
1
Z
J (H 2  W 2 ) 2

Y X  1
  W 2 (1  W 2  H 2 )  2
1  (1  W 2 ) (1  H 2 )
 ln   
4  1 W2  H2  (1  W 2 ) (W 2  H 2 ) 


49
Radiation
1
 H 2 (1  H 2  W 2 )  2 
  
 (1  H 2 ) ( H 2  H 2 )  


1.0 

0.7 10 4
i 2
0.5 L 1.0
0.4 j
Y 0.6
0.3 X
0.4
0.2

Fij 0.1
0.2

0.07
0.05
0.04 Y/ L = 0.1

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20
X/L
Figure 10.4 : View Factor for Aligned Parallel Rectangles
1.0
8 rj
i
6 ri L
0.8
5 j

4
1.5
0.6 3
1.25
FiJ

Rj / L
=2 1.0
0.4
0.8

0.2
0.6 0.4

0.3
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
Z/ri

Figure 10.5 : View Factor For Parallel Flat Circular Plates

0.5 Y/X = Z J
0.02 I
Y
X
0.05
0.4
0.1

0.2
03
Fn

0.4

0.6
0.2
1.0

1.5
2.0 4
0.1
50
10

0 20
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
 Radiation Exchange

Figure 10.6 : View Factor for Perpendicular Rectangles with a Common Edge
The first relation concerns the additive nature of view factors for a subdivided surface
and may be inferred from Figure 10.7.

An
Aj
Ak

A1

n
Aj   Ak
k 1

Figure 10.7 : Method for Finding View Factor by Dividing Areas

Considering radiation from surface i to surface j, which is divided into n components, it

is evident that
n
Fi ( j )   Fik . . . (10.15)
k 1

where the parentheses around a subscript indicate that it is a composite surface, in which
case (j) is equivalent to (1, 2, 3, . . . , k, . . . , n). This expression simply states that
radiation reaching a composite surface is the sum of the radiation reaching its parts.
Although it pertains to subdivision of the receiving surface, it may also be used to obtain
the second view factor relation, which pertains to subdivision of the originating surface.
Multiplying Eq. (10.15) by Ai and applying the reciprocity relation, Eq. (10.8), to each of
the resulting terms, it follows that
n
A j F( j ) i   Ak Fki . . . (10.16)
k 1

n
 Ak Fki
k 1
F( j ) i  n
. . . (10.17)
 Ak
k 1

Eqs. (10.16) and (10.17) may be applied when the originating surface is composed of
several parts.

SAQ 1
(a) What is view factor?
1 cos 1 cos 2
(b) Show that A1 F12 
   r2
dA1 dA2 .
A1 A2

(c) Explain how the shape factor is determined by decomposing one or both the
surfaces into subdivisions.
(d) What is the shape factor with respect to itself if the surface is concave,
convex or flat?
51
Radiation

10.3 BLACKBODY RADIATION EXCHANGE

In general, radiation may leave a surface due to both reflection and emission and on
reaching a second surface, experience reflection as well as absorption. However, matters
are simplified for surfaces that may be approximated as blackbodies, since there is no
reflection. Hence energy only leaves as a result of emission and since radiation is
absorbed.
Consider radiation exchange between two black surfaces of arbitrary shape as shown in
Figure 10.8.

nj
ni

Ji = Ebi Jj = Ebj

Aj Tj

Ai T i

Figure 10.8 : Radiation Transfer Between Two Surfaces that may be Approximate as Blackbodies

Defining qi  j as the rate at which radiation leaves surface i and is intercepted by

surface j, it follows that
qi  j  ( Ai J i ) Fij . . . (10.18)

or, since radiosity equals emissive power for a black surface ( J i  Ebi ) ,

qi  j  Ai Fij Ebi . . . (10.19)

Similarly, q j  i  A j F ji Ebj . . . (10.20)

The net radiative exchange between two surfaces may then be defined as
qij  qi  j  qj  i . . . (10.21)

From which it follows that

qij  Ai Fij Ebi  A j F ji Ebj . . . (10.22)

or qij  Ai Fij  (Ti4  T j4 ) . . . (10.23)

Eq. (10.23) provides the net rate at which radiation leaves surface i as a result of its
interaction with j, which is equal to the net rate at which j gains radiation due to its
interaction with i.

52
 The foregoing result may also be used to evaluate the net radiation transfer from any Radiation Exchange
surface in an enclosure of black surfaces. With N surfaces maintained at different
temperatures, the net transfer of radiation from surface i is due to exchange with the
remaining surface and may be expressed as
N
qi   Ai Fij  (Ti 4  T j4 ) . . . (10.24)
ji

SAQ 2
Show that the hemispherical black cavity with flat cover over it emits 50% of
radiation to the surface itself and is absorbed.

10.4 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN DIFFUSE,

GRAY, SURFACES IN AN ENCLOSURE
Although useful to a point, the foregoing results are limited by the assumption of
blackbody behaviour. The blackbody is of course, an idealized, which, although closely
approximated by some surfaces, is never precisely achieved. A major complication
associated with radiation exchange between non-black surface is due to surface
reflection. In an enclosure, such as that of Figure 10.9, radiation may experience multiple
reflections off all surfaces, with partial absorption occurring at each.

T1A1E1
TjAjEj
Q1 G1
J1

TiAiEi

Figure 10.9 : Radiation Exchange in an Enclosure

Analysing radiation exchange in an enclosure may be simplified by making certain

assumptions. Each surface of enclosure is assumed to be isothermal and to be
characterised by a uniform radiosiy and irradiation. Opaque, diffuse, gray surface
behaviour is also assumed, and the medium within the enclosure is taken to be
nonparticipating. The problem is generally one in which the temperature Ti associated
with each of the surface is known, and the objective is to determine the net radiative heat
flux qi from each surface.

10.5 NET RADIATION EXCHANGE AT A SURFACE

The term qi , which is the net rate at which radiation leaves surfaces i , represents the net
effect of radiation interactions occurring at the surface is as shown in Figure 10.10.
Gi A i
J i Ai

53

qi
Radiation

Figure 10.10 : Radiative Balance as per Eq. (10.25)

It is the rate at which energy would have to be transferred to the surface by other means
to maintain it at a constant temperature. It is equal to the difference between the surface
radiosity and irradiation and may be expressed as
qi  Ai ( J i  Gi ) . . . (10.25)
From Figure 10.11 and the definition of the radiosity Ji,
J i  Ei  i Gi . . . (10.26)
Gi Ai

i Gi Ai

Ei Ai

i Gi Ai

qi

Figure 10.11 : Radiative Balance according to Eq. (10.27)

It is evident that the net radiative transfer from the surface may also be expressed in
terms of the surface emissive power and the absorbed irradiation
qi  Ai ( Ei  i Gi ) . . . (10.27)

Substituting from Eq. (9.52) and recognizing that i  1   i  1  i for an opaque,

diffuse, gray surface, the radiosity may also be expressed as
J i  i Ebi  (1  i ) Gi . . . (10.28)

Solving for Gi and substituting into Eq. (10.25), it follows that

 J  i Ebi 
qi  Ai  J i  i  . . . (10.29)
 1  i 

Ebi  J i
or qi  . . . (10.30)
(1  i )
i Ai
Eq. (10.30) provides a convenient representation for the net radiative heat transfer rate
from a surface. This transfer, which may be represented by the network element of
Figure 10.12, is associated with the driving potential (Ebi – Ji) and a surface radiative
(1  i )
resistance of the form .
i Ai J i

1 - i
i A i

Ebi
54
 Radiation Exchange

Figure 10.12 : Network Element Representing the Net Radiation Transfer from a Surface

Hence, if the emissive power that the surface would have if it were black exceeds its
radiosity, there is net radiation heat transfer from the surface; if the inverse is true, the
net transfer is to the surface.
SAQ 3
(a) Explain the electrical analogy for radiaitve heat transfer in a black
enclosure.
(b) Draw the equivalent electrical network for radiative flux between four walls
of a black body.

10.6 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES

To use Eq. (10.30), the surface radiosity Ji must be known. To determine this quality; it
is necessary to consider radiation exchange between the surfaces of the enclosure.
The irradiation of surface i can be evaluated from the radiosities of all the surface in the
enclosure. In particular, from the definition of the view factor, it follows that the total
rate at which radiation reaches surface i from all surfaces including i, is
N
Ai Gi   F ji A j J j . . . (10.31)
j 1

or, from the reciprocity relation, Eq. (10.8),

N
Ai Gi   Ai Fij J j . . . (10.32)
j 1

Canceling the area Ai and substituting into Eq. (10.25) for Gi,
 N 
qi  Ai  J i 
  Fij J j 

. . . (10.33)
 j 1 
or, from the summation rule, Eq. (10.9),
 N N 
qi  Ai   Fij J i   Fij J j  . . . (10.34)
 j 1 
 j 1 
N N
Hence, qi   Aij Fij ( J i  J j )   qij . . . (10.35)
j 1 j 1

This result equates the net rate of radiation transfer from surface i, qi, to the sum of
components qij related to radiative exchange with the other surfaces. Each components
may be represented by a network element for which (Ji – Jj) (Ai Fij– 1) is a space or
geometrical resistance (Figure 10.13).
Combining Eqs. (10.30) and (10.35), we then obtain

Ebi  J i N Ji  J j
 . . . (10.36)
(1  i ) j  1 ( Ai Fij ) 1
i Ai

55
Radiation As shown in Figure 10.13 this expression represents a radiation balance for the radiosity
node associated with surface i. The rate of radiation transfer (current flow) to i through
its surface resistance must equal the net rate of radiation transfer (current flow) from i to
all other surfaces through the corresponding geometrical resistances.

qi1

Jl
qi2
J2

qi3
(Ai Fi1)-1 J3

(Ai Fi 2)-1

(Ai Fi 3)-1

Ebi Ji
JN-1
qi qi(N-1)
1 - i (Ai Fi (N-1)) -1

i A i

Node Corresponding (Ai FiN)-1

To the Surface I
JN
qiN

Figure 10.13 : Network Representation of Radiative Exchange between Surface i and

the Remaining Surfaces of an Enclosure

Note that Eq. (10.36) is especially useful when the surface temperature Ti (hence, Ebi) is
known. Although this situation is typical, it does not always apply. In particular,
situations may arise for which the net radiation transfer rate at the surface qi, rather than
the temperature Ti, is known. In such cases the preferred form of the radiation balance is
Eq. (10.35), rearranged as
N Ji  J j
qi   ( Ai Fij )1
. . . (10.37)
j 1

Use of network representation to solve enclosure radiation problems was first suggested
by Oppenheim. The method provides a useful tool for visualizing radiation exchange in
the enclosure and at least for simple enclosures may be used as the basis for predicting
this exchange. However, a more direct approach simply involves working with
Eqs. (10.36) and (10.37). Eq. (10.36) is written for each surface at which Ti is known,
and Eq. (10.37) is written for each surface at which qi is known. The resulting set of N
linear, algebraic equations is solved for the N unknowns, J1, J2, . . . , JN. With knowledge
of the Ji, Eq. (10.34) may be used to determine the net radiation heat transfer rate qi at
each surface of known Ti or the value of Ti at each surface of known qi.
For any number N of surface in the enclosure, the foregoing problem may readily be
solved by iteration or matrix inversion. For each of the N surfaces Eq. (10.36) or (10.37)
may be rearranged to obtain the following system of N equations :

56
 Radiation Exchange
 a11 J1  . . .  a1i J i  . . . a1N J N  C1 
 
 ...................... ................... .................... 
 ...................... ................... .................... 
 
 ai1 J1  . . .  aii J I  . . . aiN J N  Ci  . . . (10.38)
 ...................... ................... ..................... 
 
 ...................... .................... ..................... 
 a J  ... aNi J i  . . . aNN J N  C N 
 N1 1
where the coefficients aij and Ci are known qualities. In matrix form these equations may
be expressed as

 A  J    C  . . . (10.39)

 a11 . . . a1i . . . a1N   J1  C1 

     
............................  .  . 
............................  .  . 
     
where  A   ai1 . . . aii . . . aiN   J    J i   C   Ci  . . . (10.40)
............................  .  . 
     
............................  .  . 
a . . . a . . . a  J   
 N1 Ni NN   N CN 
Expressing the unknown radiosities as
 J1  b11 C1  . . .  b1i Ci  . . .  b1N C N 
 
.................................................................. 
.................................................................. 
 
 J i  bi1 C1  . . .  bii Ci  . . .  biN C N  . . . (10.41)
.................................................................. 
 
.................................................................. 
J  b C  . . .  b C  . . .  b C 
 N N1 1 Ni i NN N 

They may be found by obtaining the inverse of [A], [A]– 1 such that

 J    A1 C  . . . (10.42)

b11 . . . b1i . . . b1N 

 
...............................
...............................
 
where  A1  bi1 . . . bii . . . biN  . . . (10.43)
...............................
 
...............................
b . . . b . . . b 
 N1 Ni NN 

The foregoing matrix inversion may readily be obtained by using any of numerical
computer routines available. The system of equations may also be solved by the
Gauss-Seidel iteration method.
SAQ 4
What do you mean by radiosity and irradiation?

57
Radiation
10.7 THE TWO-SURFACE ENCLOSURE
The simplest example of an enclosure is one involving two surfaces that exchange
radiation only with each other. Such a two-surface enclosure is shown schematically in
Figure 10.14(a). Since there are only two surfaces, the net rate of radiation transfer from
surface 1, q1, must equal the net rate of radiation transfer to surface 2,  q2, and both
quantities must equal the net at which radiation is exchanged between 1 and 2.
Accordingly,
q1   q2  q12 . . . (10.44)
The radiation transfer rate may be determined by applying Eq. (10.36) to surface 1 and 2
and solving resulting equations for J1 and J2. The results could then be used with
Eq. (10.30) to determine q1 (or q2). However, in this case the desired result is more
readily obtained by working with the net-work representation of the enclosure shown in
Figure 10.14(b).

A2 ,T2 ,2

q12

A1 ,T1 ,1

(a)

1 - 1
1 1 - 2
1 A1
Eb1 A1 F12 J2 2 A 2 Eb2
J1
q1 - q2

q12
Eb1 – J1 12 – Eb2
q1 = - q2 =
(1 - 1)/ 1 A1 (1 - 2)/ 2A2

(b)
Figure 10.14 : The Two Surface Enclosure (a) Schematic, (b) Network Representation

From Figure 10.14(b) we see that the total resistance to radiation exchange between
surfaces 1 and 2 is comprised of the two surface resistances and the geometrical
resistance. Hence, substituting from Eq. (9.41), the net radiation exchange between
surfaces may be expressed as

 (T14  T24 )
q12  q1   q2  . . . (10.45)
1  1 1 1  2
 
1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
The foregoing results may be used for any two diffuse gray surfaces that form an
enclosure. Important special cases are summarised in Table 10.3
Table 10.3 : Special Diffuse, Gray, Two-Surface Enclosure
Large (Infinite) Parallel Planes

A1, T1, 1
A1  A2  A A  (T14  T24 )
q12  1 1
 1
F12  1 1 2
A2, T2, 2
58
 Radiation Exchange

Long (Infinite) Concentric Cylinders

r1

r2

A1 r
 1  A1 (T 4  T 4 )
1 2
A2 r2 q12 
1 1  2  r1 
  
1 2  r2 
F12  1

Concentric Spheres

r1
2
A1 r1  A1 (T 4  T 4 )
 1 2
A2 r22 q12  2
r2 1 1   2 r1 

  
1 2  r2 
F12  1

Small Convex Object in a Large Cavity

A1, T1, 1

A1
0
A2
q12   A1 1 (T14  T24 )
F12  1

A2 , T 2 ,  2

10.8 RADIATION SHIELDS

Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflectivity) materials can be
used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces. Consider placing a
radiation shield, surface 3, between the two large, parallel planes of Figure 10.15(a).
Radiation Shield

q1 q13 q32 - q2

59
3, 1
3, 2
Radiation

(a)
Eb1 J1 J3,1 J2
Eb3 J3,2 Eb2

q1
1 - 1 1 1 - 3.1 1 - 3, 2 1 1 - 2
3,1 A3 3,2 A3 2 A 2
1 A 1 A1 F13 A3 F32
(b)
Figure 10.15 : Radiation Exchange between Large Parallel Planes with a Radiation Shield
(a) Schematic, and (b) Network Representation

Without the radiation shield, the net rate of radiation transfer between surfaces 1 and 2 is
obtained from Table 10.3 (for parallel planes). However, with the radiation shield,
additional; resistances are present, as shown in Figure 10.15(b), and the heat transfer rate
is reduced. Note that the emissivity associated with one side of the shield (3, 1) may
differ from that associated the opposite side (3, 2) and the radiosities will always differ.
Summing the resistances and recognizing that F13 = F32 = 1, it follows that

A1  (T14  T24 )
q12  . . . (10.46)
1 1 1   3,1 1  3, 2
  
1  2 3,1 3, 2

Note that the resistance associated with the radiation shield become very large when the
emissivity 3, 1 and 3, 2 are very small. Eq. (10.46) may be used to determine the net heat
transfer if T1 and T2 are known. From knowledge of q12 and the fact that q12 = q13 = q32,
the value of T3 may then be determined by expressing Equation given in Table 10.3 for
plane parallel plates for q13 or q32.
The foregoing procedure may readily be extended to problems involving multiple
radiation shields. In the special case for which all the emissivities are equal, it may be
shown that, with N shields,
1
(q12 ) N  (q12 )0 . . . (10.47)
N 1
where (q12)0 is the radiation transfer rate with no shields (N = 0).
SAQ 5
What do you mean by a radiation shield? Where is it used?

10.9 THE RERADIATING SURFACE

The assumption of a reradiating is common to many industrial applications. This
idealized surface is characterised by zero net radiation transfer (qi = 0). It is closely
approached by real surfaces that are well insulated on one side and for which convection
effects may be neglected on the opposite (radiating) side. With qi = 0, it follows from
Eqs. (10.25) and (10.30) that Gi = Ji = Ebi. Hence, if the radiosity of a reradiating surface
is known, its temperature is readily determined. In an enclosure, the equilibrium
temperature of a reradiating surface is determined by its interaction with the other
surfaces, and it is independent of the emissivity of the reradiating surface.
60
A three-surface enclosure, for which the third surface, surface R, i.e. reradiating, is Radiation Exchange
shown in Figure 10.16(a), and the corresponding network is shown in Figure 10.16(b).
AR, TR, R

A1 , T 1 ,  1 A2, T2, 2

(a)

qR = 0

EbR
1 - R
R AR

1 JR = Eb8
A1 F1R 1
1 - 1
A2 F2R 1 - 2
1 A1 qR2
q1R 2 A2
(b)
q1 Eb1 - q2
J1 1 J2 Eb
A1 F12

Figure 10.16 : A Three-Surface Enclosure with One Surface Reradiating

(a) Schematic, and (b) Network Representation
Surface R is presumed to be well insulated, and convection effects are assumed to be
negligible. Hence, with qR = 0, the net radiation transfer from surface 1 must equal the
net radiation transfer to surface 2. The network is a simple series-parallel arrangement,
and from its analysis it is readily shown that
Eb1  Eb 2
q1   q2  . . . (10.48)
1  1 1 1  2
 1

1 A1  1   1   2 A2
A1 F12    
 A1 F1R   A2 F2 R 
Knowing q1 =  q2 Eq. (10.30) may be applied to surfaces 1 and 2 to determine their
radiosities J1 and J2. Knowing J1, J2, and the geometrical resistances, the radiosity of the
reradiating surface JR may be determined from the radiation balance
J1  J R J  J2
 R 0 . . . (10.49)
 1   1 
   
 A1 F1R   A2 F2 R 
The temperature of the reradiating surface may then be determined from the requirement
that  TR4  J R . Note that the general procedure described in Section 10.6 may be
applied to enclosures with reradiating surfaces. For each surface, it is appropriate to use
Eq. (10.37) with qi = 0.
61
Radiation
10.10 MULTIMODE HEAT TRANSFER
Thus far, radiation exchange in an enclosure has been considered under conditions for
which conduction and convection could be neglected. However, in many applications,
convection and/or conduction are comparable to radiation and must be considered in the
heat transfer analysis. Consider the general surface conditions of Figure 10.17(a).
In addition to exchanging energy by radiation with other surfaces of the enclosure, there
may be external heat addition to the surface, as, for example, by electric heating. And
heat transfer from the surface by convection and conduction. From a surface energy
balance, it follows that
qi , ext  qi , rad  qi ,conv  qi , cond . . . (10.50)

where qi, rad, the net rate of radiation transfer from the surface, is determined by standard
procedures for an enclosure. Hence, in general, qi, rad may be determined from
Eqs. (10.30) or (10.35), while for special cases such as a two-surface enclosure and a
three-surface enclosure with one reradiating surface, it may be determined from
Eqs. (10.45) and (10.48), respectively.

Enclosure

qi, rad. qi, conv

qi, ext

qi, cond

(a)
J1

1 - i
qi, rad
i A i

qi, ext qi, conv

Ebi,

qi, cond

(b)
Figure 10.17 : Multimode Heat Transfer from a Surface in an Enclosure
(a) Surface Energy Balance, and (b) Circuit Representation
The surface network element of the radiation circuit is modified according to
Figure 10.17(b), where qi, ext, qi, cond and qi, conv represent current flows to or from the
surface node. Note, however, that while qi, cond and qi, conv are proportional to temperature
difference, qi, rad is proportional to the difference between temperatures raised to the
fourth power. Conditions are simplified if the back of the surface is insulated, in which
case qi, cond = 0. Moreover, if there is no external heating and convection is negligible, the
surface is reradiating.

62
 Radiation Exchange
10.11 CROSSED STRING METHOD
Consider an enclosure (Figure 10.18) consisting of four surfaces. These surfaces are very
long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The shape of the surfaces
may be plane, convex or concave. Suppose our interest is to evaluate the view factor F13
between the surfaces A1 and A3. We assume imaginary strings tightly stretched among
the four corners A, B, C and D of the enclosure .
C

L2

B L6
A3
L5 L3

L1
A1 L4

A
Figure 10.18 : Hottel Cross String Method

Let, Li (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) = length of the strings joining the corners.

Sum of the length of the crossed strings = L5 + L6
Sum of the length of the uncrossed strings = L1 + L2
Hottel has shown that the view factor F13 is
( L5  L6 )  ( L1  L2 )
L1 F13  . . . (10.51)
2
Eq. (10.51) is useful for determining the view factor between the surfaces of a long
enclosure, such as, a groove, which can be characterized by a 2-D geometry.
SAQ 6
Explain Hottel’s cross string method for estimating shape factor for infinitely long
surfaces. Derive the expression for F12 in terms of areas and lengths of surfaces.
Example 10.1
Consider a diffuse circular disk of diameter D and area Aj and a plane diffuse
surface of area Ai < < Aj. The surfaces are parallel, and Ai is located at a distance L
from the centre of Aj. Obtain an expression for the view factor Fij.
Solution
It is given that surfaces are diffuse and Ai < < Aj.
The desired view factor may be obtained from
1 cos i cos  j
Fij 
Ai A  A
i j  R2
dAi dA j

Here, i, j and R are approximately independent of the position on Ai.

dr D

dAj

Aj j 63

L
R
Radiation

Figure 10.19 : Schematic Diagram For Example 10.1

cos i cos  j
Hence, Fij  A j  R2
dA j

with i   j  

cos 2 
Fij  A j  R2
dA j

Further, R 2  r 2  L2
L
cos  
R
and dA j  2 r dr
D
2
rdr D2
Hence, Fij  2 L2  (r 2  L2 ) 2

D 2  4 L2
0

Example 10.2
Determine the view factor F12 and F21 for the following geometries.
(a) Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length L = D.
(b) Diagonal partition within a long square duct.
(c) End and side of a circular tube of equal length and diameter.
Solution
(a) Sphere within a cube
By inspection, F12 = 1
A1  D2 
By reciprocity, F21  F12  2
1 
A2 6L 6
D

A1
A1

L=D A1
L A2
L=D
A2
A2
A3
A3

Figure 10.20 : Geometry For Example 10.2

(b) Partition within a square duct

64
 From summation rule Radiation Exchange

F11  F12  F13  1

where F11 = 0
By symmetry, F12 = F13
Hence, F12 = 0.5

A1 2L
By reciprocity, F21  F12   0.5  0.71
A2 L

(c) Circular tube

r3 L
From Figure 10.5, with  0.5 and  2, F13  0.17
L r1
From summation rule, F11  F12  F13  1
or, with F11  0, F12  1  F13  0.83

D 2
A
By reciprocity, F21  1 F12  4  0.83  0.21
A2 DL

Example 10.3

A brick wall having an emissivity of 0.85 is 6 m wide and 4 m high. It is at a

distance of 4 m from a 500 m  400 m opening in a furnace wall. The centre line
of the opening lies 1 m lower and 1 m left of the centre of the wall. The furnace
temperature is 1500oC and that of the wall is 37oC. Calculate the rate of radiation
heat transfer between the opening and the wall.

Solution
T1 = 173 K

T2 = 310 K
The brick wall is divided into four areas I, II, III and IV as shown in Figure 10.21.
2m 4m
h

i
g
II
III
3m

I 1m
IV
b e
a
1m

c d f

1m
5m

65
Radiation
Figure 10.21 : Brick Wall Divided in Four Areas

Heat loss from the opening to the wall

(Q1  2 )net   A1 e F12 (T14  T24 )

where e = 1 . 2 = effective emissivity

The furnace opening is considered to act as a blackbody.

e  1  0.85  0.85

A1  0.5  0.4  0.2 m 2

Rectangle I
D 5
 5
L1 1

D 5
  2.5
L2 2

Using Figure 10.6, F = 0.023

Rectangle II
Similarly for Rectangle II
D 5
  1.67
L1 3

D 5
  2.5
L2 2

F = 0.053
Rectangle III
D 5
  1.67
L1 3

D 5
  1.25
L2 4

F = 0.09
Rectangle IV
D 5
  5.0
L1 1

D 5
  1.25
L2 4

F = 0.036

F12   F  0.023  0.053  0.09  0.036  0.202

66
 Radiation Exchange
 Q12 net  5.67  10 8  0.2  0.85  0.202  (17734  3104 )
= 19.222 W.
Example 10.4
Two very large parallel plates with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8 exchange radiative
energy. Determine the percentage reduction in radiative energy transfer when a
polished aluminium radiation shield ( = 0.04) is placed between them.
Solution
The radiant heat transfer rate without the shield is given by

Q  (T14  T24 )  (T14  T24 )

   0.279 (T14  T24 )
A 1 1 1 1
 1  1
1  2 0.3 0.8

The radiation network for two infinite parallel plates separated by one radiation
shield is shown in Figure 10.22.

Eb1 J1 J3 Eb3 J 3 J2 Eb2

1 - 1 1 1 - 3 1 - 3 1 1 - 2

1 3 3 2
F13 F32
Figure 10.22 : Radiation Network for Two Infinite Parallel Plates Separated by One Radiation Shield

With shield, the total resistance is

1  1 1 1  3 1 1  2
R  2  
1 F13 3 F32 2

1  0.3 1  0.04 1  0.08

 1 2 1
0.3 0.04 0.08
= 52 283
Rate of radiant heat transfer with one shield

Eb1  Eb 2  (T14  T24 )

Q1  2    0.017  (T14  T24 )
R 52.283

0.279  0.017
Percentage reduction in heat transfer   100  93.6% .
0.279

Example 10.5
Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths x = 12 cm and y = 6 cm are located at
a distance z = 7 apart as shown in Figure 10.23. Determine the view factor F12.
Solution
Lebel the end points of both the surfaces and draw straight dashed lines between
the end points (Figure 10.23). Using the cross-string method
4

67
1
Radiation

Figure 10.23 : Example 10.5

( L5  L6 )  ( L3  L4 )
F12 
2 L1
where L1 = x = 12 cm
L2 = y = 6 cm
L3 = x = 7 cm
1
L4  (7 2  62 ) 2  9.22 cm
1
2 2 2
L5  (6  7 )  9.22 cm
1
2 2 2
L6  (12  7 )  13.89 cm
(9.22  13.89)  (7  9.22)
F12   0.287
2  12
Example 10.6
(a) Derive an expression for the time required to cool a body of mass m, surface
area A, emissivity  and specific heat Cp from an initial temperature T1 to
the final temperature T2 in a large enclosure, the walls of which are at
temperature Tw. Neglect the convective losses and temperature gradients
inside the body.
(b) A solid copper sphere 0.1 m in diameter is heated to 1000oC and suspended
in a large room, the walls of which are at 30oC. Calculate the time taken by
the sphere to cool to 500oC. Consider only radiaitve energy transfer and
neglect the internal thermal resistance of the sphere. For copper, take
 = 8680 kg/m3, Cp = 0.41 kJ/kgK and  = 0.1.
Solution
(a) Let T denote the temperature of the body at instant t. In time dt, let the
temperature of the body drop by dT. By energy balance,
Energy loss of the body = Energy transfer to the surroundings by radiation

or  mC p dT   A  (T 4  Tw4 ) dt
T2
 A dT
mC p
t  (Tw2  T ) (Tw2  T 2 )
2
T1

1  1 1 

2Tw2
  2 2
 2 2 
Tw  T 
dT
 Tw  T

1  1 
T T1
 1 T  1 1  1 1 

2Tw2  Tw
 tan
 T
 
w T 2T w
 
T
 w  T

Tw T
 dT 
 
 2 T2 

  T1   T2  
    

1  1
tan  T2   Tw   1 ln (Tw  T1 ) (Tw  T2 ) 
2Tw3   T T  2 (Tw  T1 ) (Tw  T2 ) 
 1  1   2  
68   Tw   Tw  
 Radiation Exchange
 
 
mC p 1  1 (T2  Tw ) (T1  Tw ) 1 Tw (T1  T2 ) 
t ln  tan
 A  2Tw3  2  T1   T2  Tw2  T1 T2 
 1   
  Tw   Tw  

(b) T1 = 1273 K
T2 = 773 K
Tw = 303 K

A  4 r 2  4  (0.05)2  0.0314 m 2

3
m  v  8680       (0.05)3  4.542 kg
4
4
 293 
Eb 3   T34  5.67   2
  418 W/m  0.418 kW/m
2
 100 
1  1  0.5
  1.27 m  2
1 A1 
0.5     1
4
F12 = 0.06
1 1
  21.22 m  2
A1 F12   
   1  0.06
4
F13  1  F12  0.94

2 F23  F23  F23  0.94  1  1.94

where suffix 2 indicates both sides, 2 for the left side and 2 for the right
side of the disc.
1.94
F23   0.97
2
1 4
  1.35 m  2
A1 F13   0.94

1 4
  0.65 m  2
2 A2 F23   (2  0.97)

Algebraic sum of currents at each node is zero.

At Node J1
20.24  J1 Eb 2  J1 0.418  J1
  0
1.27 21.22 1.35
At Node J2
(T2  Tw ) (T1  Tw ) (773  303) (1273  303)
ln  ln
(T1  Tw ) (T2  Tw ) (1273  303) (773  303)

1076  970
 ln  ln 1.409  0.34288
1576  470
69
Radiation Tw (T1  T2 ) 303 (1273  773)
tan 1  tan 1
Tw2  T1 T2 3032  1273  773

 tan  1 0.1408  8.0145  0.1396 rad

4.542  0.41 1
t 11

5.67  10  0.0314  0.1 (12  3033 )

1 
   0.34288  0.1396 
2 
 5982.2 s = 1 hr 40 min

Exercise 10.1
(a) If the inside surface temperature of a hemispherical cavity of 0.25 m
diameter is 600oC and its emissivity is 0.78, calculate the rate of radiant
heat transfer from the cavity.
(b) A cubical oven has inside sides equal to 0.3 m. One of the faces of the oven
forms the door. If all the other faces are having same emissivity ( - 0.8) and
maintained at 500oC, find the rate of heat loss if the oven door is kept open.

(c) Show that the view factor for two surfaces 1 and 2 connected by a
refractory surface is given by

A2  A1 F122
f12 
A1  A2  2 A1 F12

What will be its value (a) if A1 = A2 and (b) if the surface 2 does not see the
surface 1?
(d) Show that the radiative flux (Q12)net between two gray surfaces 1 and 2
connected by a non-conducting and reradiating surface is given by

(Q12 )max   A1 F12 (T14  T24 )

1
where F12 
1  1 A  1 
  1   1   1
 1  f12 A2   2 

A2  A1 F122
and f12 
A1  A2  2 A1 F12

Exercise 10.2
(a) Two large parallel planes having emissivities of 0.4 and 0.7 are maintained
at temperatures 1000 K and 600 K, respectively. Determine the net radiant
heat exchange per unit area between the planes. If a radiation shield having
an emissivity 0.05 on both sides is placed between the two planes, calculate
the temperature of the shield and the heat transfer rate per unit area.

(b) Determine F12 and F21 for the following configurations :

(i) Long duct.
(ii) Small sphere of area A1 under a concentric hemisphere of area
A2 = 2A1.

70
 (iii) Long duct. What is F22 in this case? Radiation Exchange

(iv) Long inclined plates (Point B is directly above the centre of area A1).
(v) Sphere lying on infinite plane.

(vi) Hemisphere-disk arrangement.

(vii) Long open channel.
(c) Consider the parallel rectangles as shown in figure show that the view
factor F12 can be expressed as

1
F12  [ A14 F14  23  A1 F13  A4 F42 ]
2 A1

(d) Using a suitable method calculate view factor for the figures given below.

A2
A2 A1

A1
0
90

A1
100 mm
A2 A2
A1

200 mm

A1 A2 Hemisphere,
diameter D

A2
A3 A1 Disk,
diameter D/2

71
Radiation
L1
A2

1m A2

L2
A1
D

2m dA1

A1
b
L
A2

D
A2 c

dA1

dA
A2

r2

r2

dA

A2

10.14 SUMMARY
In the present unit concept of view factor is brought forth and view factor integral is
derived. Various relations of view factors are also derived. Hottle’s cross string method
is also described. Radiation exchange problems in black and gray enclosures and their
solutions are then taken up. The electrical analogy method is discussed. The radiation
exchange between infinite parallel plates and applications of radiation shields are
discussed.

72
 Radiation Exchange
10.15 KEY WORDS
Cross String Method : A method to find view factor for infinitely long
surface.
Radiation Shield : Means such as a polished surface to reduce
radiation between two surfaces
Radiosity : Total radiant energy leaving a surface per unit
time per unit surface area.

10.16 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant text for all the Answers to SAQs.

REFERENCES
J. P. Holman (2002), Heat Transfer, 9th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
M. N. Ozisik (1985), Heat Transfer : A Basic Approach, McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt (2004), Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
5rh Edition, John Wiley and Sons.
P. K. Nag (2002), Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New Delhi.

RADIATION
Preceeding blocks were devoted to heat transfer by conduction and convection. In the
present block, the third mode of heat transfer, i.e. radiation has been considered.
Thermal radiation is that electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its
temperature. Solution of radiation problems are very complicated as large number of
variables are associated with it. In dealing with such problems you will notice that
radiation is dependent on spatial variables (x, y, z), spectral properties () as well as
polar () and azimuthal angle (). Treatment becomes still complicated if the intervening
medium is participating in nature.
In Unit 9, we will consider the principles of radiation. Radiation intensity and emissive
power are discussed. Concept of blackbody and laws of radiation are discussed.
Radiative transfer rate depends on the surface properties. This unit will give you more
insight on thermal radiation.
Unit 10 discusses estimation of thermal radiation with the help of view factor. View
factor algebra is more elaborately given so that you can estimate the radiative transfer for
different geometries and orientations. An electrical analogy method is provided. Based
on this unit, you will be able to solve surface radiation problems. Radiation with
participating medium is more involved. Hence the same is not considered in these units.

73
Radiation

74